{ "Contributors": [ "Kuntal Kumar Pal" ], "Source": [ "sciq" ], "URL": [ "https://ai2-public-datasets.s3.amazonaws.com/sciq/SciQ.zip" ], "Categories": [ "Question Generation" ], "Reasoning": [ "Scientific Reasoning" ], "Definition": [ "Given a scientific passage and an answer, generate a question for the given answer." ], "Input_language": [ "English" ], "Output_language": [ "English" ], "Instruction_language": [ "English" ], "Domains": [ "Natural Science -> School Science Textbooks" ], "Positive Examples": [ { "input": "Passage: A frameshift mutation is a deletion or insertion of one or more nucleotides that changes the reading frame of the base sequence. Deletions remove nucleotides, and insertions add nucleotides. Consider the following sequence of bases in RNA:. Answer: nucleotides.", "output": "A frameshift mutation is a deletion or insertion of one or more of what that changes the reading frame of the base sequence?", "explanation": "The science passage defines frame mutation and the main compoment here is nucleotides. Hence the generated question is apt." }, { "input": "Passage: During telophase , the chromosomes begin to uncoil and form chromatin. This prepares the genetic material for directing the metabolic activities of the new cells. The spindle also breaks down, and new nuclear membranes form. Answer: chromatin", "output": "During telophase , the chromosomes begin to uncoil and form what?", "explanation": "Here the answer is chromatin and the question regarding its formation is present in the passage. Hence it is a correct question." } ], "Negative Examples": [ { "input": "Science Passage': '6.3 | By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Discuss the concept of entropy • Explain the first and second laws of thermodynamics Thermodynamics refers to the study of energy and energy transfer involving physical matter. The matter and its environment relevant to a particular case of energy transfer are classified as a system, and everything outside of that system is called the surroundings. For instance, when heating a pot of water on the stove, the system includes the stove, the pot, and the water. Energy is transferred within the system (between the stove, pot, and water). There are two types of systems: open and closed. An open system is one in which energy can be transferred between the system and its surroundings. The stovetop system is open because heat can be lost into the air. A closed system is one that cannot transfer energy to its surroundings. Biological organisms are open systems. Energy is exchanged between them and their surroundings, as they consume energystoring molecules and release energy to the environment by doing work. Like all things in the physical world, energy is subject to the laws of physics. The laws of thermodynamics govern the transfer of energy in and among all systems in the universe. Answer: thermodynamics", "output": "What is called an open system ?", "explanation": "Although the question is valid and answer is present in the passage, it does not relate to the answer: thermodynamics." }, { "input": "Passage: Chemical reactivity trends are easy to predict when replacing anions in simple ionic compounds—simply use their relative positions on the periodic table. However, when replacing the cations, the trends are not as straightforward. This is partly because there are so many elements that can form cations; an element in one column on the periodic table may replace another element nearby, or it may not. A list called the activity series does the same thing the periodic table does for halogens: it lists the elements that will replace elements below them in single-replacement reactions. A simple activity series is shown below. Answer: activity series", "output": "Who invented windmill ?", "explanation": "The question is valid but neither the answer nor the passage is related to the question. " } ], "Instances": [ { "id": "task594-1fc26f45126b4acda106692d900566c5", "input": "Passage: The modern day formulation of gun powder is called black powder. It is still commonly used today. Its formulation is still quite similar to what was used in 9 th century China. Black powder is considered a low explosive. It is a mixture that burns quickly, but the resulting shock wave travels at subsonic speeds. The speed at which it burns is dependent on the accessibility of oxygen atoms to the carbon source. In contrast, high explosives like nitroglycerin detonate instead of burning, creating shock waves that are supersonic (faster than the speed of sound). Answer: supersonic", "output": [ "High explosives create shock waves that exceed the speed of sound, a phenomenon that goes by what term?" ] }, { "id": "task594-397d661cfe64480d9b8d13b6c6e5e762", "input": "Passage: sulfate is used as a cleaning agent because it is water soluble and acidic. Answer: water", "output": [ "Sulfate is used as a cleaning agent because it is acidic and soluble in what substance?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1144326743014473b41d8a02622f3ee5", "input": "Passage: Some of the largest, and most beautiful, natural crystals can be found in the Naica mine, in Mexico. These gypsum crystals were formed over thousands of years. Groundwater that is rich in calcium and sulfur flowed through an underground cave. Check it out:. Answer: mexico", "output": [ "In what country can some of the largest natural crystals be found?" ] }, { "id": "task594-11a077d01bbb4de88fe335018e41f13e", "input": "Passage: Many species use their body shape and coloration to avoid being detected by predators. The tropical walking stick is an insect with the coloration and body shape of a twig which makes it very hard to see when stationary against a background of real twigs (Figure 45.20a). In another example, the chameleon can change its color to match its surroundings (Figure 45.20b). Both of these are examples of camouflage, or avoiding detection by blending in with the background. Answer: detection by predators", "output": [ "Many species use their body shape and coloration to avoid what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-025db87af5db45e58984a6c502f2147d", "input": "Passage: Summary Subatomic particles of the nucleus (protons and neutrons) are called nucleons. Anuclide is an atom with a particular number of protons and neutrons. An unstable nucleus that decays spontaneously is radioactive, and its emissions are collectively called radioactivity. Isotopes that emit radiation are calledradioisotopes. Each nucleon is attracted to other nucleons by the strong nuclear force. Stable nuclei generally have even numbers of both protons and neutrons and a neutron-to-proton ratio of at least 1. Nuclei that contain magic numbers of protons and neutrons are often especially stable. Superheavy elements, with atomic numbers near 126, may even be stable enough to exist in nature. Answer: nucleons", "output": [ "What are subatomic particles of the nucleus called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-27d7840b74664c13a2ce67d6a99807f1", "input": "Passage: The light reactions occur in the first stage of photosynthesis. This stage takes place in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast. In the light reactions, energy from sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll. This energy is temporarily transferred to two molecules: ATP and NADPH. These molecules are used to store the energy for the second stage of photosynthesis. The light reactions use water and produce oxygen. Answer: first stage", "output": [ "Light reactions occur during which stage of photosynthesis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b7d8f750d31541f7b7325f86bab702a0", "input": "Passage: Scientists think of nature as a single system controlled by natural laws. Scientists strive to increase their understanding of the natural world by discovering natural laws. Laws of nature are expressed as scientific laws. A scientific law is a statement that describes what always happens under certain conditions in nature. Answer: scientific law", "output": [ "A statement that describes what always happens under certain conditions in nature is also known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0c13c30f06dc4da3a5f80c961bcdee55", "input": "Passage: Electrons are always added to the lowest energy level first until it has the maximum number of electrons possible, and then electrons are added to the next higher energy level until that level is full, and so on. The maximum number of electrons at a given energy level depends on its number of orbitals. There are at most two electrons per orbital. Answer: the lowest", "output": [ "Electrons are always added to which energy level first?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6c3ad15498aa4e47b28b8965bcebc78e", "input": "Passage: Some invertebrates evolved a rigid rod along the length of their body. This rod is called a notochord. You can see the notochord in the tunicates in Figure below . The notochord gives the body support and shape. It also provides a place for muscles to attach. It can counterbalance the pull of the muscles when they contract. Animals with a notochord are called chordates. All of them are placed in Phylum Chordata. Some early chordates eventually evolved into vertebrates. Answer: spinal cord", "output": [ "A notochord has in common with what vertbrate structure?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6fd9210d648f4349954f5f3029758892", "input": "Passage: 7. You look through a telescope at Rigel. Rigel is the brightest star in the Orion constellation. Rigel is around 800 light years from Earth. What are you looking at when you look through that telescope? What does Rigel look like today?. Answer: rigel", "output": [ "What is the brightest star in the orion constellation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4019d528001a4a24ab0341445447a152", "input": "Passage: Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus and several other types of organelles. These structures are involved in many vital cell functions. Answer: eukaryotic cell", "output": [ "What type of cell contains a nucleus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-175ff6cb94374133ba6927136ecf41da", "input": "Passage: Cloud types include cirrus, stratus, and cumulus. Answer: clouds", "output": [ "Cirrus, stratus, and cumulus are types of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-55dbad7cd43d458eb1931a02da0bdc51", "input": "Passage: Partly movable joints allow only very limited movement. Bones at these joints are held in place by cartilage. The ribs and sternum are connected by partly movable joints. Answer: cartilage", "output": [ "What are the bones in partly movable joints held in place by?" ] }, { "id": "task594-12108d02152742838cc19afd2a7eba12", "input": "Passage: Hearing is the ability to sense sound energy and perceive sound. The ear is the organ that senses sound and allows us to hear. Damage to structures of the ear may cause hearing loss. Total hearing loss is called deafness. Answer: hearing", "output": [ "What do you call the ability to sense sound energy and perceive sound?" ] }, { "id": "task594-07f147fa88cf416381e0d5b22d2740e9", "input": "Passage: Carbon doesn’t stop there. Living things get energy from food in a process called respiration. This releases carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere. The cycle then repeats. Answer: carbon dioxide", "output": [ "Living things get energy from food in a process called respiration, which releases what gas back into the atmosphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-182b2627a15e4aba861f758c9529c5cf", "input": "Passage: Radiation Protection Laws regulate radiation doses to which people can be exposed. The greatest occupational whole-body dose that is allowed depends upon the country and is about 20 to 50 mSv/y and is rarely reached by medical and nuclear power workers. Higher doses are allowed for the hands. Much lower doses are permitted for the reproductive organs and the fetuses of pregnant women. Inadvertent doses to the public are limited to 1 / 10 of occupational doses, except for those caused by nuclear power, which cannot legally expose the public to more than. Answer: radiation protection laws", "output": [ "What laws regulate radiation doses to which people can be exposed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b18effb32ad64b7491087a9b6848f28b", "input": "Passage: The Galápagos Islands are a group of 16 volcanic islands 600 miles off the west coast of South America. The islands are famous for their many species found nowhere else. It was on these islands where Darwin began to develop his theory of evolution. Answer: south america", "output": [ "The galápagos islands are a group of 16 volcanic islands 600 miles off the west coast of what continent?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0afb84b6e5b44eaf8b2db910f85e488d", "input": "Passage: H0 = 20km/s ⋅ Mly. • Explanations of the large-scale characteristics of the universe are intimately tied to particle physics. • The dominance of matter over antimatter and the smoothness of the CMBR are two characteristics that are tied to particle physics. • The epochs of the universe are known back to very shortly after the Big Bang, based on known laws of physics. • The earliest epochs are tied to the unification of forces, with the electroweak epoch being partially understood, the GUT epoch being speculative, and the TOE epoch being highly speculative since it involves an unknown single superforce. • The transition from GUT to electroweak is called spontaneous symmetry breaking. It released energy that caused the inflationary scenario, which in turn explains the smoothness of the CMBR. Answer: big bang", "output": [ "The epochs of the universe are known back to very shortly after what 'explosive' event?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2be468cc1bed433b8bb6b8d099d6b6fc", "input": "Passage: When the ventricles begin to contract, pressure within the ventricles rises and blood flows toward the area of lowest pressure, which is initially in the atria. This backflow causes the cusps of the tricuspid and mitral (bicuspid) valves to close. These valves are tied down to the papillary muscles by chordae tendineae. During the relaxation phase of the cardiac cycle, the papillary muscles are also relaxed and the tension on the chordae tendineae is slight (see Figure 19.13b). However, as the myocardium of the ventricle contracts, so do the papillary muscles. This creates tension on the chordae tendineae (see Figure 19.14b), helping to hold the cusps of the atrioventricular valves in place and preventing them from being blown back into the atria. The aortic and pulmonary semilunar valves lack the chordae tendineae and papillary muscles associated with the atrioventricular valves. Instead, they consist of pocket-like folds of endocardium reinforced with additional connective tissue. When the ventricles relax and the change in pressure forces the blood toward the ventricles, the blood presses against these cusps and seals the openings. Answer: chordae tendineae", "output": [ "When the ventricles begin to contract, pressure within the ventricles rises and blood flows toward the area of lowest pressure, which is initially in the atria. this backflow causes the cusps of the tricuspid and mitral (bicuspid) valves to close. these valves are tied down to the papillary muscles by these?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2e255355a8904e63805ec44081094b55", "input": "Passage: Regions of the Vertebral Column The vertebral column originally develops as a series of 33 vertebrae, but this number is eventually reduced to 24 vertebrae, plus the sacrum and coccyx. The vertebral column is subdivided into five regions, with the vertebrae in each area named for that region and numbered in descending order. In the neck, there are seven cervical vertebrae, each designated with the letter “C” followed by its number. Superiorly, the C1 vertebra articulates (forms a joint) with the occipital condyles of the skull. Inferiorly, C1 articulates with the C2 vertebra, and so on. Below these are the 12 thoracic vertebrae, designated T1–T12. The lower back contains the L1–L5 lumbar vertebrae. The single sacrum, which is also part of the pelvis, is formed by the fusion of five sacral vertebrae. Similarly, the coccyx, or tailbone, results from the fusion of four small coccygeal vertebrae. However, the sacral and coccygeal fusions do not start until age 20 and are not completed until middle age. An interesting anatomical fact is that almost all mammals have seven cervical vertebrae, regardless of body size. This means that there are large variations in the size of cervical vertebrae, ranging from the very small cervical vertebrae of a shrew to the greatly elongated vertebrae in the neck of a giraffe. In a full-grown giraffe, each cervical vertebra is 11 inches tall. Answer: coccygeal vertebrae", "output": [ "The coccyx, or tailbone, results from the fusion of four small what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ba5db604576745739d28be8681e4869a", "input": "Passage: Sperm are released from the body during ejaculation . Ejaculation occurs when muscle contractions propel sperm from the epididymis. The sperm are forced through the ducts and out of the body through the urethra. As sperm travel through the ducts, they mix with fluids from the glands to form semen. Hundreds of millions of sperm are released with each ejaculation. Answer: sperm", "output": [ "What is released from the body during ejaculation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b9d504332f624a76ae7d26f92d588b3a", "input": "Passage: STIs may be caused by several different types of pathogens, including protozoa, insects, bacteria, and viruses. For example: Protozoa cause an STI called trichomoniasis. The pathogen infects the vagina in females and the urethra in males, causing symptoms such as burning and itching. Trichomoniasis is common in young people. Pubic lice, like the one in Figure below , are insect parasites that are transmitted sexually. They suck the blood of their host and irritate the skin in the pubic area. Answer: protozoa", "output": [ "Trichomoniasis is cause by what type of pathogen?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e3f333870a084fa89e45be02ec18e78f", "input": "Passage: Centrioles are rod-like structures made of short microtubules. Nine groups of three microtubules make up each centriole. Two perpendicular centrioles make up the centrosome . Centrioles are very important in cellular division, where they arrange the mitotic spindles that pull the chromosome apart during mitosis. Answer: centrioles", "output": [ "What are the rod-like structures made of short microtubules that play an important part in cellular division?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a3f63e380ef947e18f4f8d766b1d5218", "input": "Passage: Materials that eject electrons when illuminated with light, such as potassium, are called photoemissive. Not all materials are photoemissive, nor are all light sources capable of initiating electron emission from a given substance. For example, in Figure above , we see that 700 nm light will not initiate electron ejection, while 550 nm light will. Answer: photoemissive", "output": [ "What are materials that eject electrons when illuminated with light called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-00919dcfe3974c24a3629b83cac3f3c4", "input": "Passage: The eardrum is like the head of a drum. It is a thin membrane stretched tight across the end of the ear canal. The eardrum vibrates when sound waves strike it, and it sends the vibrations on to the middle ear. Answer: sound waves", "output": [ "What hits the eardrum and causes it to vibrate?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0f914bc9a6144736817a3a254bc08390", "input": "Passage: Plants also detect and respond to the daily cycle of light and darkness. For example, some plants open their leaves during the day to collect sunlight and then close their leaves at night to prevent water loss. Environmental stimuli that indicate changing seasons trigger other responses. Many plants respond to the days growing shorter in the fall by going dormant . They suspend growth and development in order to survive the extreme cold and dryness of winter. Dormancy ensures that seeds will germinate and plants will grow only when conditions are favorable. Answer: close their leaves", "output": [ "What do plants do to prevent water loss at night?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f89d541ef45247c0a89d5a97e440544e", "input": "Passage: Suppose that you wanted to know how many hydrogen atoms were in a mole of water molecules. First, you would need to know the chemical formula for water, which is H 2 O. There are two atoms of hydrogen in each molecule of water. How many atoms of hydrogen would there be in two water molecules? There would be 2 × 2 = 4 hydrogen atoms. How about in a dozen? In that case a dozen is 12 so 12 × 2 = 24 hydrogen atoms in a dozen water molecules. To get the answers, (4 and 24) you had to multiply the given number of molecules by two atoms of hydrogen per molecule. So to find the number of hydrogen atoms in a mole of water molecules, the problem could be solved using conversion factors. Answer: water", "output": [ "H2o is the chemical formula for what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-05ea60d10c8449518c745e043e2ff2eb", "input": "Passage: The Cerebrum The iconic gray mantle of the human brain, which appears to make up most of the mass of the brain, is the cerebrum (Figure 13.6). The wrinkled portion is the cerebral cortex, and the rest of the structure is beneath that outer covering. There is a large separation between the two sides of the cerebrum called the longitudinal fissure. It separates the cerebrum into two distinct halves, a right and left cerebral hemisphere. Deep within the cerebrum, the white matter of the corpus callosum provides the major pathway for communication between the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex. Answer: cerebrum", "output": [ "The iconic gray mantle of the human brain, which appears to make up most of the mass of the brain, is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-94015d6f4e2e4364bbc3f038e82196f0", "input": "Passage: Arteries Serving the Upper Limbs As the subclavian artery exits the thorax into the axillary region, it is renamed the axillary artery. Although it does branch and supply blood to the region near the head of the humerus (via the humeral circumflex arteries), the majority of the vessel continues into the upper arm, or brachium, and becomes the brachial artery (Figure 20.31). The brachial artery supplies blood to much of the brachial region and divides at the elbow into several smaller branches, including the deep brachial arteries, which provide blood to the posterior surface of the arm, and the ulnar collateral arteries, which supply blood to the region of the elbow. As the brachial artery approaches the coronoid fossa, it bifurcates into the radial and ulnar arteries, which continue into the forearm, or antebrachium. The radial artery and ulnar artery parallel their namesake bones, giving off smaller branches until they reach the wrist, or carpal region. At this level, they fuse to form the superficial and deep palmar arches that supply blood to the hand, as well as the digital arteries that supply blood to the digits. Figure 20.32 shows the distribution of systemic arteries from the heart into the upper limb. Table 20.9 summarizes the arteries serving the upper limbs. Answer: ulnar", "output": [ "The radial artery and which artery parallel their namesake bones, giving off smaller branches until they reach the wrist, or carpal region?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7fd3b082be3e47c28dc25d4fdae4e8f6", "input": "Passage: 16.11 Energy in Waves: Intensity 17. Two identical waves undergo pure constructive interference. Is the resultant intensity twice that of the individual waves? Explain your answer. Circular water waves decrease in amplitude as they move away from where a rock is dropped. Explain why. Answer: amplitude", "output": [ "Circular water waves decrease in what property as they move away from where a rock is dropped?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d2a85f66a9dc4716bcdf53786d8b8fb1", "input": "Passage: Energy is conserved in a closed system. That is, if you add up all the energy of an object(s) at one time it will equal all the energy of said object(s) at a later time. A closed system is a system where no energy is transferred in or out. The total energy of the universe is a constant (i. e. it does not change). The problems below do not consider the situation of energy transfer (called work). So friction and other sources where energy leaves the system are not present. Thus, one simply adds up all the potential energy and kinetic energy before and sets it equal to the addition of the total potential energy and kinetic energy after . Answer: is conserved", "output": [ "What happens to energy in a closed system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9eb3ec91e4424f6484c198e3da2bb1aa", "input": "Passage: All of the planets rotate on their axes in the same direction that they move around the Sun. Except for Uranus. Uranus is tilted on its side. Its axis is almost parallel to its orbit. So Uranus rolls along like a bowling ball as it revolves around the Sun. How did Uranus get this way? Scientists think that the planet was struck and knocked over by another planet-sized object. This collision probably took place billions of years ago. Answer: uranus", "output": [ "All of the planets rotate on their axes in the same direction that they move around the sun, except for which one?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6e368fb753344f8cb02b025eb4b6b7d5", "input": "Passage: Figure 10.18 The first image shows how helicopters store large amounts of rotational kinetic energy in their blades. This energy must be put into the blades before takeoff and maintained until the end of the flight. The engines do not have enough power to simultaneously provide lift and put significant rotational energy into the blades. The second image shows a helicopter from the Auckland Westpac Rescue Helicopter Service. Over 50,000 lives have been saved since its operations beginning in 1973. Here, a water rescue operation is shown. (credit: 111 Emergency, Flickr). Answer: kinetic", "output": [ "Helicopters store large amounts of rotational energy of what type in their blades?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6a0dd4df05bc475dade50fe5cc0d7c8a", "input": "Passage: Gamma rays can destroy living cells, produce mutations, and cause cancer. They can be used to treat cancer by focusing the deadly rays on cancer cells. Answer: gamma rays", "output": [ "What can destroy living cells, produce mutations and cause cancer?" ] }, { "id": "task594-aa84ded820954a01980f99c2e9df7620", "input": "Passage: The mesosphere is the layer above the stratosphere. Temperature decreases with altitude in this layer. Meteors burn up here. Answer: mesosphere", "output": [ "Located above the stratosphere, what layer is the place where meteors burn up?" ] }, { "id": "task594-630ad512c4b3425591fd04b532b1a0b3", "input": "Passage: Water works its way through porous rocks or soil. Sometimes this water is heated by nearby magma. If the water makes its way to the surface, it forms a hot spring or a geyser. Answer: geyser", "output": [ "When water is heated by magma and makes it's way to the surface what is created?" ] }, { "id": "task594-539346fc2acc42e89f72cb75f1c1ccc7", "input": "Passage: The name electric current is the name given to the phenomenon that occurs when an electric field moves down a wire at close to the speed of light. Voltage is the electrical energy density that causes the electric current. Resistance is the amount a device in the wire resists the flow of current by converting electrical energy into other forms of energy. A device, the resistor, could be a light bulb, transferring electrical energy into heat and light or an electric motor that converts electric energy into mechanical energy. The difference in Voltage across a resistor or other electrical device is called the voltage drop. Answer: voltage drop", "output": [ "What is the difference in voltage across a resistor or other electrical devices called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cab734b6310c42a4852df1a5edc33ea0", "input": "Passage: Figure 12.7 Statues made from carbonate compounds such as limestone and marble typically weather slowly over time due to the actions of water, and thermal expansion and contraction. However, pollutants like sulfur dioxide can accelerate weathering. As the concentration of air pollutants increases, deterioration of limestone occurs more rapidly. (credit: James P Fisher III). Answer: air pollutants", "output": [ "Deterioration of limestone occurs more rapidly as the concentration of what increases?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1802b5c0811c4e378a5f708c41137d69", "input": "Passage: In many instances, the relationship between genes and inheritance is more complex than that which Mendel found. Nevertheless, geneticists have since found that Mendel’s findings can be applied to many organisms. For example, there are clear patterns of Mendelian inheritance in humans. These include the inheritance of normal characteristics and characteristics that occur less often. Easily observable Mendelian traits in humans include free ear lobes (in most people the ear lobes hang free (dominant), whereas the attached earlobe is recessive), hitchhiker's thumb (a straight thumb is dominant, while a bent thumb is recessive), widow's peak (a hairline with a distinct point in the middle of the forehead is dominant, while a straight hairline is recessive), dimpled chin (a cleft in the chin is dominant, whereas the absence of a cleft is recessive), and mid-digital hair (hair on any middle segments of the fingers is dominant). Of course, many severe human phenotypes are inherited in a Mendelian fashion including Phenylketonuria (PKU), cystic fibrosis, Huntington's disease, hypercholesterolemia, and sickle-cell anemia. These are termed genetic disorders and will be discussed in additional concepts. Answer: mendelian", "output": [ "Free ear lobes, widow's peak and a dimpled chin are examples of what kind of traits in humans?" ] }, { "id": "task594-aeb4e99cdf52427eb7cb0b2cbe64a602", "input": "Passage: Sodium belongs to the group of elements called the alkali metals. An alkaline solution is another name for a solution that is basic. All alkali metals react readily with water to produce the metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas. The resulting solutions are basic. Answer: alkali metals", "output": [ "What group of elements does sodium belong to?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b9074afc129d4678870bed201c24852d", "input": "Passage: The Permian Period ended with Earth’s second mass extinction. During this event, most of Earth’s species went extinct. It was the most massive extinction ever recorded. It’s not clear why it happened. One possible reason is that a very large meteorite struck Earth. Another possibility is the eruption of enormous volcanoes. Either event could create a huge amount of dust. The dust might block out sunlight for months. This would cool the planet and prevent photosynthesis. Answer: mass extinction", "output": [ "What happened to earth's species during the permian period?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2029abdc8f8849c08eecc9fbc8311e7e", "input": "Passage: Water is the only substance on Earth that is present in all three states of matter. This means that water is present as a solid, liquid, and gas. Earth is the only planet where water is present in all three states. All three phases may be present in a single location or in a region. The three phases are solid (ice or snow), liquid (water), and gas ( water vapor ). See ice, water, and clouds pictured below ( Figure below ). Answer: water", "output": [ "What is the only substance on earth that is present in all three states of matter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2543f6135be442898481929e503f8d51", "input": "Passage: Today in many countries, death rates have gone down but birth rates remain high. This means that the population is growing. Figure below shows the growth rates of human populations all over the world. Answer: pulmonary", "output": [ "Which veins return oxygen-rich blood from the lungs to the heart?" ] }, { "id": "task594-aa1964b1fadf4a7190756cdef7a7020d", "input": "Passage: Bond lengths are intermediate between covalent single bonds and covalent double bonds. Answer: covalent double bonds", "output": [ "Bond lengths are intermediate between covalent single bonds and what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9e3c9d38a8e84901b599cdf9442f8fed", "input": "Passage: Physics also tells us that, although energy can be captured or transformed, it inevitably degrades, becoming heat, a less useful form of energy. This is why organisms require a constant input of energy; the work they must do uses up the energy they take in. Energy, unlike materials, cannot be recycled. The story of life is a story of energy flow – its capture, transformation, use for work, and loss as heat. Answer: heat", "output": [ "When energy is captured or transformed, it inevitably degrades and becomes what less useful form of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7843b95d542045d1905117f1b22e723e", "input": "Passage: Arachnids also have two additional pairs of appendages. Describe these two pairs. Answer: 2", "output": [ "How many additional pairs of appendages do arachnids have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ff980261719948dd8e2417a3cf7d9ce7", "input": "Passage: Some molecules, such as proteins, are too large to pass through the plasma membrane, regardless of their concentration inside and outside the cell. Very large molecules cross the plasma membrane with a different sort of help, called vesicle transport . Vesicle transport requires energy, so it is also a form of active transport. There are two types of vesicle transport: endocytosis and exocytosis. Both types are shown in Figure below and described below. Answer: active transport", "output": [ "What type of transport is vesicle transport considered to be?" ] }, { "id": "task594-84f38ea0fca04c43883e61643d41f420", "input": "Passage: The aim of basic science is to discover new knowledge. It leads to a better understanding of the natural world. It doesn’t necessarily have any practical use. An example of basic research in life science is studying how yeast cells grow and divide. Yeasts are single-celled organisms that are easy to study. By studying yeast cells, life scientists discovered the series of events called the cell cycle. The cell cycle works not only in yeasts but in all other organisms with similar cells. Therefore, this basic research made a major contribution to our understanding of living things. Watch the following animation to learn more about the basic yeast research and the cell cycle. You can also see yeast cells dividing. Answer: single-celled", "output": [ "What kind of organisms are yeasts?" ] }, { "id": "task594-49367282eadf478fac37af5fd4e3224c", "input": "Passage: The cardiovascular system circulates blood through two different loops. Pulmonary circulation is a loop that carries blood between the heart and lungs. Systemic circulation is a loop that carries blood between the heart and the rest of the body. Answer: pulmonary and systemic", "output": [ "What are the two loops of blood flow in the cardiovascular system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2fa1b952cf97488cb537945b3f901a33", "input": "Passage: 39.4 Transport of Gases in Human Bodily Fluids Hemoglobin is a protein found in red blood cells that is comprised of two alpha and two beta subunits that surround an iron-containing heme group. Oxygen readily binds this heme group. The ability of oxygen to bind increases as more oxygen molecules are bound to heme. Disease states and altered conditions in the body can affect the binding ability of oxygen, and increase or decrease its ability to dissociate from hemoglobin. Carbon dioxide can be transported through the blood via three methods. It is dissolved directly in the blood, bound to plasma proteins or hemoglobin, or converted into bicarbonate. The majority of carbon dioxide is transported as part of the bicarbonate system. Carbon dioxide diffuses into red blood cells. Inside, carbonic anhydrase converts carbon dioxide into + + carbonic acid (H2CO3), which is subsequently hydrolyzed into bicarbonate (HCO− 3 ) and H . The H ion binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells, and bicarbonate is transported out of the red blood cells in exchange for a chloride ion. This is called the chloride shift. Bicarbonate leaves the red blood cells and enters the blood plasma. In the lungs, bicarbonate is transported back into the red blood cells in exchange for chloride. The H+ dissociates from hemoglobin and combines with bicarbonate to form carbonic acid with the help of carbonic anhydrase, which further catalyzes the reaction to convert carbonic acid back into carbon dioxide and water. The carbon dioxide is then expelled from the lungs. Answer: chloride", "output": [ "In the lungs, bicarbonate is transported back into the red blood cells in exchange for what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a337e5075a74468b859f948a295b59c0", "input": "Passage: Boron neutron capture therapy is a potential treatment for many diseases. As the name implies, when boron10, one of the naturally occurring isotopes of boron, is bombarded with neutrons, it absorbs a neutron and emits an α particle. Write a balanced nuclear reaction for this reaction. One advantage of this process is that neutrons cause little damage on their own, but when they are absorbed by boron-10, they can cause localized emission of alpha radiation. Comment on the utility of this treatment and its potential difficulties. Answer: particle", "output": [ "When boron10 absorbs a neutron, what does it emit?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b40fadccb3eb4068a789d6a2a114b17a", "input": "Passage: Genetics is the branch of biology that focuses on heredity in organisms. Answer: organisms", "output": [ "Genetics is the branch of biology that focuses on heredity in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e63860f4d1614103a51f4026e83a8d7d", "input": "Passage: Leaves may vary in size, shape, and their arrangement on stems. Nonflowering vascular plants have three basic types of leaves: microphylls (“tiny leaves”), fronds, and needles. Figure below describes each type. Answer: needles", "output": [ "Nonflowering vascular plants have three basic types of leaves: microphylls, fronds, and what other type?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c0cd62238f934a3caa97ff9cc700ffd5", "input": "Passage: Protists are classified as animal-like, plant-like, or fungus-like. The three groups differ mainly in how they obtain carbon and energy. Answer: fungus-like", "output": [ "Protists are classified as animal-like, plant-like, or what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ce67ff6b91ae4c129590a9e2e8f3f726", "input": "Passage: Oxygen chemically weathers rock by combining with a metal. Answer: oxygen", "output": [ "What element chemically weathers rock by combining with a metal?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7bf441cc851a4fcca59dced86d2da62a", "input": "Passage: Raptors such as hawks and owls are carnivores. They hunt and eat mammals and other birds. Vultures are scavengers. They eat the remains of dead animals, such as roadkill. Aquatic birds generally eat fish or water plants. Perching birds may eat insects, fruit, honey, or nectar. Many fruit-eating birds play a key role in seed dispersal, and some nectar-feeding birds are important pollinators. Answer: raptors", "output": [ "What term is used to describe birds that hunt, eat mammals, and other birds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f1a3c6169eaa437594878217a04ce8bd", "input": "Passage: The replacing of the electron enables chlorophyll to respond to another photon. The oxygen molecules produced as byproducts find their way to the surrounding environment. The hydrogen ions play critical roles in the remainder of the light-dependent reactions. Keep in mind that the purpose of the light-dependent reactions is to convert solar energy into chemical carriers that will be used in the Calvin cycle. In eukaryotes and some prokaryotes, two photosystems exist. The first is called photosystem II, which was named for the order of its discovery rather than for the order of the function. After the photon hits, photosystem II transfers the free electron to the first in a series of proteins inside the thylakoid membrane called the electron transport chain. As the electron passes along these proteins, energy from the electron fuels membrane pumps that actively move hydrogen ions against their concentration gradient from the stroma into the thylakoid space. This is quite analogous to the process that occurs in the mitochondrion in which an electron transport chain pumps hydrogen ions from the mitochondrial stroma across the inner membrane and into the intermembrane space, creating an electrochemical gradient. After the energy is used, the electron is accepted by a pigment molecule in the next photosystem, which is called photosystem I (Figure 5.13). Answer: hydrogen", "output": [ "What type of ions play critical roles in light-dependent reactions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-43000f05a5be4144885a36832a56f9bf", "input": "Passage: In a red supergiant, fusion does not stop. Lighter atoms fuse into heavier atoms. Eventually iron atoms form. Answer: iron", "output": [ "Atoms of what element ultimately form in a red supergiant?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5900ad07637c43baa850fe67ec31ec35", "input": "Passage: Cells may be small in size, but they are extremely important to life. Like all other living things, you are made of cells. Cells are the basis of life, and without cells, life as we know it would not exist. You will learn more about these amazing building blocks of life when you read this chapter. Answer: cells", "output": [ "What basic structures are called the building blocks of life and comprise all living things?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ff68de5592b24edaaba034e311d9f728", "input": "Passage: Biodiversity generally increases the productivity and stability of ecosystems. It helps ensure that at least some species will survive environmental change. It also provides many other ecosystem services. For example:. Answer: biodiversity", "output": [ "What helps ensure that, at least, some species will survive environmental change?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f48d3c50fc894fb0b4f6cdd7ed99c24f", "input": "Passage: Interspecific competition often leads to extinction . The species that is less well adapted may get fewer of the resources that both species need. As a result, members of that species are less likely to survive, and the species may go extinct. Answer: extinction", "output": [ "What does interspecific competition between species often lead to?" ] }, { "id": "task594-de949da99d8a4165af10a3812d0db54f", "input": "Passage: Did you ever see a meteor shower, like the one in Figure below ? Meteors burn as they fall through the mesosphere. The space rocks experience friction with the gas molecules. The friction makes the meteors get very hot. Many meteors burn up completely in the mesosphere. Answer: they burn", "output": [ "What happens to meteors as they fall through the mesosphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d5c3d083050749ed9406aa2907d85d3a", "input": "Passage: Most of the digestion reactions occur in the small intestine. Answer: small intestine", "output": [ "Where do most of the digestion reactions occur?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a3ab715443044c548496ea7d35442144", "input": "Passage: Roots are important organs in all vascular plants. Most vascular plants have two types of roots: primary roots that grow downward and secondary roots that branch out to the side. Together, all the roots of a plant make up a root system . Answer: downward", "output": [ "In vascular plants, do primary roots grow downward or to the side?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cbd1a055cc1c4a46a651cddc92ed6b9b", "input": "Passage: Gaseous nitrogen is converted into forms that can be used by plants during the process of nitrogen fixation. Answer: nitrogen fixation", "output": [ "Gaseous nitrogen is converted into forms that can be used by plants during a process called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e31fb445b9874b479c8ecdcffee68859", "input": "Passage: Plants and algae maintain the atmosphere. During photosynthesis, they add oxygen and remove carbon dioxide. Answer: carbon dioxide", "output": [ "Plants and algae maintain the atmosphere. during photosynthesis, they add oxygen and remove what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d9211e1ab46c481c95cb5628436d0038", "input": "Passage: Effect of Temperature on the Solubility of Gases The solubility of gases in liquids decreases with increasing temperature, as shown inFigure 13.10 \"Solubilities of Several Common Gases in Water as a Function of Temperature at Partial Pressure of 1 atm\". Attractive intermolecular interactions in the gas phase are essentially zero for most substances. When a gas dissolves, it does so because its molecules interact with solvent molecules. Because heat is released when these new attractive interactions form, dissolving most gases in liquids is an exothermic. Answer: it decreases", "output": [ "How does the solubility of gases in liquids change with increasing temperature?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3d3193a3c85c4a66a70a3739cfb05a7d", "input": "Passage: Biochemical reactions are chemical reactions that take place inside living things. Two of the most important biochemical reactions are photosynthesis and cellular respiration. Answer: inside organisms", "output": [ "Where do biochemical reactions occer?" ] }, { "id": "task594-644b7e5650984b1b915eabeeed700f22", "input": "Passage: The gas giants are mostly made of hydrogen and helium. These are the same elements that make up most of the Sun. Astronomers think that most of the nebula was hydrogen and helium. The inner planets lost these very light gases. Their gravity was too low to keep them and they floated away into space. The Sun and the outer planets had enough gravity to keep the hydrogen and helium. Answer: hydrogen and helium", "output": [ "What are the gas giants mostly made of ." ] }, { "id": "task594-9b837355754e4340b5ada9cf07fd094c", "input": "Passage: Each type of electromagnetic radiation has a characteristic range of wavelengths. The longer the wavelength (or the more stretched out it appears), the less energy is carried. Short, tight waves carry the most energy. This may seem illogical, but think of it in terms of a piece of moving rope. It takes little effort by a person to move a rope in long, wide waves. To make a rope move in short, tight waves, a person would need to apply significantly more energy. The sun emits (Figure 5.10) a broad range of electromagnetic radiation, including X-rays and ultraviolet (UV) rays. The higher-energy waves are dangerous to living things; for example, X-rays and UV rays can be harmful to humans. Answer: most energy", "output": [ "Each type of electromagnetic radiation has a characteristic range of wavelengths. the longer the wavelength (or the more stretched out it appears), the less energy is carried. short, tight waves carry what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7b30132e013d4acdb520b0d3b8dee67f", "input": "Passage: Although flowers and their components are the major innovations of angiosperms, they are not the only ones. Angiosperms also have more efficient vascular tissues. Additionally, in many flowering plants the ovaries ripen into fruits. Fruits are often brightly colored, so animals are likely to see and eat them and disperse their seeds (see Figure below ). Answer: flowering", "output": [ "Fruit comes from the ovaries of what types of plants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f2c855d5cbfa4fa7b1aa5bc08070ea82", "input": "Passage: Unlike Archaea and eukaryotes, bacteria have a cell wall made of peptidoglycan, comprised of sugars and amino acids, and many have a polysaccharide capsule (Figure 3.5). The cell wall acts as an extra layer of protection, helps the cell maintain its shape, and prevents dehydration. The capsule enables the cell to attach to surfaces in its environment. Some prokaryotes have flagella, pili, or fimbriae. Flagella are used for locomotion, while most pili are used to exchange genetic material during a type of reproduction called conjugation. Answer: peptidoglycan", "output": [ "Unlike archaea and eukaryotes, bacteria have a cell wall made of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6e0d815b4c1f4f5c92d7533bcded7944", "input": "Passage: Only certain types of base pairing are allowed. For example, a certain purine can only pair with a certain pyrimidine. This means A can pair with T, and G can pair with C, as shown in Figure 3.33. This is known as the base complementary rule. In other words, the DNA strands are complementary to each other. If the sequence of one strand is AATTGGCC, the complementary strand would have the sequence TTAACCGG. During DNA replication, each strand is copied, resulting in a daughter DNA double helix containing one parental DNA strand and a newly synthesized strand. Answer: dna", "output": [ "A, t, g, and c pairs are associated with what substance that is important in genetics?" ] }, { "id": "task594-306fa3c937204452bd07e40ac31f4459", "input": "Passage: In the last lesson, we studied the characteristics of liquids and solids at a macroscopic level and at the molecular level. Increasing the temperature of a solid transforms the particles from a rigid arrangement to a fluid (a liquid or gas). Conversely, decreasing the temperature of a liquid or gas slows the particles down, going back from free movement to a fixed arrangement. In this section, we will further explore how temperature and pressure affect the characteristics and behavior of matter. Pressure has a larger effect on gases, which are very compressible, than liquids and solids. However, changes in pressure are still relevant to solids and liquids. For example, Figure above shows ice skates on ice. Because your entire weight is all concentrated on a thin blade, ice skates exert quite a bit of pressure on the ice below them. An interesting property of water is that increasing the pressure on its solid form (ice) will eventually convert it to liquid water. The pressure exerted by ice skates makes small amounts of liquid water on the surface, allowing the skates to glide smoothly. Answer: temperature", "output": [ "What needs to be increased to change a solid into a liquid or gas?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bd6396b6ecf844689a118e340fc1c040", "input": "Passage: As with melting, the energy in boiling goes exclusively to changing the phase of a substance; it does not go into changing the temperature of a substance. So boiling is also an isothermal process. Only when all of a substance has boiled does any additional energy go to changing its temperature. What happens when a liquid becomes a gas? We have already established that a liquid is composed of particles in contact with each other. When a liquid becomes a gas, the particles separate from each other, with each particle going its own way in space. This is how gases tend to fill their containers. Indeed, in the gas phase most of the volume is empty space; only about 1/1,000th of the volume is actually taken up by matter (Figure 10.4 \"Liquids and Gases\"). It is this property of gases that explains why they can be compressed, a fact that is considered in Chapter 6 \"Gases\". Figure 10.4 Liquids and Gases. Answer: isothermal", "output": [ "What kind of process is boiling?" ] }, { "id": "task594-aa129e85bfb241f582be6ad8e8ecb582", "input": "Passage: Most mirrors are plane mirrors. A plane mirror has a flat reflective surface and forms only virtual images. The image formed by a plane mirror is also life sized. But something is different about the image compared with the real object in front of the mirror. Left and right are reversed. Look at the man shaving in Figure below . He is using his right hand to hold the razor, but his image appears to be holding the razor in the left hand. Almost all plane mirrors reverse left and right in this way. Answer: virtual", "output": [ "A plane mirror has a flat reflective surface and forms only which kind of images?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f50241c88c8149da908220dda3033a15", "input": "Passage: The ocean floor is home to many species of living things. Some from shallow water are used by people for food. Clams and some fish are among the many foods we get from the ocean floor. Some living things on the ocean floor are sources of human medicines. For example, certain bacteria on the ocean floor produce chemicals that fight cancer. Answer: medicines", "output": [ "Some living things on the ocean floor are sources of what human necessity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-770ad21bbc304cb290db1cb557f6aa34", "input": "Passage: Vagina The vagina, shown at the bottom of Figure 27.9 and Figure 27.9, is a muscular canal (approximately 10 cm long) that serves as the entrance to the reproductive tract. It also serves as the exit from the uterus during menses and childbirth. The outer walls of the anterior and posterior vagina are formed into longitudinal columns, or ridges, and the superior portion of the vagina—called the fornix—meets the protruding uterine cervix. The walls of the vagina are lined with an outer, fibrous adventitia; a middle layer of smooth muscle; and an inner mucous membrane with transverse folds called rugae. Together, the middle and inner layers allow the expansion of the vagina to accommodate intercourse and childbirth. The thin, perforated hymen can partially surround the opening to the vaginal orifice. The hymen can be ruptured with strenuous physical exercise, penile–vaginal intercourse, and childbirth. The Bartholin’s glands and the lesser vestibular glands (located near the clitoris) secrete mucus, which keeps the vestibular area moist. The vagina is home to a normal population of microorganisms that help to protect against infection by pathogenic bacteria, yeast, or other organisms that can enter the vagina. In a healthy woman, the most predominant type of vaginal bacteria is from the genus Lactobacillus. This family of beneficial bacterial flora secretes lactic acid, and thus protects the vagina by maintaining an acidic pH (below 4.5). Potential pathogens are less likely to survive in these acidic conditions. Lactic acid, in combination with other vaginal secretions, makes the vagina a self-cleansing organ. However, douching—or washing out the vagina with fluid—can disrupt the normal balance of healthy microorganisms, and actually increase a woman’s risk for infections and irritation. Indeed, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recommend that women do not douche, and that they allow the vagina to maintain its normal healthy population of protective microbial flora. Answer: vagina", "output": [ "What term is used to describe the muscular canal (approximately 10 cm long) that serves as the entrance to the reproductive tract?" ] }, { "id": "task594-da4fd5dfee074e9c8c279f3dc3b13c87", "input": "Passage: The body’s first line of defense consists of different types of barriers that keep most pathogens out of the body. Pathogens are disease-causing agents, such as bacteria and viruses. These and other types of pathogens are described in Figure below . Regardless of the type of pathogen, however, the first line of defense is always the same. Answer: pathogens", "output": [ "What is the term for disease-causing agents, such as bacteria and viruses?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a12da9b5cb624443b53745588af114fd", "input": "Passage: Seedless vascular plants include plants such as ferns. You can see a fern in Figure below . Ferns reproduce with spores instead of seeds. The black dots on the back of the fern leaf in Figure below are spores. Answer: spores", "output": [ "What do ferns use in place of seeds to reproduce?" ] }, { "id": "task594-afb0646b20bf494ba2d24892bf762cd4", "input": "Passage: Magnetism is the ability of a material to be attracted by a magnet and to act as a magnet. No doubt you’ve handled refrigerator magnets like the ones in Figure below . You probably know first-hand that they stick to a metal refrigerator but not to surfaces such as wooden doors and glass windows. Wood and glass aren’t attracted to a magnet, whereas the steel refrigerator is. Obviously, only certain materials respond to magnetic force. Answer: magnetic", "output": [ "Unlike wood and glass, steel is an example of a material that responds to what force?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7bc58142055746bcbbebca6d9b7cd971", "input": "Passage: Nearly all fish reproduce sexually and have separate sexes. Fertilization is generally external, and most fish are oviparous. Many adults of the same species may come together in a group and release gametes into the water at the same time, which is called spawning. Fish hatch into larvae that are different from the adult form of the species. Answer: spawning", "output": [ "What do you call it when adult fish of the same species come together in a group and release gametes into the water at the same time?" ] }, { "id": "task594-10f6d0316f9344a6938f92aa23cf464b", "input": "Passage: Figure 6.17 Centrifuges use inertia to perform their task. Particles in the fluid sediment come out because their inertia carries them away from the center of rotation. The large angular velocity of the centrifuge quickens the sedimentation. Ultimately, the particles will come into contact with the test tube walls, which will then supply the centripetal force needed to make them move in a circle of constant radius. Answer: inertia", "output": [ "Centrifuges use what to perform their task?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ed671e49bcd34ffca59dbd8a1af5c5a1", "input": "Passage: The amount of solar radiation a place receives is greatest at the Equator and lessens toward the poles. Answer: solar radiation", "output": [ "What kind of radiation is greatest at the equator and lessens toward the poles?" ] }, { "id": "task594-30bf672691e84f81b14115b1945ec412", "input": "Passage: In the 1920s, physicists discovered that electrons do not travel in fixed paths. In fact, they found that electrons only have a certain chance of being in any particular place. They could only describe where electrons are with mathematical formulas. That’s because electrons have wave-like properties as well as properties of particles of matter. It is the \"wave nature\" of electrons that lets them exist only at certain distances from the nucleus. The negative electrons are attracted to the positive nucleus. However, because the electrons behave like waves, they bend around the nucleus instead of falling toward it. Electrons exist only where the wave is stable. These are the orbitals. They do not exist where the wave is not stable. These are the places between orbitals. Answer: stable", "output": [ "Electrons exist only where the wave is what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9ef423b546fd4829bc47228d943dc2ae", "input": "Passage: The photos in Figure below show how farming practices can increase soil erosion. Plant roots penetrate the soil and keep it from eroding. Plowing turns over bare soil and cuts through plant roots. Bare soil is exposed to wind and water. In the past, farmers always plowed fields before planting. Some farmers now use no-till farming, which does not disturb the soil as much. Answer: soil erosion", "output": [ "No-till farming is one effort to combat what, caused by typical farming practices?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0a993b6f660746519d13a813c5a6af5d", "input": "Passage: Mechanical waves are waves that transfer energy through matter, called the medium. Mechanical waves start when a source of energy causes a disturbance in the medium. Types of mechanical waves include transverse, longitudinal, and surface waves. Answer: mechanical waves", "output": [ "What type of waves start when a source of energy causes a disturbance in the medium?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8a96e00ccc714ef69b1c3ffb1411f840", "input": "Passage: Controlling muscles and maintaining balance are just two of the roles of the nervous system. The nervous system also lets you:. Answer: nervous system", "output": [ "Controlling muscles and maintaining balance are just two of the roles of what system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-20a6b3be5d05468ba5e9bcb7339fe3b8", "input": "Passage: Figure 7.14 Maxillary Bone The maxillary bone forms the upper jaw and supports the upper teeth. Each maxilla also forms the lateral floor of each orbit and the majority of the hard palate. Answer: maxillary bone", "output": [ "What bone forms the upper jaw and supports the upper teeth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e810a5d6ce884f59940b0af85b0f6696", "input": "Passage: Another way to classify matter is to describe it as a solid, a liquid, or a gas, which was done in the examples of solutions. These three descriptions, each implying that the matter has certain physical properties, represent the three phases of matter. A solid has a definite shape and a definite volume. Liquids ordinarily have a definite volume but not a definite shape; they take the shape of their containers. Gases have neither a definite shape nor a definite volume, and they expand to fill their containers. We encounter matter in each phase every day; in fact, we regularly encounter water in all three phases: ice (solid), water (liquid), and steam (gas). We know from our experience with water that substances can change from one phase to another if the conditions are right. Typically, varying the temperature of a substance (and, less commonly, the pressure exerted on it) can cause a phase change, a physical process in which a substance goes from one phase to another (Figure 1.4 \"Boiling Water\"). Phase changes have particular names depending on what phases are involved, as summarized in Table 1.1 \"Phase Changes\". Table 1.1 Phase Changes. Answer: phases of matter", "output": [ "Another way to classify matter is to describe it as a solid, a liquid, or a gas, which was done in the examples of solutions. these three descriptions, each implying that the matter has certain physical properties, represent the three of these?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e2723ae4fb574898a5888eaf061b0bee", "input": "Passage: Buffers work well only for limited amounts of added strong acid or base. Once either solute is all reacted, the solution is no longer a buffer, and rapid changes in pH may occur. We say that a buffer has a certain capacity. Buffers that have more solute dissolved in them to start with have larger capacities, as might be expected. Human blood has a buffering system to minimize extreme changes in pH. One buffer in blood is based on the presence of HCO3− and H2CO3 [H2CO3 is another way to write CO2(aq)]. With this buffer present, even if some stomach acid were to find its way directly into the bloodstream, the change in the pH of blood would be minimal. Inside many of the body’s cells, there is a buffering system based on phosphate ions. Answer: ph", "output": [ "Human blood has a buffering system to minimize extreme changes in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7b0d368c76564c5c88222a44cba73ec5", "input": "Passage: Platelets and Coagulation Factors Blood must clot to heal wounds and prevent excess blood loss. Small cell fragments called platelets (thrombocytes) are attracted to the wound site where they adhere by extending many projections and releasing their contents. These contents activate other platelets and also interact with other coagulation factors, which convert fibrinogen, a water-soluble protein present in blood serum into fibrin (a non-water soluble protein), causing the blood to clot. Many of the clotting factors require vitamin K to work, and vitamin K deficiency can lead to problems with blood clotting. Many platelets converge and stick together at the wound site forming a platelet plug (also called a fibrin clot), as illustrated in Figure 40.8b. The plug or clot lasts for a number of days and stops the loss of blood. Platelets are formed from the disintegration of larger cells called megakaryocytes, like that shown in Figure 40.8a. For each megakaryocyte, 2000–3000 platelets are formed with 150,000 to 400,000 platelets present in each cubic millimeter of blood. Each platelet is disc shaped and 2–4 μm in diameter. They contain many small vesicles but do not contain a nucleus. Answer: platelets", "output": [ "Thrombocytes are more commonly known by what name?" ] }, { "id": "task594-70eb25c373b24ddd80d1b8dc9a11f967", "input": "Passage: None of your blood vessels are leaking this badly, or you'd be in the hospital! But your blood vessels do leak a little bit. Water and solutes pass out of the blood vessels and help form the fluid that bathes your body's tissues. Ultimately the fluid that is lost from the blood vessels is returned through the lymphatic system. Answer: lymphatic", "output": [ "Ultimately, the fluid that is lost from the blood vessels is returned through what system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-62cff4bc641948b1b7a2ecd946831b62", "input": "Passage: In science, a law is a mathematical relationship that exists between observations under a given set of conditions. There is a fundamental difference between observations of the physical world and explanations of the nature of the physical world. Hypotheses and theories are explanations, whereas laws and measurements are observational. Answer: law", "output": [ "In science, what do we call a mathematical relationship that exists between observations under a given set of conditions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-103eec5cf0294fd6a547856e3084b344", "input": "Passage: The Sun and many other light sources produce waves that are randomly polarized (see Figure 27.39). Such light is said to be unpolarized because it is composed of many waves with all possible directions of polarization. Polaroid materials, invented by the founder of Polaroid Corporation, Edwin Land, act as a polarizing slit for light, allowing only polarization in one direction to pass through. Polarizing filters are composed of long molecules aligned in one direction. Thinking of the molecules as many slits, analogous to those for the oscillating ropes, we can understand why only light with a specific polarization can get through. The axis of a polarizing filter is the direction along which the filter passes the electric field of an EM wave (see Figure 27.40). Answer: polarized", "output": [ "The sun and many other light sources produce waves that are randomly this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cc8d044b654643828949a805017b4889", "input": "Passage: There are several different equations that better approximate gas behavior than does the ideal gas law. The first, and simplest, of these was developed by the Dutch scientist Johannes van der Waals in 1879. The van der Waals equation improves upon the ideal gas law by adding two terms: one to account for the volume of the gas molecules and another for the attractive forces between them. Answer: van der waals", "output": [ "Which equation improves upon the ideal gas law by adding two terms: one to account for the volume of the gas molecules and another for the attractive forces between them?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9df1f5e58b154e6fadd8ddeda1bf478a", "input": "Passage: Food Chains and Food Webs A food chain is a linear sequence of organisms through which nutrients and energy pass as one organism eats another; the levels in the food chain are producers, primary consumers, higher-level consumers, and finally decomposers. These levels are used to describe ecosystem structure and dynamics. There is a single path through a food chain. Each organism in a food chain occupies a specific trophic level (energy level), its position in the food chain or food web. In many ecosystems, the base, or foundation, of the food chain consists of photosynthetic organisms (plants or phytoplankton), which are called producers. The organisms that consume the producers are herbivores: the primary consumers. Secondary consumers are usually carnivores that eat the primary consumers. Tertiary consumers are carnivores that eat other carnivores. Higher-level consumers feed on the next lower trophic levels, and so on, up to the organisms at the top of the food chain: the apex consumers. In the Lake Ontario food chain, shown in Figure 20.4, the Chinook salmon is the apex consumer at the top of this food chain. Answer: food chain", "output": [ "Producers, primary consumers, higher-level consumers, and decomposers are levels in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cca07f761d834a3d8b2b1a22970976c3", "input": "Passage: One common example of an extra-chromosome disorder is Down syndrome ( Figure below ). Children with Down syndrome are mentally disabled and also have physical deformities. Down syndrome occurs when a baby receives an extra chromosome 21 from one of his or her parents. Usually, a child will receive one chromosome 21 from the mother and one chromosome 21 from the father. In an individual with Down syndrome, however, there are three copies of chromosome 21 ( Figure below ). Therefore, Down syndrome is also known as Trisomy 21. These people have 47 total chromosomes. Answer: down syndrome", "output": [ "What's the most common disorder from having an extra chromosome?" ] }, { "id": "task594-70906277a4ca4246b3ba1c8c5196013b", "input": "Passage: Steroid Hormones The primary hormones derived from lipids are steroids. Steroid hormones are derived from the lipid cholesterol. For example, the reproductive hormones testosterone and the estrogens—which are produced by the gonads (testes and ovaries)—are steroid hormones. The adrenal glands produce the steroid hormone aldosterone, which is involved in osmoregulation, and cortisol, which plays a role in metabolism. Like cholesterol, steroid hormones are not soluble in water (they are hydrophobic). Because blood is water-based, lipidderived hormones must travel to their target cell bound to a transport protein. This more complex structure extends the half-life of steroid hormones much longer than that of hormones derived from amino acids. A hormone’s half-life is the time required for half the concentration of the hormone to be degraded. For example, the lipid-derived hormone cortisol has a half-life of approximately 60 to 90 minutes. In contrast, the amino acid–derived hormone epinephrine has a half-life of approximately one minute. Answer: steroids", "output": [ "The primary hormones derived from lipids are what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5264f8f66a1843a5b44f1ccfce1074d2", "input": "Passage: Amino acids can bond together through peptide bonds to form short chains called peptides or longer chains called polypeptides ( Figure below ). A peptide bond is a covalent bond formed from a condensation reaction between two molecules, causing the release of a molecule of water. This bond usually forms between two amino acids, hence forming a peptide or polypeptide. Peptide bonds between amino acids are formed during the process of translation. Answer: process of translation", "output": [ "When are peptide bonds between amino acids formed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7808765e55924c8594c1e0f09d527e37", "input": "Passage: Fish have gills. Gills are organs behind the head that absorb oxygen from water. Water enters through the mouth, passes over the gills, and then exits the body. Answer: gills", "output": [ "What is the name for the organs behind the head of a fish that absorb oxygen from water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-842760236b5f40bbaf13d5fb85314aeb", "input": "Passage: Young reptiles, like the baby alligator in Figure below , look like smaller versions of the adults. They don’t have a larval stage as most amphibians do. Baby reptiles are able to move and search for food but are at high risk of predation. Adult reptiles rarely provide any care for their offspring once the eggs are laid. The only exceptions are female alligators and crocodiles. They defend their eggs and hatchlings from predators and help them reach the water. Answer: larval stage", "output": [ "What developmental stage do alligators lack that most other amphibians have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1d7bfd97f0e3441b96cc7c779dd995c6", "input": "Passage: Fragmentation occurs when a parent organism breaks into fragments, or pieces, and each fragment develops into a new organism. Starfish, like the one in Figure below , reproduce this way. A new starfish can develop from a single ray, or arm. Starfish, however, are also capable of sexual reproduction. Answer: fragmentation", "output": [ "What occurs when a parent organism breaks into fragments, or pieces, and each fragment develops into a new organism?" ] }, { "id": "task594-78b65522fef94787b6db93ac3bd87bca", "input": "Passage: 9.4 | Translation By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Describe the different steps in protein synthesis • Discuss the role of ribosomes in protein synthesis • Describe the genetic code and how the nucleotide sequence determines the amino acid and the protein sequence The synthesis of proteins is one of a cell’s most energy-consuming metabolic processes. In turn, proteins account for more mass than any other component of living organisms (with the exception of water), and proteins perform a wide variety of the functions of a cell. The process of translation, or protein synthesis, involves decoding an mRNA message into a polypeptide product. Amino acids are covalently strung together in lengths ranging from approximately 50 amino acids to more than 1,000. Answer: proteins", "output": [ "With the exception of water, what accounts for more mass than any other component of living organisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-67feb918caa44a84aafb0c87dccdcfec", "input": "Passage: Besides water, most of the compounds in living things are biochemical compounds. A biochemical compound is a carbon-based compound that is found in living organisms. Carbon is an element that has a tremendous ability to form large compounds. Each atom of carbon can form four chemical bonds with other atoms. A chemical bond is the sharing of electrons between atoms. Bonds hold the atoms together in chemical compounds. A carbon atom can form bonds with other carbon atoms or with atoms of other elements. Answer: carbon", "output": [ "What element is a biochemical compound based on?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cc4b1cdcd01c47ba806755613424c91d", "input": "Passage: Neutrons, like protons, reside in the nucleus of an atom. They have a mass of 1 and no charge. The positive (protons) and negative (electrons) charges balance each other in a neutral atom, which has a net zero charge. Because protons and neutrons each have a mass of 1, the mass of an atom is equal to the number of protons and neutrons of that atom. The number of electrons does not factor into the overall mass, because their mass is so small. As stated earlier, each element has its own unique properties. Each contains a different number of protons and neutrons, giving it its own atomic number and mass number. The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons that element contains. The mass number, or atomic mass, is the number of protons plus the number of neutrons of that element. Therefore, it is possible to determine the number of neutrons by subtracting the atomic number from the mass number. Answer: nucleus", "output": [ "Neutrons and protons reside in which part of the atom?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0854d41e3ff0443784662c67ddb2e7b9", "input": "Passage: Passive transport does not require energy input. Answer: energy", "output": [ "What type of input is not required during passive transport?" ] }, { "id": "task594-05e50d6fa59242a1b242f3d1f118bcdb", "input": "Passage: The color of soil indicates its fertility. Black or dark brown soils are rich in nitrogen and contain a high percentage of organic materials. Soils that are nitrogen poor and low in organic material might be gray, yellow, or red ( Figure below ). Soil with low organic material is not good for growing plants. Answer: fertility", "output": [ "What does the color of soil indicate?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9b78f2ec401843c18629bbd18d6bc497", "input": "Passage: (left) The DNA double helix wraps around proteins (2) and tightly coils a number of times to form a chromosome (5). This figure shows the complexity of the coiling process. The red dot shows the location of the centromere, where the microtubules attach during mitosis and meiosis. (right) A representation of a condensed eukaryotic chromosome, as seen after the DNA has been copied. The chromosome is made of two identical, or sister, chromatids held together by a centromere. Answer: chromosome", "output": [ "What genetic unit is formed when the dna double helix wraps around proteins and tightly coils a number of times?" ] }, { "id": "task594-93a4f977701e4e3d99f3f1a0d4145b11", "input": "Passage: The transition elements have many properties in common with other metals. They are almost all hard, high-melting solids that conduct heat and electricity well. They readily form alloys and lose electrons to form stable cations. In addition, transition metals form a wide variety of stable coordination compounds, in which the central metal atom or ion acts as a Lewis acid and accepts one or more pairs of electrons. Many different molecules and ions can donate lone pairs to the metal center, serving as Lewis bases. In this chapter, we shall focus primarily on the chemical behavior of the elements of the first transition series. Answer: metals", "output": [ "Typically hard, high-melting solids that conduct heat and electricity well, the transition elements have many properties in common with other what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-46a62c3ade1845c196cace0f038999bd", "input": "Passage: Large ocean currents can have a big impact on the climate of nearby coasts. The Gulf Stream, for example, carries warm water from near the equator up the eastern coast of North America. Look at the map in Figure below . It shows how the Gulf Stream warms both the water and land along the coast. Answer: large ocean currents", "output": [ "Which factor has a big impact on coastal climates?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c06ce38785124be3805e3eedd547d760", "input": "Passage: Figure 19.4 Dual System of the Human Blood Circulation Blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle, where it is pumped into the pulmonary circuit. The blood in the pulmonary artery branches is low in oxygen but relatively high in carbon dioxide. Gas exchange occurs in the pulmonary capillaries (oxygen into the blood, carbon dioxide out), and blood high in oxygen and low in carbon dioxide is returned to the left atrium. From here, blood enters the left ventricle, which pumps it into the systemic circuit. Following exchange in the systemic capillaries (oxygen and nutrients out of the capillaries and carbon dioxide and wastes in), blood returns to the right atrium and the cycle is repeated. Answer: pulmonary circuit", "output": [ "Blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle, where it is pumped into the what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-27d689f8f1054087bf2ab53ba9c2675e", "input": "Passage: Burning forests also releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Other human activities release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. For example, growing rice and raising livestock both produce methane. Answer: greenhouse gases", "output": [ "Burning forests, growing rice and raising livestock all cause a release of what into the atmosphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ba7c8f25b08949af9785130ae21a1945", "input": "Passage: Sonic booms are one example of a broader phenomenon called bow wakes. A bow wake, such as the one in Figure 17.19, is created when the wave source moves faster than the wave propagation speed. Water waves spread out in circles from the point where created, and the bow wake is the familiar V-shaped wake trailing the source. A more exotic bow wake is created when a subatomic particle travels through a medium faster than the speed of light travels in that medium. (In a vacuum, the maximum 8 speed of light will be c = 3.00×10 m/s ; in the medium of water, the speed of light is closer to 0.75c . If the particle creates light in its passage, that light spreads on a cone with an angle indicative of the speed of the particle, as illustrated in Figure 17.20. Such a bow wake is called Cerenkov radiation and is commonly observed in particle physics. Answer: bow wake", "output": [ "What is created when the wave source moves faster than the wave propagation speed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6df6074cfec5465da1585cd234ccc383", "input": "Passage: The small holes in bread are formed by bubbles of carbon dioxide gas. The gas was produced by alcoholic fermentation carried out by yeast. Answer: carbon dioxide gas", "output": [ "What forms the small holes found in bread?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a2d1ebb24a43499da77314608ae9d032", "input": "Passage: Some consumers such as the mushroom in Figure above get their energy from dead organic matter. For example, they might consume dead leaves on a forest floor. Answer: dead organic matter", "output": [ "Some consumers such as the mushroom get their energy from what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a7f9c8c9d1c2438d92040fe36006c341", "input": "Passage: Accuracy means making measurements that are close to the true value. Answer: accuracy", "output": [ "What is making measurements that are close to the true value known as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dfba38dbfc424839adc7ef36ace5dc92", "input": "Passage: Continental glaciers form in a central location with ice moving outward in all directions. Alpine glaciers form in high mountains and travel through valleys. Ice caps cover large areas. Answer: alpine glaciers", "output": [ "Which type of glaciers form in high mountains and travel through valleys?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b6ac2470f3c645e7b3618c72684fae4a", "input": "Passage: This tiny plant can use the energy of the sun to make its own food. You can't make food by just sitting in the sun. Plants are not the only organisms that can get energy from the sun, however. Some protists, such as algae, and some bacteria can also use the energy of the sun to make their own food. Answer: plants", "output": [ "What is the main type of organism that gets its energy directly from the sun?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1abcedfaee3d40a0b39040d870deec35", "input": "Passage: The thymus is located in the upper chest behind the breast bone. It stores and matures lymphocytes. Answer: thymus", "output": [ "Which lymphoid organ is situated in the upper chest?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3ce8635e0c534f96ae54d4d717b97c15", "input": "Passage: Global air currents affect precipitation. How they affect it varies with latitude ( Figure below ). Where air rises, it cools and there is precipitation. Where air sinks, it warms and causes evaporation. These patterns are part of the global wind belts. Answer: global air currents", "output": [ "The rising and sinking of these can cause precipitation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ba06e9027c6d44b7ad6eb3ab355bbab4", "input": "Passage: The human skeleton includes bones and cartilage. Answer: skeleton", "output": [ "What includes the bones and cartilage?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7fd4e6335011449cae46907a9237ed2a", "input": "Passage: Like plants, algae contain chlorophyll and make food by photosynthesis. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "How do plants and algae both make food?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5c3208e210bb4af5ba8951ba2b08c15c", "input": "Passage: Jasmonates play a major role in defense responses to herbivory. Their levels increase when a plant is wounded by a predator, resulting in an increase in toxic secondary metabolites. They contribute to the production of volatile compounds that attract natural enemies of predators. For example, chewing of tomato plants by caterpillars leads to an increase in jasmonic acid levels, which in turn triggers the release of volatile compounds that attract predators of the pest. Oligosaccharins also play a role in plant defense against bacterial and fungal infections. They act locally at the site of injury, and can also be transported to other tissues. Strigolactones promote seed germination in some species and inhibit lateral apical development in the absence of auxins. Strigolactones also play a role in the establishment of mycorrhizae, a mutualistic association of plant roots and fungi. Brassinosteroids are important to many developmental and physiological processes. Signals between these compounds and other hormones, notably auxin and GAs, amplifies their physiological effect. Apical dominance, seed germination, gravitropism, and resistance to freezing are all positively influenced by hormones. Root growth and fruit dropping are inhibited by steroids. Answer: hormones", "output": [ "Apical dominance, seed germination, gravitropism, and resistance to freezing are all positively influenced by what type of chemicals in plants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-553f00db330e4e168d89901485602adf", "input": "Passage: The organ that we use to hear sound is the ear. Almost all the structures in the ear are needed for this purpose. Together, they gather and amplify sound waves and change their energy to electrical signals. The electrical signals travel to the brain, which interprets them as sound. Answer: the ear", "output": [ "What organ do we use to hear sound?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2e33f07df7364b29b4845d461f12a1bb", "input": "Passage: If you look at your hand, what do you see? Of course, you see skin, which consists of cells. But what are skin cells made of? Like all living cells, they are made of matter. In fact, all things are made of matter. Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass. Matter, in turn, is made up of chemical substances. In this lesson you will learn about the chemical substances that make up living things. Answer: matter", "output": [ "What term is used to describe anything that takes up space and has mass?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9d783491f8474cbebd5cfdf948d27f5b", "input": "Passage: Oils are liquid lipids that plants use to store energy. Examples of oils include olive oil and corn oil. Answer: energy", "output": [ "Oils are liquid lipids that plants use to store what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-549ff179a2c040f6871640236bfb113e", "input": "Passage: “Neon” signs are familiar examples of gas discharge tubes. However, only signs that glow with the red-orange color seen in the figure are actually filled with neon. Signs of other colors contain different gases or mixtures of gases. Answer: red, orange", "output": [ "What colors in a neon sign represent real neon?" ] }, { "id": "task594-efbbe89cbd9545988538f79bff68b896", "input": "Passage: The force that a magnet exerts is called magnetic force. The force is exerted over a distance and includes forces of attraction and repulsion. A magnet can exert force over a distance because the magnet is surrounded by a magnetic field. Answer: magnetic force", "output": [ "What force includes forces of attraction and repulsion?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fa571482bd73415593d56d63e38a65e7", "input": "Passage: Elastic rebound theory. Stresses build on both sides of a fault. The rocks deform plastically as seen in Time 2. When the stresses become too great, the rocks return to their original shape. To do this, the rocks move, as seen in Time 3. This movement releases energy, creating an earthquake. Answer: elastic rebound theory", "output": [ "What theory says stresses build on both sides of a fault?" ] }, { "id": "task594-846e156356a243b281b0f25b628a73d5", "input": "Passage: Abrasion is another type of mechanical weathering. With abrasion, one rock bumps against another rock. Gravity causes abrasion as a rock tumbles down a slope. Moving water causes abrasion it moves rocks so that they bump against one another ( Figure below ). Strong winds cause abrasion by blasting sand against rock surfaces. Finally, the ice in glaciers cause abrasion. Pieces of rock embedded in ice at the bottom of a glacier scrape against the rock below. If you have ever collected beach glass or pebbles from a stream, you have witnessed the work of abrasion. Answer: mechanical", "output": [ "What kind of weathering is abrasion?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9d3fc7c6ec6b4b1fbab07e9a0673a32d", "input": "Passage: Ferns are the most common seedless vascular plants ( Figure below ). They usually have large divided leaves called fronds. In most ferns, fronds develop from a curled-up formation called a fiddlehead ( Figure below ). The fiddlehead looks like the curled decoration on the end of a stringed instrument, such as a fiddle. Leaves unroll as the fiddleheads grow and expand. Ferns grow in a variety of habitats, ranging in size from tiny aquatic species to giant tropical plants. Answer: ferns", "output": [ "What are the most common seedless vascular plants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7a1e15e5db6b4a44942f744dd4a3a897", "input": "Passage: saturation vapor density given in the table. Strategy To solve this problem, we need to break it down into a two steps. The partial pressure follows the ideal gas law,. Answer: humidity", "output": [ "What is water vapor density known as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e41476d08af746b49d78e20cbcfdc9fa", "input": "Passage: Summary Superconductors are solids that at low temperatures exhibit zero resistance to the flow of electrical current, a phenomenon known as superconductivity. The temperature at which the electrical resistance of a substance drops to zero is itssuperconducting transition temperature (Tc). Superconductors also expel a magnetic field from their interior, a phenomenon known as the Meissner effect. Superconductivity can be explained by the BCS theory, which says that electrons are able to travel through a solid with no resistance because they couple to form pairs of electrons (Cooper pairs). Hightemperature superconductors haveTc values greater than 30 K. Answer: meissner effect", "output": [ "Superconductors expel a magnetic field from their interior. what is this phenomenon known as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-66a5dc94465f4888aa910e908fea8564", "input": "Passage: gravitational potential energy. Making Connections: Power Power is defined as the rate of energy transferred, or E / t . Fluid flow involves several types of power. Each type of power is identified with a specific type of energy being expended or changed in form. Answer: power", "output": [ "What is defined as the rate of energy transferred?" ] }, { "id": "task594-939c7f7427b3498ea1e9bf622445b8ab", "input": "Passage: The Calvin cycle occurs in the second stage of photosynthesis. This stage takes place in the stroma of the chloroplast. In the Calvin cycle, carbon dioxide is used to produce glucose (sugar) using the energy stored in ATP and NADPH. The energy is released from these molecules when ATP loses phosphate (P i ) to become ADP and NADPH loses hydrogen (H) to become NADP + . Answer: second", "output": [ "In what stage of photosynthesis does the calvin cycle occur?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a0fd2b2073984d52b0a5d1de96be6afa", "input": "Passage: Replacement reactions occur when elements switch places in compounds. In a single replacement reaction, one element takes the place of another in a single compound. In a double replacement reaction, two compounds exchange elements. Answer: replacement reactions", "output": [ "What occur when elements switch places in compounds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c47287dc8ed14899932a935c59ae46e4", "input": "Passage: Carbon sequestration is any way of removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and storing it in another form. Carbon is sequestered naturally by forests. Trees take in carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. Artificial methods of sequestering carbon underground are being researched. Answer: carbon sequestration", "output": [ "What term refers to any method of removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and storing it in another form?" ] }, { "id": "task594-47998ba3fcc341dbbbaffd7a30853586", "input": "Passage: Photosynthetic organisms include plants, algae, and some bacteria. Answer: photosynthetic", "output": [ "Plants, algae and bacteria are all examples of what type of organism?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3aa86034f55346d38120c001c080e21f", "input": "Passage: A day or two after an ovary releases an egg, the egg may unite with a sperm. Sperm are deposited in the vagina during sexual intercourse. They propel themselves through secretions in the uterus and enter a fallopian tube. This is where fertilization normally takes place. Answer: fallopian", "output": [ "Sperm propel themselves through secretions in the uterus and enter what tube?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d66a4c3c13fd403297d08e267e3cff23", "input": "Passage: Homeostatic Process The goal of homeostasis is the maintenance of equilibrium around a point or value called a set point. While there are normal fluctuations from the set point, the body’s systems will usually attempt to go back to this point. A change in the internal or external environment is called a stimulus and is detected by a receptor; the response of the system is to adjust the deviation parameter toward the set point. For instance, if the body becomes too warm, adjustments are made to cool the animal. If the blood’s glucose rises after a meal, adjustments are made to lower the blood glucose level by getting the nutrient into tissues that need it or to store it for later use. Answer: equilibrium", "output": [ "The goal of homeostasis is the maintenance of what, around a point or value called a set point?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5bba6dc883ed42c58fbc5f106d56eec2", "input": "Passage: The angle at which light bends when it enters a different medium depends on its change in speed. The greater the change in speed, the greater the angle of refraction is. For example, light refracts more when it passes from air to diamond than it does when it passes from air to water. That’s because the speed of light is slower in diamond than it is in water. Answer: refraction", "output": [ "The angle at which light bends when it enters a different medium is known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-da9f9f1cb04b4aae9ce3f24de754698e", "input": "Passage: To Your Health: Energy Expenditures Most health professionals agree that exercise is a valuable component of a healthy lifestyle. Exercise not only strengthens the body and develops muscle tone but also expends energy. After obtaining energy from the foods we eat, we need to expend that energy somehow, or our bodies will store it in unhealthy ways. Like the energy content in food, the energy expenditures of exercise are also reported in kilocalories, usually kilocalories per hour of exercise. These expenditures vary widely, from about 440 kcal/h for walking at a speed of 4 mph to 1,870 kcal/h for mountain biking at 20 mph. Table 7.2 \"Energy Expenditure of a 180-Pound Person during Selected Exercises\" lists the energy expenditure for a variety of exercises. Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: kilocalories", "output": [ "Like the energy content in food, the energy expenditures of exercise are also reported in what units?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1922d3ff4d4d48778b91642910ad9a0b", "input": "Passage: Power plants are where electric power originates. They have electric generators that generate electric current through electromagnetic induction. Answer: power plants", "output": [ "Where does electric power originate?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a950dd6a27ed48a8ab0f8b2d2114e1ba", "input": "Passage: The lifecycle of basidiomycetes includes alternation of generations (Figure 24.16). Spores are generally produced through sexual reproduction, rather than asexual reproduction. The club-shaped basidium carries spores called basidiospores. In the basidium, nuclei of two different mating strains fuse (karyogamy), giving rise to a diploid zygote that then undergoes meiosis. The haploid nuclei migrate into basidiospores, which germinate and generate monokaryotic hyphae. The mycelium that results is called a primary mycelium. Mycelia of different mating strains can combine and produce a secondary mycelium that contains haploid nuclei of two different mating strains. This is the dikaryotic stage of the basidiomyces lifecyle and and it is the dominant stage. Eventually, the secondary mycelium generates a basidiocarp, which is a fruiting body that protrudes from the ground—this is what we think of as a mushroom. The basidiocarp bears the developing basidia on the gills under its cap. Answer: sexual", "output": [ "Spores are generally produced through what type of reproduction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6fc5009fa08a44468a4ae944ae38c657", "input": "Passage: (A) Natalie Lucier; (B) Gareth Haywood; (C) Lynn Greyling. Ice, liquid, and water vapor are the three phases of water . (A) CC BY 2.0; (B) CC BY 2.0; (C) Public Domain. Answer: ice, liquid, vapor", "output": [ "What are the three stages of water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1fff0ca5746e40f5af8c1c7031567fec", "input": "Passage: Ingestive protists ingest, or engulf, bacteria and other small particles. They extend their cell wall and cell membrane around the food item, forming a food vacuole . Then enzymes digest the food in the vacuole. Answer: food vacuole", "output": [ "Ingestive protists extend their cell wall and cell membrane around the food item, forming a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e7d22af1a7774f288c875bdc328fa158", "input": "Passage: The temperature at which a substance melts is called its melting point. The melting point of ice is 0°C. Answer: melting point", "output": [ "What do we call the temperature at which a substance melts?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d486b104a08b4d3193350c90e581f387", "input": "Passage: Introduction All living organisms need nutrients to survive. While plants can obtain the molecules required for cellular function through the process of photosynthesis, most animals obtain their nutrients by the consumption of other organisms. At the cellular level, the biological molecules necessary for animal function are amino acids, lipid molecules, nucleotides, and simple sugars. However, the food consumed consists of protein, fat, and complex carbohydrates. Animals must convert these macromolecules into the simple molecules required for maintaining cellular functions, such as assembling new molecules, cells, and tissues. The conversion of the food consumed to the nutrients required is a multi-step process involving digestion and absorption. During digestion, food particles are broken down to smaller components, and later, they are absorbed by the body. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "Plants obtain the molecules for cellular function though what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e9c2c77d76d041d489de159c76b8f75c", "input": "Passage: Did you ever see workers sandblasting a building to clean it? Sand is blown onto the surface to scour away dirt and debris. Wind-blown sand has the same effect. It scours and polishes rocks and other surfaces. Wind-blown sand may carve rocks into interesting shapes. You can see an example in Figure below . This form of erosion is called abrasion. It occurs any time rough sediments are blown or dragged over surfaces. Can you think of other ways abrasion might occur?. Answer: abrasion", "output": [ "Wind blown sand contributes to what type of erosion?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bc427c1a0ebe430482b5e0472d7a999f", "input": "Passage: Only hurricanes cause more damage than earthquakes. Only one source of earthquake damage is ground shaking. More damage may be done from the tsunami, fires, and landslides that can happen afterwards. Communities along faults can prepare for earthquakes. One way is to use earthquake-safe construction methods and to make older buildings stronger. If you live in earthquake country, it is important to secure heavy objects and put together an emergency kit. Answer: hurricanes", "output": [ "What is the only natural phenomenon that causes more damage than earthquakes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-856178416a874eb78cfc98ac32d47ee8", "input": "Passage: The increase in electrons across the periodic table explains why elements go from metals to metalloids and then to nonmetals from left to right across the table. Look at period 2 in Figure below as an example. Lithium (Li) is a metal, boron (B) a metalloid, and fluorine (F) and neon (Ne) are nonmetals. The inner energy level is full for all four elements. This level has just one orbital and can hold a maximum of two electrons. The outer energy level is a different story. This level has four orbitals and can hold a maximum of eight electrons. Lithium has just one electron in this level, boron has three, fluorine has seven, and neon has eight. Answer: electrons", "output": [ "An increase in what, across the periodic table, explains why elements go from metals to metalloids and then to nonmetals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-252996a464a5451fb485af95d97635c9", "input": "Passage: One way to prevent corrosion is to protect the surface of the metal. Covering the surface of the metal object with paint or oil will prevent corrosion by not allowing oxygen to contact it. Unfortunately, scratches in the paint or wearing off of the oil will allow the corrosion to begin. Corrosion-sensitive metals can also be coated with another metal that is resistant to corrosion. A “tin can” is actually made of iron coated with a thin layer of tin which protects the iron. Answer: corrosion", "output": [ "Protecting the surface of metal prevents what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1c4c258fbe6a4995bc31f25b0623289e", "input": "Passage: Detritivores are decomposers that consume dead leaves, animal feces, and other organic debris that collects on the ground or at the bottom of a body of water. Examples of detritivores include earthworms and catfish. You can see another example in Figure below . Answer: detritivores", "output": [ "What is the term for decomposers that consume dead leaves, animal feces, and other organic debris collected on the ground or at the bottom of water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0b3294af4d1e4e36b7822b947eee04ed", "input": "Passage: Chemical reactions are described using chemical equations. Answer: chemical equations", "output": [ "How do we describe chemical reactions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-24f8892f880b496697be4c962a77bbe4", "input": "Passage: Top: Flickr:LearningLark; Bottom: Laura Guerin (CK-12 Foundation). Amylase and pepsin are used in our digestive system . Top: CC BY 2.0; Bottom: CC BY-NC 3.0. Answer: digestive system", "output": [ "What system of the body uses amylase and pepsin in its functioning?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5811a706ffc747489174b1678c602d6d", "input": "Passage: A: Thermal energy is transferred by conduction from the hot iron to the shirt, from the hot cup to the hand holding it, from the flame of the camp stove to the bottom of the pot as well as from the bottom of the pot to the food inside, and from the feet to the snow. The shirt, hand, pot, food, and snow become warmer because of the transferred energy. Because the feet lose thermal energy, they feel colder. Answer: conduction", "output": [ "How is thermal energy transferred in every-day, real life situations, such as holding a warm cup?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b2792e087c72408ba991a39fd63374a2", "input": "Passage: The stored food in a seed is called endosperm . It nourishes the embryo until it can start making food on its own. Answer: endosperm", "output": [ "What is the stored food in a seed called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2a0cf523413c43c2aa0cd43baa8c8007", "input": "Passage: Shortly after eating, there is a surplus of glucose in the body. Some of it will be used immediately, but the rest is stored in the form of glycogen. Between meals, when the level of glucose in the blood drops below a certain point, a signal is sent to the liver that says “make more glucose. ” In response, the glycogen in the liver is broken down and the resulting glucose is released into the bloodstream. Answer: liver", "output": [ "Between meals, when the level of blood glucose drops below a certain point, a signal is sent to what organ saying “make more glucose\"?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e5ce134d4299474f9565a537be8d01b5", "input": "Passage: Pendulums are in common usage. Some have crucial uses, such as in clocks; some are for fun, such as a child’s swing; and some are just there, such as the sinker on a fishing line. For small displacements, a pendulum is a simple harmonic oscillator. A simple pendulum is defined to have an object that has a small mass, also known as the pendulum bob, which is suspended from a light wire or string, such as shown in Figure 16.14. Exploring the simple pendulum a bit further, we can discover the conditions under which it performs simple harmonic motion, and we can derive an interesting expression for its period. Answer: pendulum", "output": [ "What is the common name for a simple harmonic oscillator, which basically consists of a small object suspended on a wire or string?" ] }, { "id": "task594-033272cfbb464e36bb4706ffa22604c9", "input": "Passage: Natural gas is often found along with coal or oil in underground deposits. This is because natural gas forms with these other fossil fuels. One difference between natural gas and oil is that natural gas forms at higher temperatures. Answer: coal and oil", "output": [ "Natural gas is often found along with what other fossil fuels in underground deposits?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a45e84a7de654b4f9b417368894ac630", "input": "Passage: The genetic code is the same in all living things. This shows that all organisms are related by descent from a common ancestor. Answer: genetic", "output": [ "What code is the same in all living things and shows that all organisms are related by descent from a common ancestor?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0ca73d507d3b4751a83ead81e1844a33", "input": "Passage: The space shuttle program has been very successful. Over 100 mission have been flown. Space shuttle missions have made many scientific discoveries. Crews have launched many satellites. There have been other great achievements in space. However, the program has also had two tragic disasters. Answer: physical", "output": [ "Chemistry and physics are fields in what type of science?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7f614290a337411bbc7246ed6534ca45", "input": "Passage: There are about 27,000 species of bony fish ( Figure below ), which are divided into two classes: ray-finned fish and lobe-finned fish. Most bony fish are ray-finned. These thin fins consist of webs of skin over flexible spines. Lobe-finned fish, on the other hand, have fins that resemble stump-like appendages. Answer: lobe-finned fish", "output": [ "What is the second class of fish after ray-finned fish?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5454439315504280b54f80137e7e5b96", "input": "Passage: a small scrap of paper onto a droplet of water, the paper floats on top of the water droplet, although the object is denser (heavier) than the water. This occurs because of the surface tension that is created by the water molecules. Cohesion and surface tension keep the water molecules intact and the item floating on the top. It is even possible to “float” a steel needle on top of a glass of water if you place it gently, without breaking the surface tension (Figure 2.11). Answer: surface tension", "output": [ "What causes a small scrap of paper placed on top of the water droplet to float , although the object is denser (heavier) than the water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f5f50f9429314d29a0d9ea8f4202abda", "input": "Passage: Cancer is caused by mutations, which can be caused by pathogens, chemicals, or radiation. Answer: radiation", "output": [ "Cancer is caused by mutations, which can be caused by pathogens, chemicals, or what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2b20410ccad940a6a4ac166317d241fa", "input": "Passage: Cellulose is another polymer of glucose, consisting of anywhere from hundreds to over ten thousand monomers. It is the structural component of the cell walls of green plants and is the single most common organic molecule on Earth. Roughly 33% of all plant matter is cellulose. The linkage structure in cellulose is different than that of starch, and cellulose is indigestible except by a few microorganisms that live in the digestive tracts of cattle and termites. The figure below shows a triple strand of cellulose. There is no branching and the fibers adopt a very stiff rod-like structure with numerous hydrogen bonds between the fibers adding to its strength. Cellulose is the main component of paper, cardboard, and textiles made from cotton, linen, and other plant fibers. Answer: cellulose", "output": [ "What is the main component of paper, cardboard, and textiles made from cotton, linen, and other plant fibers?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d7d6864e3bf34f1a9aa6ec498b3b0b51", "input": "Passage: Nonmetals tend to gain electrons in chemical reactions and have a high attraction to electrons within a compound. The most reactive nonmetals reside in the upper right portion of the periodic table. Since the noble gases are an unusually unreactive group, the element fluorine is the most reactive nonmetal. It is also not found in nature as a free element. Fluorine gas reacts explosively with many other elements and compounds and is considered to be one of the most dangerous known substances. Answer: noble gases", "output": [ "What group of gases are unusually unreactive?" ] }, { "id": "task594-425dfb372cb14524b5e85a65e5c3bc47", "input": "Passage: The sense of taste is controlled by sensory neurons on the tongue. They are grouped in bundles called taste buds. You can see taste buds on the tongue in Figure below . Taste neurons sense chemicals in food. They can detect five different tastes: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami, which is a meaty taste. When taste neurons sense chemicals, they send messages to the brain about them. The brain then decides what you are tasting. Answer: tongue", "output": [ "Where are the taste buds located in humans?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9e0d93b30d2f49a0ac738696fbc7a74f", "input": "Passage: An ionic bond is the force of attraction that holds together positive and negative ions. It forms when atoms of a metallic element give up electrons to atoms of a nonmetallic element. The Figure below shows how this happens. Answer: ionic bond", "output": [ "What is the force of attraction that holds together positive and negative ions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3c8ad181aab848bab9ca8c72293f43b9", "input": "Passage: 2. Chemical energy is energy that is stored in the bonds between the atoms of compounds. If the bonds are broken, the energy is released and can be converted to other forms of energy. Answer: atom bonds", "output": [ "Where is chemical energy stored?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fc6de61bd28243b090848398cc7bf8a7", "input": "Passage: 10.4 | Nervous System Control of Muscle Tension By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Explain concentric, isotonic, and eccentric contractions • Describe the length-tension relationship • Describe the three phases of a muscle twitch • Define wave summation, tetanus, and treppe To move an object, referred to as load, the sarcomeres in the muscle fibers of the skeletal muscle must shorten. The force generated by the contraction of the muscle (or shortening of the sarcomeres) is called muscle tension. However, muscle tension also is generated when the muscle is contracting against a load that does not move, resulting in two main types of skeletal muscle contractions: isotonic contractions and isometric contractions. In isotonic contractions, where the tension in the muscle stays constant, a load is moved as the length of the muscle changes (shortens). There are two types of isotonic contractions: concentric and eccentric. A concentric contraction involves the muscle shortening to move a load. An example of this is the biceps brachii muscle contracting when a hand weight is brought upward with increasing muscle tension. As the biceps brachii contract, the angle of the elbow joint decreases as the forearm is brought toward the body. Here, the biceps brachii contracts as sarcomeres in its muscle fibers are shortening and cross-bridges form; the myosin heads pull the actin. An eccentric contraction occurs as the muscle tension diminishes and the muscle lengthens. In this case, the hand weight is lowered in a slow and controlled manner as the amount of crossbridges being activated by nervous system stimulation decreases. In this case, as tension is released from the biceps brachii, the angle of the elbow joint increases. Eccentric contractions are also used for movement and balance of the body. An isometric contraction occurs as the muscle produces tension without changing the angle of a skeletal joint. Isometric contractions involve sarcomere shortening and increasing muscle tension, but do not move a load, as the force produced cannot overcome the resistance provided by the load. For example, if one attempts to lift a hand weight that is too heavy, there will be sarcomere activation and shortening to a point, and ever-increasing muscle tension, but no change in the angle of the elbow joint. In everyday living, isometric contractions are active in maintaining posture and maintaining bone and joint stability. However, holding your head in an upright position occurs not because the muscles cannot move the head, but. Answer: contraction", "output": [ "An isometric type of what occurs as the muscle produces tension without changing the angle of a skeletal joint?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1768f8a890c1456dbd4dde8e6f6cc539", "input": "Passage: For most of a star’s life, hydrogen atoms fuse to form helium atoms. A star like this is a main sequence star . The hotter a main sequence star is, the brighter it is. A star remains on the main sequence as long as it is fusing hydrogen to form helium. Answer: helium atoms", "output": [ "For most of a star’s life, hydrogen atoms fuse to form what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bec64dd130fe43bfbd9c44d1af14804c", "input": "Passage: Mateusz Kulawik. Mosses and trees are all part of the plant kingdom . CC BY 2.0. Answer: plant", "output": [ "Which kingdom are mosses and trees included in?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ea82cf5844854f7dbebb0d327910ed92", "input": "Passage: Most reptiles reproduce sexually and have internal fertilization. Their eggs are amniotic, so they can be laid on land instead of in water. Reptiles do not have a larval stage, and their hatchlings are relatively mature. Reptile parents provide little if any care to their young. Answer: amniotic", "output": [ "Most reptile eggs can be laid on land, not in water and they are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8e8787688cce4dc296c4eeb6e49b0f32", "input": "Passage: The structure of a chloroplast is shown in Figure below . The chloroplast is surrounded by two membranes. Inside the chloroplast are stacks of flattened sacs of membrane, called thylakoids . The thylakoids contain chlorophyll. Surrounding the thylakoids is a space called the stroma . The stroma is filled with watery (\"aqueous\") fluid. Answer: chlorophyll", "output": [ "Thylakoids in a chloroplast contain what plant pigment?" ] }, { "id": "task594-993e4e848dab4760b68502dd43d0f8a1", "input": "Passage: Wavelength is the distance between corresponding points of adjacent waves. Wavelengths of electromagnetic waves range from many kilometers to a tiny fraction of a millimeter. Answer: wavelength", "output": [ "The distance between corresponding points of adjacent waves is known as the __________" ] }, { "id": "task594-f7c1d89c50c042e5bd29e49f842df928", "input": "Passage: An electron is a particle outside the nucleus of an atom that has a negative electric charge. The charge of an electron is opposite but equal to the charge of a proton. Atoms have the same number of electrons as protons. As a result, the negative and positive charges \"cancel out. \" This makes atoms electrically neutral. For example, a carbon atom has six electrons that \"cancel out\" its six protons. Answer: electron", "output": [ "What is the term for a particle outside the nucleus of an atom that has a negative electric charge?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e262b5db94aa4618860b7ea8f97f70f1", "input": "Passage: Glucose is the carbohydrate produced by photosynthesis. Energy-rich glucose is delivered through your blood to each of your cells. Answer: glucose", "output": [ "Which carbohydrate is produced by photosynthesis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7009325168dd4902a80ed2c302d54c1a", "input": "Passage: Cloning is the process of creating an exact genetic replica of an organism. The clone’s DNA is exactly the same as the parent’s DNA. Bacteria and other single-celled organisms have long been able to clone themselves through asexual reproduction. Plants can also reproduce asexually. In animals, however, cloning does not happen naturally. In 1997, that all changed when a sheep named Dolly was the first large mammal ever to be successfully cloned. Other animals can now also be cloned in a laboratory. Answer: cloning", "output": [ "What is the process of creating an exact genetic replica of an organism called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4101406a9e1e4ed5981a972e15d5e4df", "input": "Passage: Cellular respiration takes place in the stages shown here. The process begins with a molecule of glucose, which has six carbon atoms. What happens to each of these atoms of carbon?. Answer: glucose molecule", "output": [ "What type of molecule is first broken down in cellular respiration?" ] }, { "id": "task594-49e253b3a3e241119f934fd39c8f8165", "input": "Passage: Nitrogen Fixation: Root and Bacteria Interactions Nitrogen is an important macronutrient because it is part of nucleic acids and proteins. Atmospheric nitrogen, which is the diatomic molecule N2, or dinitrogen, is the largest pool of nitrogen in terrestrial ecosystems. However, plants cannot take advantage of this nitrogen because they do not have the necessary enzymes to convert it into biologically useful forms. However, nitrogen can be “fixed,” which means that it can be converted to ammonia (NH3) through biological, physical, or chemical processes. As you have learned, biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) is the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into ammonia (NH3), exclusively carried out by prokaryotes such as soil bacteria or cyanobacteria. Biological processes contribute 65 percent of the nitrogen used in agriculture. The following equation represents the process:. Answer: terrestrial ecosystems", "output": [ "Nitrogen is an important macronutrient because it is part of nucleic acids and proteins. atmospheric nitrogen, which is the diatomic molecule n2, or dinitrogen, is the largest pool of nitrogen in these?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d5ca40595df440ca845de03244a5aa74", "input": "Passage: The fatty material inside the artery on the right is plaque. Notice how much narrower the artery has become. Less blood can flow through it than the normal artery. Answer: plaque", "output": [ "What fatty material inside arteries can restrict blood flow in the artery?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4b807b1186e94903a4945f0ffa2dc213", "input": "Passage: Reflection of light occurs when light bounces back from a surface that it cannot pass through. If the surface is very smooth, the reflected light forms an image. Answer: reflection", "output": [ "What is the process where light bounces back from surfaces that it cannot pass through?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1616d766ec4848a4a6f7a0822183ff66", "input": "Passage: The brown color is from nitrogen dioxide gas. Nitrogen dioxide is a byproduct from the combustion of fossil fuels like coal and gasoline. Answer: nitrogen dioxide", "output": [ "What is a byproduct from the combustion of fossil fuels like coal and gasoline?" ] }, { "id": "task594-319c707e7e3647a0beec006e6cfc92ba", "input": "Passage: Telescopes on Earth all have one big problem: Incoming light must pass through the atmosphere. This blocks some wavelengths of radiation. Also, motion in the atmosphere distorts light. You see this when you see stars twinkling in the night sky. Many observatories are built on high mountains. There is less air above the telescope, so there is less interference from the atmosphere. Space telescopes avoid such problems completely since they orbit outside the atmosphere. Answer: atmosphere", "output": [ "Space telescopes avoid such problems completely since they orbit outside the what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1be3d995f9084590b201d933ed45f088", "input": "Passage: Like all other living cells, prokaryotes have a cell membrane. It controls what enters and leaves the cell. It's also the site of many metabolic reactions. For example, cellular respiration takes place in the cell membrane. Answer: membrane", "output": [ "What part of the cell controls what enters and leaves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3181c514969b41dd851499d0b5018c2c", "input": "Passage: The period to which a given element belongs can easily be determined from its electron configuration. For example, consider the element nickel (Ni). Its electron configuration is [Ar]3 d 8 4 s 2 . The highest occupied principal energy level is the fourth, indicated by the 4 in the 4 s 2 portion of the configuration. Therefore, nickel can be found in the fourth period of the periodic table. Answer: fourth period", "output": [ "In which period of the periodic table is nickel found?" ] }, { "id": "task594-391d6d52f2434bde9f6373121d30e2c7", "input": "Passage: Kinetic energy is the energy of anything in motion. Your muscles move your leg, your foot kicks the ball, and the ball gains kinetic energy ( Figure below ). The kinetic energy was converted from potential energy that was in your leg before the kick. The action of kicking the ball is energy changing forms. The same is true for anything that involves change. Answer: kinetic engergy", "output": [ "Which type of energy is the energy of anything in motion?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f19b6fc6f2dd48578685f9b4a2781c97", "input": "Passage: Jellyfish spend most of their lives as medusae. They live virtually everywhere in the ocean. They prey on zooplankton, other invertebrates, and the eggs and larvae of fish. Answer: jellyfish", "output": [ "What type of animal in the sea spend most of their lives as medusae?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a08a7eefe6ae46f29e1a89999b8a6c4e", "input": "Passage: Solvation involves surrounding ions with solvent particles. Answer: solvent particles", "output": [ "Solvation involves surrounding ions with what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-26c95400f0eb47178a32e2dee039d2dd", "input": "Passage: Development of Fruit and Fruit Types After fertilization, the ovary of the flower usually develops into the fruit. Fruits are usually associated with having a sweet taste; however, not all fruits are sweet. Botanically, the term “fruit” is used for a ripened ovary. In most cases, flowers in which fertilization has taken place will develop into fruits, and flowers in which fertilization has not taken place will not. Some fruits develop from the ovary and are known as true fruits, whereas others develop from other parts of the female gametophyte and are known as accessory fruits. The fruit encloses the seeds and the developing embryo, thereby providing it with protection. Fruits are of many types, depending on their origin and texture. The sweet tissue of the blackberry, the red flesh of the tomato, the shell of the peanut, and the hull of corn (the tough, thin part that gets stuck in your teeth when you eat popcorn) are all fruits. As the fruit matures, the seeds also mature. Answer: fruit", "output": [ "What type of seed-bearing structure of a flowering plant usually develop into?" ] }, { "id": "task594-08dfd1eda0d14b82aa0d18cb4f311866", "input": "Passage: Cell division is just one stage of the cell cycle. The cell cycle includes all of the stages in the life of a cell. The cell cycle is more complex in eukaryotic than prokaryotic cells. Answer: all", "output": [ "What stages in the life of a cell does the cell cycle include?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b11b13cc04af4877ad23eea57d38e377", "input": "Passage: All living things need energy. They need it to power the processes of life. For example, it takes energy to grow. It also takes energy to produce offspring. In fact, it takes energy just to stay alive. Remember that energy can’t be created or destroyed. It can only change form. Energy changes form as it moves through ecosystems. Answer: form", "output": [ "Energy cannot be created or destroyed - it can only change what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-337ba789225246dcb6ac7de7337146b2", "input": "Passage: The most common type of cancer in adult males is cancer of the prostate gland. The prostate gland is part of the male reproductive system. About one third of all cancers in men are prostate cancers. Answer: prostate", "output": [ "What is the most common type of cancer in adult males?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5cbffdde18a04170aca05b327da380ef", "input": "Passage: Lenses make use of the refraction of light to create images. A lens is a transparent object, typically made of glass, with one or two curved surfaces. The more curved the surface of a lens is, the more it refracts light. Like mirrors, lenses may be concave or convex. Answer: refraction of light", "output": [ "Lenses make use of what to create images?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5f266cbc949e49d695337c97634f2dd2", "input": "Passage: Most biochemical reactions take place within cells. Cells are the microscopic building blocks of organisms. Answer: within cells", "output": [ "Where do most biochemical reactions take place?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bdd965101212442da585ab3237c68669", "input": "Passage: Gravity has traditionally been defined as a force of attraction between things that have mass. The strength of gravity between two objects depends on their mass and their distance apart. Answer: gravity", "output": [ "What is the force of attraction between things that have mass" ] }, { "id": "task594-0fe1060a4e4e47a4b600072c1b62cab3", "input": "Passage: The stomach is a sac-like organ at the end of the esophagus. It has thick muscular walls that contract and relax to squeeze and mix food. This helps break the food into smaller pieces. It also helps mix the food with enzymes and other secretions in the stomach. For example, the stomach secretes the enzyme pepsin, which helps digest proteins. Answer: the stomach", "output": [ "What is a sac-like organ at the end of the esophagus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-af1c033c6df742638209478dff0fce0f", "input": "Passage: Endotherms and Ectotherms Animals can be divided into two groups: some maintain a constant body temperature in the face of differing environmental temperatures, while others have a body temperature that is the same as their environment and thus varies with the environment. Animals that do not control their body temperature are ectotherms. This group has been called cold-blooded, but the term may not apply to an animal in the desert with a very warm body temperature. In contrast to ectotherms, which rely on external temperatures to set their body temperatures, poikilotherms are animals with constantly varying internal temperatures. An animal that maintains a constant body temperature in the face of environmental changes is called a homeotherm. Endotherms are animals that rely on internal sources for body temperature but which can exhibit extremes in temperature. These animals are able to maintain a level of activity at cooler temperature, which an ectotherm cannot due to differing enzyme levels of activity. Answer: body temperature", "output": [ "Animals that are endotherms or ectotherms are distinguished by the ability to maintain a constant what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a5549549af1148df9105cc2b68896a3e", "input": "Passage: Our solar system has only one star. But many stars are in systems of two or more stars. Two stars that orbit each other are called a binary star system . If more than two stars orbit each other, it is called a multiple star system. Figure below shows two binary star systems orbiting each other. This creates an unusual quadruple star system. Answer: one", "output": [ "How many stars are in our solar system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c7ba4bda5bbb444b8ee7fef647b8389b", "input": "Passage: Not all wetlands are alike, as you can see from Figure below . Wetlands vary in how wet they are and how much of the year they are soaked. Wetlands also vary in the kinds of plants that live in them. This depends mostly on the climate where the wetland is found. Types of wetlands include marshes, swamps, and bogs. Answer: wetlands", "output": [ "Marshes, swamps, and bogs are types of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-366c27c8ff764270b5c49468d3cacf64", "input": "Passage: Igneous rocks are classified first by composition. Categories go from from felsic to ultramafic. Color can indicate composition. Answer: composition", "output": [ "What is the first classification of igneous rocks?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c324959f711f408caadab24b50a2084f", "input": "Passage: While the egg is developing, other changes are taking place in the uterus. It develops a thick lining that is full of tiny blood vessels. The lining prepares the uterus to receive a fertilized egg if fertilization actually takes place. Answer: tiny blood vessels", "output": [ "While the egg is developing, other changes are taking place in the uterus. it develops a thick lining that is full of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-213a4597c062468baeb9d417c9a6b52a", "input": "Passage: As cells divide, their chromosomes get shorter. This is because the telomeres, the DNA sequences at both ends of a chromosome, lose material every time the DNA is replicated. The older the animal is, the shorter its telomeres will be, because of the number of cell cycles the cells have been through This is a natural part of aging. So, what happens to the clone if its transferred nucleus is already fairly old? Will the shortened telomeres affect its development or lifespan? The answer is still unclear. But starting a new organisms with \"old\" DNA with shortened telomeres is bound to have some effects, at least in some clones. Some cloned animals may be affected, others may not. Dolly the sheep's chromosomes did have shorter telomere lengths than normal. This means that Dolly's cells were aging faster than the cells from a normal sheep. Answer: shorten", "output": [ "What happens to an animal's telomeres as it ages?" ] }, { "id": "task594-334518db602346b2af08aeb0fdbdbfc7", "input": "Passage: Physical properties include color, density, hardness, and melting and boiling points. Answer: physical", "output": [ "Hardness, density, color, and melting and boiling points are all considered what types of properties?" ] }, { "id": "task594-98621871746140b7bc04dd10b0b58075", "input": "Passage: Each endocrine hormone affects only certain cells, called target cells. A target cell has proteins on its surface to which a given hormone can bind. Most endocrine hormones are controlled by negative feedback loops. Negative feedback occurs when low levels of a hormone feed back to increase its secretion—and vice versa. Answer: protein", "output": [ "Each endocrine hormone affects only certain \"target\" cells, which have molecules of what on the surface that enable binding of a given hormone?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e392f57822cd423dbc75c44b9ca2a34e", "input": "Passage: Many teens have emotional ups and downs. This is at least partly due to their changing hormone levels. Answer: hormones", "output": [ "Changing levels of what substances partly explain emotional ups and downs in teens?" ] }, { "id": "task594-743c00fca6fe448cba2e3fbb44c660f7", "input": "Passage: Lymphocytes ( Figure below ), a type of white blood cell, are the key cells of an immune response. There are trillions of lymphocytes in the human body. They make up about one quarter of all white blood cells. Usually, fewer than half of the body’s lymphocytes are in the blood. The rest are in the lymph, lymph nodes, and lymph organs. Answer: lymphocytes", "output": [ "What type of cells make up about one quarter of all white blood cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-56473114cddd4a0db866a8288659667a", "input": "Passage: Overview of Meiosis. During meiosis, homologous chromosomes separate and go to different daughter cells. This diagram shows just the nuclei of the cells. Notice the exchange of genetic material that occurs prior to the first cell division. Answer: meiosis", "output": [ "During what do homologous chromosomes separate and go to different daughter cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f3ba2f11383f4e61a20072d43f855276", "input": "Passage: Most body fluids that you release from your body contain chemicals that kill pathogens. For example, mucus, sweat, tears, and saliva contain enzymes called lysozymes that kill pathogens. These enzymes can break down the cell walls of bacteria to kill them. Answer: lysozymes", "output": [ "Most body fluids that you release from your body contain chemicals that kill pathogens. for example, mucus, sweat, tears, and saliva contain enzymes called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c6ccfa7a5fc44763b3d596473cf87b4f", "input": "Passage: Deformation of the ionic crystal causes one plane of atoms to slide along another. The resulting repulsive interactions between ions with like charges cause the layers to separate. Crystals tend to have relatively sharp, well-defined melting points because all the component atoms, molecules, or ions are the same distance from the same number and type of neighbors; that is, the regularity of the crystalline lattice creates local environments that are the same. Thus the intermolecular forces holding the solid together are uniform, and the same amount of thermal energy is needed to break every interaction simultaneously. Amorphous solids have two characteristic properties. When cleaved or broken, they produce fragments with irregular, often curved surfaces; and they have poorly defined patterns when exposed to x-rays because their components are not arranged in a regular array. An amorphous, translucent solid is called a glass. Almost any substance can solidify. Answer: uniform intermolecular forces", "output": [ "Why do crystals have relatively sharp and well-defined melting points?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0fe7bbbf2a6d4e7099fc1522ef1b6481", "input": "Passage: Behind the nasal cavity, air passes through the pharynx , a long tube. Both food and air pass through the pharynx. Answer: pharynx", "output": [ "Name the organ located behind the nasal cavity in which both food and air pass through?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2d7fb89068cf43b08467cec6420df00c", "input": "Passage: Toward the late stages of pregnancy, a drop in progesterone and stretching forces from the fetus lead to increasing uterine irritability and prompt labor. Contractions serve to dilate the cervix and expel the newborn. Delivery of the placenta and associated fetal membranes follows. Answer: newborn", "output": [ "Toward the late stages of pregnancy, a drop in progesterone and stretching forces from the fetus lead to increasing uterine irritability and prompt labor. contractions serve to dilate the cervix and expel this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1a77313e85824705b71772fbe22a6286", "input": "Passage: Fresh water is essential for good crops. In some areas of the world, there is enough rain to accomplish this task. In other locales, water must be provided so the crops will grow. Worldwide, irrigation covers about 18% of farm land and produces some 40% of crops. A major source of cleaner water in many parts of the world is provided by the process of desalinization . Answer: process of desalinization", "output": [ "Which process helps provide cleaner water for agriculture?" ] }, { "id": "task594-05c62ef6f27d47fbb5a288b085eaff84", "input": "Passage: The noble gases are characterized by their high ionization energies and low electron affinities. Answer: waves", "output": [ "Electromagnetic specturm is the full spectrum of raidant energy, which is energy emitted and transmitted as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-65278dfbf82546ef8233ccda5e07b3ac", "input": "Passage: A: Earth has north and south magnetic poles. The North Pole is located at about 80 degrees north latitude. The magnetic field is an area around Earth that is affected by its magnetic field. The field is strongest at the poles, and lines of magnetic force move from the north to the south magnetic pole. Answer: the north pole", "output": [ "What is located at about 80 degrees north latitude?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f57dd9d42f7f447ca834d75d15ff6823", "input": "Passage: Through asexual reproduction , new organisms are produced that are genetically identical to the parent. That is, they have exactly the same DNA. Fungi reproduce asexually through three methods:. Answer: asexual", "output": [ "What type of reproduction do fungi engage in?" ] }, { "id": "task594-09374d32be9a403388db6d22780ed007", "input": "Passage: in color. Golden algae are found in both freshwater and marine environments, where they form a major part of the plankton community. The brown algae are primarily marine, multicellular organisms that are known colloquially as seaweeds. Giant kelps are a type of brown algae. Some brown algae have evolved specialized tissues that resemble terrestrial plants, with root-like holdfasts, stem-like stipes, and leaf-like blades that are capable of photosynthesis. The stipes of giant kelps are enormous, extending in some cases for 60 meters. A variety of algal life cycles exists, but the most complex is alternation of generations, in which both haploid and diploid stages involve multicellularity. Compare this life cycle to that of humans, for instance. Haploid gametes produced by meiosis (sperm and egg) combine in fertilization to generate a diploid zygote that undergoes many rounds of mitosis to produce a multicellular embryo and then a fetus. However, the individual sperm and egg themselves never become multicellular beings. Terrestrial plants also have evolved alternation of generations. In the brown algae genus Laminaria, haploid spores develop into multicellular gametophytes, which produce haploid gametes that combine to produce diploid organisms that then become multicellular organisms with a different structure from the haploid form (Figure 23.19). Certain other organisms perform alternation of generations in which both the haploid and diploid forms look the same. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "Some marine algae have evolved special structures capable of what plant process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fc2848763fd44f3083a35897982406da", "input": "Passage: The body of a cnidarian consists of two cell layers, ectoderm and endoderm. The cells surround a digestive cavity called the coelenteron (see Figure below ). Cnidarians have a simple digestive system. The single opening is surrounded by tentacles, which are used to capture prey. The tentacles are covered with nematocyst cells. Digestion takes place in the coelenteron. Nutrients are absorbed and gases exchanged through the cells lining this cavity. Fluid in the coelenteron creates a hydrostatic skeleton. Answer: tentacles", "output": [ "Cnidarians have a simple digestive system with a single opening surrounded by what type of structures, which are used to capture prey?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6f2b6b68c9dc45399c4ca223f990ebe8", "input": "Passage: Macroevolution occurs when microevolution takes place over a long period of time. Types of macroevolution include speciation, convergent evolution, and coevolution. Answer: macroevolution", "output": [ "Speciation, convergent evolution, and coevolution are types of what process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f87dfdea914b4a7da7563f819c5fb221", "input": "Passage: When light hits rods and cones, it causes chemical changes. The chemical changes start nerve impulses. The nerve impulses travel to the brain through the optic nerve . Answer: optic nerve", "output": [ "Through what does the nerve impulses travel to the brain?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e496eb24b4b741a8a6e06a758d82e2e6", "input": "Passage: Figure 8.15 A photosystem consists of a light-harvesting complex and a reaction center. Pigments in the lightharvesting complex pass light energy to two special chlorophyll a molecules in the reaction center. The light excites an electron from the chlorophyll a pair, which passes to the primary electron acceptor. The excited electron must then be replaced. In (a) photosystem II, the electron comes from the splitting of water, which releases oxygen as a waste product. In (b) photosystem I, the electron comes from the chloroplast electron transport chain discussed below. Answer: chlorophyll", "output": [ "In a photosystem, pigments in the light-harvesting complex pass light energy to two special molecules of what in the reaction center?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4858dd584a734ab79305efeb0357f733", "input": "Passage: Glaciers and ice sheets are melting. This can be seen clearly in photographs. The glaciers advanced during the Pleistocene ice age. They have been melting back since then, except for during the Little Ice Age. However, the rate of melting has increased tremendously in recent decades. Answer: pleistocene ice age", "output": [ "Glaciers have been melting since what period?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4e980a4f9ac945c890c4f07be187c2e1", "input": "Passage: Passive transport requires no energy. It occurs when substances move from areas of higher to lower concentration. Types of passive transport include simple diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion. Answer: passive transport", "output": [ "What type of transport requires no energy and occurs when substances move from areas of higher to lower concentration?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9a7dbf7dfdcb46558b34339e78423019", "input": "Passage: An element is a pure substance. It cannot be broken down into other types of substances. Each element is made up of just one type of atom. An atom is the smallest particle of an element that still has the properties of that element. Answer: atom", "output": [ "What is the term for the smallest particle of an element that still has the properties of that element?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7b311e83f33c43b791091363a6ba022f", "input": "Passage: Some reactions need extra help to occur quickly. They need another substance called a catalyst. A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction. A catalyst isn’t a reactant, so it isn’t changed or used up in the reaction. Therefore, it can catalyze many other reactions. Answer: a catalyst", "output": [ "Some reactions need extra help to occur quickly. they need another substance called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e8b2ec56675749b3a7b60aa4c4d3e205", "input": "Passage: Surface waves travel along the ground outward from an earthquake’s epicenter. Surface waves are the slowest of all seismic waves. They travel at 2.5 km (1.5 miles) per second. There are two types of surface waves. Love waves move side-to-side, much like a snake. Rayleigh waves produce a rolling motion as they move up and backwards ( Figure above ). Surface waves cause objects to fall and rise, while they are also swaying back and forth. These motions cause damage to rigid structures during an earthquake. Answer: surface waves", "output": [ "What type of waves are the slowest of all seismic waves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bd00c6b8b1d9479a9d2f87c725345136", "input": "Passage: Air in the troposphere is warmer closer to Earth’s surface. Warm air is less dense than cool air, so it rises higher in the troposphere. This starts a convection cell. Convection mixes the air in the troposphere. Rising air is also a main cause of weather. All of Earth’s weather takes place in the troposphere. Answer: it is less dense than cool air", "output": [ "Why does warm air rise higher in the troposphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fe062ec78f2341dfa9dfb590afd2afcc", "input": "Passage: Nuclear energy is released when the nucleus of an atom is split. Answer: nuclear", "output": [ "What kind of energy is released when the nucleus of an atom is split?" ] }, { "id": "task594-935cd7c2292d49818c1cd9212db3afcb", "input": "Passage: In multicellular organisms, specialized cells may be organized into tissues. Tissues may be organized into organs, and organs may be organized into organ systems. Organ systems work together to carry out all the functions of the whole organism. Answer: tissues", "output": [ "In multicellular organisms, specialized cells may be organized into what, which in turn may be organized into organs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-46092796726a4d1eb59268d17a95cc8e", "input": "Passage: Mating refers to the union of a male and female of the same species for reproduction. The relationship between mates varies by species. Adults may have many mates, or they may mate with just one individual. Mates may stay together only while mating, for an entire breeding season, or even for life. Answer: mating", "output": [ "What term refers to the union of a male and female of the same species for reproduction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d2a6bf0a6b3d40bf92e16db13159eccf", "input": "Passage: Plant-like protists are called algae (singular, alga). They are a large and diverse group. Some algae, diatoms, are single-celled. Others, such as seaweed, are multicellular (see Figure below ). Answer: algae", "output": [ "What is the name of plant-like protists?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9abea5f969a54ff48bdd57c3aa7f22ce", "input": "Passage: An electric circuit consists of at least one closed loop through which electric current can flow. Every circuit has a voltage source such as a battery and a conductor such as metal wire. A circuit may have other parts as well, such as lights and switches. In addition, a circuit may consist of one loop or two loops. Answer: 1", "output": [ "What is the minimum number of loops a circuit can have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e79a15a7281e4b08a348361c18d3c65f", "input": "Passage: Fossils are preserved remains or traces of organisms that lived in the past. Most preserved remains are hard parts, such as teeth, bones, or shells. Examples of these kinds of fossils are pictured in Figure below . Preserved traces can include footprints, burrows, or even wastes. Examples of trace fossils are also shown in Figure below . Answer: fossils", "output": [ "Preserved remains or traces of organisms that lived in the past are known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bbdeb825b9ff42d9af996fc0fbd3e73c", "input": "Passage: The kinetic energy of a moving object depends on its mass and its volume. Answer: volume", "output": [ "The kinetic energy of a moving object depends on it's mass and it's what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1618df4f84b14237ae17fc849d0305d1", "input": "Passage: Matter can exist in one of several different states, including a gas, liquid, or solid state. States of matter differ in the amount of energy their molecules have. When matter recycles, it changes state by gaining or losing energy. Answer: energy", "output": [ "When matter recycles and changes state what does it gain or lose by doing so?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e966e209e98a41f8b98fd071e6d25ab9", "input": "Passage: About 85 percent of teens develop acne, like the boy in Figure below . Acne is a condition in which pimples form on the skin. It is caused by a bacterial infection. It happens when the sebaceous glands secrete too much sebum. The excess oil provides a good place for bacteria to grow. Keeping the skin clean helps prevent acne. Over-the-counter products or prescription drugs may be needed if the problem is serious or doesn’t clear up on its own. Answer: acne", "output": [ "What is the condition called where pimples form on the skin?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e0d99dfe23d440d0b6fa245f8ea3919f", "input": "Passage: Figure 34.12 (a) Light from a distant galaxy can travel different paths to the Earth because it is bent around an intermediary galaxy by gravity. This produces several images of the more distant galaxy. (b) The images around the central galaxy are produced by gravitational lensing. Each image has the same spectrum and a larger red shift than the intermediary. (credit: NASA, ESA, and STScI). Answer: gravity", "output": [ "Light from a distant galaxy can travel different paths to the earth because it is bent around an intermediary galaxy by what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-131ce6e06df542518cfc632620d8043b", "input": "Passage: A fleshy bead of tissue called the uvula drops down from the center of the posterior edge of the soft palate. Although some have suggested that the uvula is a vestigial organ, it serves an important purpose. When you swallow, the soft palate and uvula move upward, helping to keep foods and liquid from entering the nasal cavity. Unfortunately, it can also contribute to the sound produced by snoring. Two muscular folds extend downward from the soft palate, on either side of the uvula. Toward the front, the palatoglossal arch lies next to the base of the tongue; behind it, the palatopharyngeal arch forms the superior and lateral margins of the fauces. Between these two arches are the palatine tonsils, clusters of lymphoid tissue that protect the pharynx. The lingual tonsils are located at the base of the tongue. Answer: vestigial", "output": [ "Although some have suggested that the uvula is what type of organ, it actually serves an important purpose?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4ff9829c80b5481ba25136e7473767c2", "input": "Passage: Identify evidence for electroweak unification. The quarks in a particle are confined, meaning individual quarks cannot be directly observed. Are gluons confined as well? Explain. Answer: directly observed", "output": [ "The quarks in a particle are confined, meaning individual quarks cannot be what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-688c291787324ea8bbd909a33e076a48", "input": "Passage: 11.1 | Interactions of Skeletal Muscles, Their Fascicle Arrangement, and Their Lever Systems By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Compare and contrast agonist and antagonist muscles • Describe how fascicles are arranged within a skeletal muscle • Explain the major events of a skeletal muscle contraction within a muscle in generating force To move the skeleton, the tension created by the contraction of the fibers in most skeletal muscles is transferred to the tendons. The tendons are strong bands of dense, regular connective tissue that connect muscles to bones. The bone connection is why this muscle tissue is called skeletal muscle. Answer: tendons", "output": [ "Strong bands of dense, regular connective tissue that connect muscles to bones are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-01c58f1ee14247e7964f2b0ceaf2a5dc", "input": "Passage: Movable joints are also the most common type of joint in your body. Your fingers, toes, hips, elbows, and knees all provide examples of movable joints. The surfaces of bones at movable joints are covered with a smooth layer of cartilage. The cartilage reduces friction between the bones. Ligaments often cross a joint, holding two nones together. For example, there are numerous ligaments connecting the leg bones across the knee joint. Answer: movable joints", "output": [ "What is the most common type of joint in the human body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-67e1b28f563d4649a3e7d9905f2f5fc3", "input": "Passage: Curvatures of the Vertebral Column The adult vertebral column does not form a straight line, but instead has four curvatures along its length (see Figure 7.20). These curves increase the vertebral column’s strength, flexibility, and ability to absorb shock. When the load on the spine is increased, by carrying a heavy backpack for example, the curvatures increase in depth (become more curved) to accommodate the extra weight. They then spring back when the weight is removed. The four adult curvatures are classified as either primary or secondary curvatures. Primary curves are retained from the original fetal curvature, while secondary curvatures develop after birth. Answer: curves", "output": [ "What feature of the spine helps with flexibility and strength?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ee5b75a8a0d745d682aa8372899147b8", "input": "Passage: The abiotic factors, such as the amount of rainfall and the temperature, are going to influence other abiotic factors, such as the quality of the soil. This, in turn, is going to influence the plants that migrate into the ecosystem and thrive in that biome. Recall that migration is the movement of an organism into or out of a population. It can also refer to a whole new species moving into a habitat . The type of plants that live in a biome are going to attract a certain type of animal to that habitat. It is the interaction of the abiotic and biotic factors that describe a biome and ecosystem. In aquatic biomes, abiotic factors such as salt, sunlight and temperature play significant roles. Answer: abiotic and biotic", "output": [ "The interaction of what opposite factors describe a biome and ecosystem?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7a3a617348ad45adae08bd65cdcfa10d", "input": "Passage: The Figure below shows the direction of the current that is generated by a moving magnet. If the magnet is moved back and forth repeatedly, the current keeps changing direction. In other words, alternating current (AC) is produced. Alternating current is electric current that keeps reversing direction. Answer: alternating current", "output": [ "What is the term for electric current that keeps reversing direction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bf1623ec59a045f786eb601b67f36fd5", "input": "Passage: Refraction is another way that waves interact with matter. Refraction occurs when waves bend as they enter a new medium at an angle. You can see an example of refraction in Figure below . Light bends when it passes from air to water. The bending of the light causes the pencil to appear broken. Answer: air to water", "output": [ "Light bends when it passes in from what to what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7af0f415c0584717be2d4f69ea53c2b4", "input": "Passage: Group 15 is called the nitrogen group. The metalloids in this group are arsenic and antimony. Group 15 also contains two nonmetals and one metal. Answer: arsenic and antimony", "output": [ "Which metalloids are found in the nitrogen group?" ] }, { "id": "task594-779b2790e26f4141adfa38d28a71d3dd", "input": "Passage: The Antibiotic Crisis The word antibiotic comes from the Greek anti, meaning “against,” and bios, meaning “life. ” An antibiotic is an organismproduced chemical that is hostile to the growth of other organisms. Today’s news and media often address concerns about an antibiotic crisis. Are antibiotics that were used to treat bacterial infections easily treatable in the past becoming obsolete? Are there new “superbugs”—bacteria that have evolved to become more resistant to our arsenal of antibiotics? Is this the beginning of the end of antibiotics? All of these questions challenge the healthcare community. One of the main reasons for resistant bacteria is the overuse and incorrect use of antibiotics, such as not completing a full course of prescribed antibiotics. The incorrect use of an antibiotic results in the natural selection of resistant forms of bacteria. The antibiotic kills most of the infecting bacteria, and therefore only the resistant forms remain. These resistant forms reproduce, resulting in an increase in the proportion of resistant forms over non-resistant ones. Another problem is the excessive use of antibiotics in livestock. The routine use of antibiotics in animal feed promotes bacterial resistance as well. In the United States, 70 percent of the antibiotics produced are fed to animals. The antibiotics are not used to prevent disease, but to enhance production of their products. Answer: life", "output": [ "The word antibiotic comes from the greek anti, meaning “against,” and bios, meaning this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f01732ae77a84edb9f63157fe8f1acf7", "input": "Passage: Messenger RNA ( mRNA ) carries the instructions from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. mRNA is produced in the nucleus, as are all RNAs. Answer: messenger rna", "output": [ "What carries the instructions from the nucleus to the cytoplasm?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eda93b7ad07b44688d6d6704e57a5502", "input": "Passage: The thermometer was developed a short time after the barometer made it possible to study pressure in a quantitative manner. Although crude thermometers had been available for quite some time, Daniel Fahrenheit constructed a more accurate thermometer in 1724 using mercury in glass. Because the height of the mercury in the thermometer was a relative measure, certain fixed points needed to be defined. Originally, Fahrenheit defined a 1:1:1 mixture of ice, salt, and ammonium chloride as 0°F, and the freezing/melting point of ice as 32°F. On this scale, the normal temperature of the human body is 96°F, and the boiling point of water is 212°C. The modern Fahrenheit scale is defined in terms of the normal freezing and boiling points of water. Answer: barometer", "output": [ "What instrument made it possible to study pressure quantitatively?" ] }, { "id": "task594-45fc3644bc154260baaab978c688f170", "input": "Passage: A compass needle lines up with Earth’s magnetic north pole. This is different from Earth’s geographic north pole, also called true north. The geographic north pole is the top of an imaginary line. This line is the axis around which Earth rotates. The geographic north pole is much like the spindle of a spinning top. The location of the geographic north pole does not change. However, the magnetic north pole shifts in location over time. Depending on where you live, you can correct for the difference between the two poles when you use a map and a compass ( Figure below ). Answer: true north", "output": [ "What is earth’s geographic north pole also called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0f53538ca33b4ef6a7b5c3ceea6a6b1c", "input": "Passage: The major cause of outdoor air pollution is the burning of fossil fuels. Answer: fossil fuels", "output": [ "The major cause of outdoor air pollution is the burning of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-239b65f5e818437995c05a2854ff2240", "input": "Passage: For decades scientists have had equipment that can measure earthquake magnitude. The earthquake magnitude is the energy released during the quake. Answer: magnitude", "output": [ "What term is used describe energy released during an earthquake?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0c07cc6539a546f4900f1a4f7414fcfa", "input": "Passage: The Ventricles There are four ventricles within the brain, all of which developed from the original hollow space within the neural tube, the central canal. The first two are named the lateral ventricles and are deep within the cerebrum. These ventricles are connected to the third ventricle by two openings called the interventricular foramina. The third ventricle is the space between the left and right sides of the diencephalon, which opens into the cerebral aqueduct that passes through the midbrain. The aqueduct opens into the fourth ventricle, which is the space between the cerebellum and the pons and upper medulla (Figure 13.18). Answer: brain", "output": [ "What organ has four ventricles, all of which developed from the original hollow space within the neural tube?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b0f4d70710e749cd8a98c6183a7df5f4", "input": "Passage: Saturn’s composition is similar to Jupiter's. The planet is made mostly of hydrogen and helium. These elements are gases in the outer layers and liquids in the deeper layers. Saturn may also have a small solid core. Saturn's upper atmosphere has clouds in bands of different colors. These clouds rotate rapidly around the planet. But Saturn has fewer storms than Jupiter. Thunder and lightning have been seen in the storms on Saturn ( Figure below ). Answer: hydrogen", "output": [ "Saturn is made mostly of helium and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5bd6a4b8d0e548ae9eb19cefa6c7c4e1", "input": "Passage: In other covalent bonds, electrons are shared equally. These bonds are called nonpolar bonds. Neither atom attracts the shared electrons more strongly. As a result, the atoms remain neutral. Figure below shows an example of nonpolar bonds. Answer: nonpolar bonds", "output": [ "What is it called when electrons are shared equally?" ] }, { "id": "task594-08062ebbb596419c8025e0f9cf56a062", "input": "Passage: TiCl4(l) + 2Mg(s) → Ti(s) + 2MgCl2(s) The only other alkaline earth that is widely used as the metal is beryllium, which is extremely toxic. Ingestion of beryllium or exposure to beryllium-containing dust causes a syndrome called berylliosis, characterized by severe inflammation of the respiratory tract or other tissues. A small percentage of beryllium dramatically increases the strength of copper or nickel alloys, which are used in nonmagnetic, nonsparking tools (such as wrenches and screwdrivers), camera springs, and electrical contacts. The low atomic number of beryllium gives it a very low tendency to absorb x-rays and makes it uniquely suited for applications involving radioactivity. Both elemental Be and BeO, which is a high-temperature ceramic, are used in nuclear reactors, and the windows on all x-ray tubes and sources are made of beryllium foil. Millions of tons of calcium compounds are used every year. As discussed in earlier chapters, CaCl 2 is used as “road salt” to lower the freezing point of water on roads in cold temperatures. In addition, CaCO 3 is a. Answer: low atomic number", "output": [ "What aspect of beryllium allows it to absorb x-rays?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0997bebcc42d415cb388f8c87658c78c", "input": "Passage: Basal Ganglia Interconnected brain areas called the basal ganglia (or basal nuclei), shown in Figure 35.20b, play important roles in movement control and posture. Damage to the basal ganglia, as in Parkinson’s disease, leads to motor impairments like a shuffling gait when walking. The basal ganglia also regulate motivation. For example, when a wasp sting led to bilateral basal ganglia damage in a 25-year-old businessman, he began to spend all his days in bed and showed no interest in anything or anybody. But when he was externally stimulated—as when someone asked to play a card game with him—he was able to function normally. Interestingly, he and other similar patients do not report feeling bored or frustrated by their state. Thalamus The thalamus (Greek for “inner chamber”), illustrated in Figure 35.24, acts as a gateway to and from the cortex. It receives sensory and motor inputs from the body and also receives feedback from the cortex. This feedback mechanism can modulate conscious awareness of sensory and motor inputs depending on the attention and arousal state of the animal. The thalamus helps regulate consciousness, arousal, and sleep states. A rare genetic disorder called fatal familial insomnia causes the degeneration of thalamic neurons and glia. This disorder prevents affected patients from being able to sleep, among other symptoms, and is eventually fatal. Answer: thalamus", "output": [ "What helps to regulate consciousness, arousal, and sleep states?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d9447c2705f643f6b7089848f909266a", "input": "Passage: An air mass is a large body of air that has about the same conditions throughout. For example, an air mass might have cold dry air. Another air mass might have warm moist air. The conditions in an air mass depend on where the air mass formed. Answer: air mass", "output": [ "What is the term used for a large body of air of the same temperature and moisture conditions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8f1755ec5ad448c492b865effefbbc2f", "input": "Passage: The presence of solute particles has the opposite effect on the freezing point of a solution. When a solution freezes, only the solvent particles come together to form a solid phase, and the presence of solute particles interferes with that process. Therefore, for the liquid solvent to freeze, more energy must be removed from the solution, which lowers the temperature. Thus, solutions have lower freezing points than pure solvents do. This phenomenon is called freezing point depression. For every mole of particles in a liter of water, the freezing point decreases by about 1.9°C. Both boiling point elevation and freezing point depression have practical uses. For example, solutions of water and ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) are used as coolants in automobile engines because the boiling point of such a solution is greater than 100°C, the normal boiling point of water. In winter, salts like NaCl and CaCl2 are sprinkled on the ground to melt ice or keep ice from forming on roads and sidewalks. This is because the solution made by dissolving sodium chloride or calcium chloride in water has a lower freezing point than pure water, so the formation of ice is inhibited. Answer: solvent", "output": [ "When a solution freezes, only what particles come together to form a solid phase, while the presence of solute particles interferes with that process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-189afdb609964901b9d4b70c1285cc6e", "input": "Passage: Radioactivity involves the release of particles and/or energy from the nucleus of an atom. Answer: radioactivity", "output": [ "What is the release of particles and/or energy from the nucleus of an atom described as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9bf45e71e9734fd9b91c3abf8b0fcb13", "input": "Passage: Symbiosis describes a close and long-term relationship between different species. At least one species will benefit in a symbiotic relationship. These relationships are often necessary for the survival of one or both organisms. There are three types of symbiotic relationships: mutualism, communalism, and parasitism. Answer: mutualism, communalism, parasitism", "output": [ "What are the three types of symbiotic relationships?" ] }, { "id": "task594-066573b153c842378961926944b7845b", "input": "Passage: available; if arsenic is an essential trace mineral in human diets, it is probably required on the order of 50 ppb or less. A toxic dose of arsenic corresponds to about 7,000 ppb and higher, which is over 140 times the trace amount that may be required by the body. Thus, arsenic is not poisonous in and of itself. Rather, it is the amount that is dangerous: the dose makes the poison. Similarly, as much as water is needed to keep us alive, too much of it is also risky to our health. Drinking too much water too fast can lead to a condition called water intoxication, which may be fatal. The danger in water intoxication is not that water itself becomes toxic. It is that the ingestion of too much water too fast dilutes sodium ions, potassium ions, and other salts in the bloodstream to concentrations that are not high enough to support brain, muscle, and heart functions. Military personnel, endurance athletes, and even desert hikers are susceptible to water intoxication if they drink water but do not replenish the salts lost in sweat. As this example shows, even the right substances in the wrong amounts can be dangerous!. Answer: water intoxication", "output": [ "Drinking too much water too fast can lead to what potentially fatal condition, which causes dangerous changes to salt levels?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e94086f8dd184b53899389689616815c", "input": "Passage: Most protists are so small that they can be seen only with a microscope. Protists are mostly unicellular (one-celled) eukaryotes. A few protists are multicellular (many-celled) and surprisingly large. For example, kelp is a multicellular protist that can grow to be over 100-meters long ( Figure below ). Multicellular protists, however, do not show cellular specialization or differentiation into tissues. That means their cells all look the same and, for the most part, function the same. On the other hand, your cells often are much different from each other and have special jobs. Answer: unicellular", "output": [ "What type of eukaryotes are protists normally?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dd2fdcc17ea44ead86e2524380998c0c", "input": "Passage: In plants and algae, photosynthesis takes place in organelles called chloroplasts. Chloroplasts contain stacks of membranes called thylakoids, which contain chlorophyll. Thylakoids are surrounded by a fluid-filled space called stroma. Answer: chloroplasts", "output": [ "In plants and algae, photosynthesis takes place in which organelles?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1947ca5448804e25b5360149278e0242", "input": "Passage: Metals such as iron are useful for many purposes because of their unique properties. For example, they can conduct electricity and bend without breaking. However, pure metals may be less useful than mixtures of metals with other elements. For example, adding a little carbon to iron makes it much stronger. This mixture is called steel. Steel is so strong that it can hold up huge bridges, like the one pictured above. Steel is also used to make skyscrapers, cargo ships, cars, and trains. Steel is an example of an alloy. Answer: steel", "output": [ "Adding carbon to iron makes what type of metal?" ] }, { "id": "task594-30b3703446a44f3a851830759a5acdff", "input": "Passage: temperatures with electropositive metals such as those of groups 1 and 2 and aluminum produces ionic carbides, which contain discrete metal cations and carbon anions. The identity of the anions depends on the size of the second element. For example, smaller elements such as beryllium and aluminum give methides such as Be2C and Al4C3, which formally contain the C4− ion derived from methane (CH4) by losing all four H atoms as protons. In contrast, larger metals such as sodium and calcium give carbides with stoichiometries of Na2C2 and CaC2. Because these carbides contain the C4− ion, which is derived from acetylene (HC≡CH) by losing both H atoms as protons, they are more properly called acetylides. As discussed in Chapter 21 \"Periodic Trends and the \", Section 21.4 \"The Alkaline Earth Metals (Group 2)\", reacting ionic carbides with dilute aqueous acid results in protonation of the anions to give the parent hydrocarbons: CH4 or C2H2. For many years, miners’ lamps used the reaction of calcium carbide with water to produce a steady supply of acetylene, which was ignited to provide a portable lantern. The reaction of carbon with most transition metals at high temperatures produces interstitial carbides. Due to the less electropositive nature of the transition metals, these carbides contain covalent metal– carbon interactions, which result in different properties: most interstitial carbides are good conductors of electricity, have high melting points, and are among the hardest substances known. Interstitial carbides exhibit a variety of nominal compositions, and they are often nonstoichiometric compounds whose carbon content can vary over a wide range. Among the most important are tungsten carbide (WC), which is used industrially in high-speed cutting tools, and cementite (Fe3C), which is a major component of steel. Elements with an electronegativity similar to that of carbon form covalent carbides, such as silicon carbide (SiC; Equation 22.15) and boron carbide (B4C). These substances are extremely hard, have high melting points, and are chemically inert. For example, silicon carbide is highly resistant to chemical attack at temperatures as high as 1600°C. Because it also maintains its strength at high temperatures, silicon carbide is used in heating elements for electric furnaces and in variable-temperature resistors. Answer: carbon", "output": [ "Interstitial carbides are produced by the reaction of most transition metals at high temperatures with what element?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3d490bfa55334df8b7524172ed961d4c", "input": "Passage: When gametes unite during fertilization, the resulting zygote inherits two alleles for each gene. One allele comes from each parent. The alleles an individual inherits make up the individual’s genotype . The two alleles may be the same or different. As shown in Table below , an organism with two alleles of the same type ( BB or bb ) is called a homozygote . An organism with two different alleles ( Bb ) is called a heterozygote . This results in three possible genotypes. Answer: alleles", "output": [ "When gametes unite during fertilization, the resulting zygote inherits two of what for each gene, one from each parent?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e74649d831574dedba48606a70940814", "input": "Passage: Protozoa generally feed by engulfing and digesting other organisms. As consumers, they have various roles in food chains and webs. Some are predators. They prey upon other single-celled organisms, such as bacteria. In fact, protozoa predators keep many bacterial populations in check. Other protozoa are herbivores. They graze on algae. Still others are decomposers. They consume dead organic matter. There are also parasitic protozoa that live in or on living hosts. For example, the protozoan that causes malaria lives inside a human host. For their part, protozoa are important food sources for many larger organisms, including insects and worms. Answer: protozoa", "output": [ "What single-celled organism can be either a predator, decomposer, herbivore, or parasite in the food chain?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7d495f696f604fd7af1fc0a2b1511bdc", "input": "Passage: Digestion starts in the mouth. When food is swallowed, it travels through the esophagus to the stomach. In the stomach, digestion continues and a small amount of absorption of nutrients takes place. Answer: mouth", "output": [ "Where does the process of digestion start?" ] }, { "id": "task594-adeaccd8e85f4d5a84bc07762901aa6e", "input": "Passage: The rock in Figure above is an example of a heterogeneous mixture. A heterogeneous mixture varies in its composition. The black nuggets, for example, are not distributed evenly throughout the rock. Answer: heterogeneous", "output": [ "What is the term for a mixture that varies in its composition?" ] }, { "id": "task594-79fab95ddbce474993a05d03c3e6545c", "input": "Passage: Electron configurations are a shorthand method of indicating what subshells electrons occupy in atoms. Answer: atoms", "output": [ "Electron configurations are a shorthand method of indicating what subshells electrons occupy in these?" ] }, { "id": "task594-db8fbe94ddde4a19a5ec1377d203caf8", "input": "Passage: This super fast train can obviously reach great speeds. And there's a lot of technology that helps this train go fast. Speaking of helping things go fast brings us to enzymes. Life could not exist without enzymes. Essentially, enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up biochemical reactions. Answer: enzymes", "output": [ "What are biological catalysts that speeds up biochemical reactions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-34220aa12d2c4eab81a7ee3d2465e4c6", "input": "Passage: Your own body cells burn fuel in combustion reactions. The fuel is glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ), a simple sugar. The process in which combustion of glucose occurs in body cells is called cellular respiration. This combustion reaction provides energy for life processes. Cellular respiration can be summed up by the equation:. Answer: glucose", "output": [ "Cellular respiration in humans involves the combustion of what simple sugar?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a2a065a331b84308be4b6595c7493180", "input": "Passage: The Levels of Classification Taxonomy (which literally means “arrangement law”) is the science of naming and grouping species to construct an internationally shared classification system. The taxonomic classification system (also called the Linnaean system after its inventor, Carl Linnaeus, a Swedish naturalist) uses a hierarchical model. A hierarchical system has levels and each group at one of the levels includes groups at the next lowest level, so that at the lowest level each member belongs to a series of nested groups. An analogy is the nested series of directories on the main disk drive of a computer. For example, in the most inclusive grouping, scientists divide organisms into three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Within each domain is a second level called a kingdom. Each domain contains several kingdoms. Within kingdoms, the subsequent categories of increasing specificity are: phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. As an example, the classification levels for the domestic dog are shown in Figure 12.3. The group at each level is called a taxon (plural: taxa). In other words, for the dog, Carnivora is the taxon at the order level, Canidae is the taxon at the family level, and so forth. Organisms also have a common name that people typically use, such as domestic dog, or wolf. Each taxon name is capitalized except for species, and the genus and species names are italicized. Scientists refer to an organism by its genus and species names together, commonly called a scientific name, or Latin name. This two-name system is called binomial nomenclature. The scientific name of the wolf is therefore Canis lupus. Recent study of the DNA of domestic. Answer: carl linnaeus", "output": [ "Who invented the taxonomic classification system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-99915a0449b14216ba1455d82a3a1ba7", "input": "Passage: The ether functional group consists of an oxygen atom which forms single bonds with two carbon atoms. Answer: carbon", "output": [ "The ether functional group consists of an oxygen atom which forms single bonds with what other atoms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9558b55f1ff74954be0c556e4eb71209", "input": "Passage: Many other salts are important in the body. For example, bile salts produced by the liver help break apart dietary fats, and calcium phosphate salts form the mineral portion of teeth and bones. Answer: dietary", "output": [ "Bile salts produced by the liver assist in breaking apart what kind of fats?" ] }, { "id": "task594-91949f88715643fda0680373c2631a5f", "input": "Passage: In convection, materials move depending on their heat relative to nearby materials. Answer: convection", "output": [ "The process in which materials move depending on their heat relative to nearby materials is known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-58be122a96b8422197c9a5137c3d36f5", "input": "Passage: An ecosystem consists of all the biotic and abiotic factors in an area and their interactions. A niche refers to the role of a species in its ecosystem. A habitat is the physical environment in which a species lives and to which it is adapted. Two different species cannot occupy the same niche in the same place for very long. Answer: habitat", "output": [ "What do you call the physical environment in which a species lives and to which it is adapted?" ] }, { "id": "task594-96ddfd0e174a4fc3b96a4ea647ef65a9", "input": "Passage: Ray-finned fish include the majority of living fish species, including goldfish, tuna, salmon, perch, and cod. They have a bony endoskeleton and a swim bladder. Their thin fins consist of webs of skin over flexible bony rays, or spines. The fins lack muscle, so their movements are controlled by muscles in the body wall. You can compare their ray fins with the fleshy fins of lobe-finned fish in Figure below . Answer: ray-finned fish", "output": [ "What type of fish are the majority of living species?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f4ddc88e9a224bc7a761ad6c32629341", "input": "Passage: When the helium is gone, the stars become white dwarfs. Answer: white dwarfs", "output": [ "When the helium is gone, the stars become what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-49c29e7814fb4f9286087196da270c15", "input": "Passage: Carbohydrates are nutrients that include sugars, starches, and fiber. There are two types of carbohydrates: simple and complex. Pictured below are some foods that are good sources of carbohydrates ( Figure below ). Answer: simple and complex", "output": [ "Name the 2 types of carbohydrates?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bbdf64aa39584d2798e8851843f6360f", "input": "Passage: Ribosomes are small organelles and are the site of protein synthesis. Ribosomes are found in all cells. Answer: ribosomes", "output": [ "What are small organelles and are the site of protein synthesis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2a6f9fc5e7f4445cbcd8a3446f203b71", "input": "Passage: Insects spread disease and destroy crops. However, they are essential for pollinating flowering plants. Answer: insects", "output": [ "What are essential for pollination, but can spread disease and destroy crops?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d84ce2aae9484ebaa986782829bc956f", "input": "Passage: Now that you have learned that the cell membrane surrounds all cells, you can dive inside of a prototypical human cell to learn about its internal components and their functions. All living cells in multicellular organisms contain an internal cytoplasmic compartment, and a nucleus within the cytoplasm. Cytosol, the jelly-like substance within the cell, provides the fluid medium necessary for biochemical reactions. Eukaryotic cells, including all animal cells, also contain various cellular organelles. An organelle (“little organ”) is one of several different types of membrane-enclosed bodies in the cell, each performing a unique function. Just as the various bodily organs work together in harmony to perform all of a human’s functions, the many different cellular organelles work together to keep the cell healthy and performing all of its important functions. The organelles and cytosol, taken together, compose the cell’s cytoplasm. The nucleus is a cell’s central organelle, which contains the cell’s DNA (Figure 3.13). Answer: biochemical reactions", "output": [ "All living cells in multicellular organisms contain an internal cytoplasmic compartment, and a nucleus within the cytoplasm. cytosol, the jelly-like substance within the cell, provides the fluid medium necessary for this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d400c18497264e0c8f2688d4c93df857", "input": "Passage: Electron affinity is a measure of the energy released when an extra electron is added to an atom. Answer: electron affinity", "output": [ "What is the measure of the energy released when an extra electron is added to an atom?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2d23624d9da34b489b1d610732dcc980", "input": "Passage: Yes and no. Bacteria cells are similar to our cells in some ways. Like our cells, bacteria cells have DNA and a plasma membrane. But bacteria are unique in other ways. They are called prokaryotic cells because of these differences. Answer: dna & plasma membrane", "output": [ "How are bacteria cells similar to our cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f3bc143922d045f5ab811583fe182c59", "input": "Passage: Well maybe not yours. But some other person's. Hair is an integral part of the integumentary system. And although many people may lose some or all of the hair on top of their head, they still have hair on their arms and legs that perform important functions. Answer: integumentary system", "output": [ "Hair is a component of which bodily system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-80efab8c274f4ba499db5d43c9c026d9", "input": "Passage: An n-type (negative-type) semiconductor consists of silicon and an element such as phosphorus that gives the silicon crystal extra electrons. You can see this in the Figure above . An n-type semiconductor is like the negative terminal of a battery. Answer: n-type", "output": [ "Silicon with an element that gives it extra electrons is which type of semiconductor?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d53b419d3b5c42e28f4c958edef72298", "input": "Passage: Paleontology, another branch of biology, uses fossils to study life’s history (Figure 1.12). Zoology and botany are the study of animals and plants, respectively. Biologists can also specialize as biotechnologists, ecologists, or physiologists, to name just a few areas. Biotechnologists apply the knowledge of biology to create useful products. Ecologists study the interactions of organisms in their environments. Physiologists study the workings of cells, tissues and organs. This is just a small sample of the many fields that biologists can pursue. From our own bodies to the world we live in, discoveries in biology can affect us in very direct and important ways. We depend on these discoveries for our health, our food sources, and the benefits provided by our ecosystem. Because of this, knowledge of biology can benefit us in making decisions in our day-to-day lives. The development of technology in the twentieth century that continues today, particularly the technology to describe and manipulate the genetic material, DNA, has transformed biology. This transformation will allow biologists to continue to understand the history of life in greater detail, how the human body works, our human origins, and how humans can survive as a species on this planet despite the stresses caused by our increasing numbers. Biologists continue to decipher huge mysteries about life suggesting that we have only begun to understand life on the planet, its history, and our relationship to it. For this and other reasons, the knowledge of biology gained through this textbook and other printed and electronic media should be a benefit in whichever field you enter. Answer: paleontology", "output": [ "Which branch of biology uses fossils to study life's history?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c7968c0b888e48a0a50f6ed2f92b8024", "input": "Passage: The skin is the major organ of the integumentary system , which also includes the nails and hair. In fact, the skin is the body’s largest organ, and a remarkable one at that. Consider these skin facts. The average square inch (6.5 cm 2 ) of skin has 20 blood vessels, 650 sweat glands, and more than a thousand nerve endings. It also has an incredible 60,000 pigment-producing cells. All of these structures are packed into a stack of cells that is just 2 mm thick, or about as thick as the cover of a book. Answer: integumentary system", "output": [ "What organ system consists of the skin, nails and hair?" ] }, { "id": "task594-27fc913c3c48468390f0739f5d4244f5", "input": "Passage: Cleavage and Blastula Stage The development of multi-cellular organisms begins from a single-celled zygote, which undergoes rapid cell division to form the blastula. The rapid, multiple rounds of cell division are termed cleavage. Cleavage is illustrated in (Figure 43.24a). After the cleavage has produced over 100 cells, the embryo is called a blastula. The blastula is usually a spherical layer of cells (the blastoderm) surrounding a fluid-filled or yolk-filled cavity (the blastocoel). Mammals at this stage form a structure called the blastocyst, characterized by an inner cell mass that is distinct from the surrounding blastula, shown in Figure 43.24b. During cleavage, the cells divide without an increase in mass; that is, one large single-celled zygote divides into multiple smaller cells. Each cell within the blastula is called a blastomere. Answer: blastula", "output": [ "The development of multi-cellular organisms begins from a single-celled zygote, which undergoes rapid cell division to form this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5ecf768299e24afe8f5e098d5332b151", "input": "Passage: The population is the unit of evolution. Answer: the population", "output": [ "What is the unit of evolution?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b835a3b65b8c43c0ad548899f5958ce1", "input": "Passage: Ionic compounds tend to have high melting points and boiling points. Answer: ionic", "output": [ "What type of compounds tend to have high melting points and boiling points?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0169c4fb47594b91a11daad6e82a1e1a", "input": "Passage: Molar mass is the mass of one mole of any given substance. Answer: molar mass", "output": [ "What is the mass of one mole of any given substance?" ] }, { "id": "task594-75ddf4efd6294e8eb377367bcc78e1f9", "input": "Passage: A circuit breaker is a switch that automatically opens a circuit if too much current flows through it. This could happen if too many electric devices are plugged into the circuit or if there is an electric short. Once the problem is resolved, the circuit breaker can be switched back on to close the circuit. Circuit breakers are generally found in a breaker box that controls all the circuits in a building. Answer: circuit breaker", "output": [ "What type of switch automatically opens a circuit if too much current flows through it?" ] }, { "id": "task594-56d9c30416c04d8fa3fcc438e2560556", "input": "Passage: http://www. explainthatstuff. com/how-geiger-counters-work. html. Answer: large intestine", "output": [ "The cecum is the first part of what structure, where wastes in a liquid state enter from the small intestine?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3f9b087e30cc48dbacf3851c6886e617", "input": "Passage: Sediments are deposited in many different types of environments. Beaches and deserts collect large deposits of sand. Sediments also continuously wind up at the bottom of the ocean and in lakes, ponds, rivers, marshes, and swamps. Avalanches produce large piles of sediment. The environment where the sediments are deposited determines the type of sedimentary rock that can form. Answer: sand", "output": [ "Beaches and deserts collect large deposits of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bb5deb2d16a34fc3a07fc9dc88c5f626", "input": "Passage: Amphibians are vertebrates that live part of the time in fresh water and part of the time on land. They were the first vertebrates to evolve four legs and colonize the land. They most likely evolved from lobe-finned fish. Modern amphibians include frogs, toads, salamanders, newts, and caecilians. They are ectotherms, so they have little control over their body temperature. This allows them to be active in warm weather, but they become sluggish when the temperature cools. Answer: on land", "output": [ "Frogs are amphibians that live part of the time in fresh water and rest of the time where?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ef0f95f648b84a0aa657a70ee20186b2", "input": "Passage: When milk is pasteurized, it is heated to high temperatures. These high temperatures denature the proteins in bacteria, so they cannot carry out needed functions to grow and multiply. Answer: pasteurization", "output": [ "Milk is usually subjected to what process, where high temperatures denature the proteins in bacteria so they cannot carry out functions needed to grow and multiply?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d57e34a3948f45a18835b0326a4043fc", "input": "Passage: Scientists classify living things to make sense of biodiversity and who how living things are related. The science of classifying living things is called taxonomy. Answer: taxonomy", "output": [ "What is the science of classifying living things is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-89e50f88df714a75ab5ca7a61899622e", "input": "Passage: An explosive eruption produces huge clouds of volcanic ash. Chunks of the volcano fly high into the atmosphere. Explosive eruptions can be tens of thousands of times as powerful as an atomic bomb ( Figure below ). Hot magma beneath the surface mixes with water. This forms gases. The gas pressure grows until it must be released. The volcano erupts in an enormous explosion. Answer: volcanoes", "output": [ "Explosive eruptions associated with what can be tens of thousands of times as powerful as an atomic bomb?" ] }, { "id": "task594-140542015b744e2e91a469785468817f", "input": "Passage: All living cells are surrounded by a cell membrane. Plant cells (Figure 17.3 \"An Idealized Plant Cell\") and animal cells (Figure 17.4 \"An Idealized Animal Cell\") contain a cell nucleus that is also surrounded by a membrane and holds the genetic information for the cell. (For more information about genetics and DNA, see Chapter 19 \"Nucleic Acids\". ) Everything between the cell membrane and the nuclear membrane—including Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: nucleus", "output": [ "What part of the cell is surrounded by a membrane and holds the genetic information for the cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cca318860c8a4a39a4493fa23e6405ee", "input": "Passage: Water potential is a measure of the potential energy in water. Plant physiologists are not interested in the energy in any one particular aqueous system, but are very interested in water movement between two systems. In practical terms, therefore, water potential is the difference in potential energy between a given water sample and pure water (at atmospheric pressure and ambient temperature). Water potential is denoted by the Greek letter ψ (psi) and is expressed in units of pressure (pressure is a form of energy) called megapascals (MPa). The potential of pure water (Ψwpure H2O) is, by convenience of definition, designated a value of zero (even though pure water contains plenty of potential energy, that energy is ignored). Water potential values for the water in a plant root, stem, or leaf are therefore expressed relative to Ψ wpure H2O. The water potential in plant solutions is influenced by solute concentration, pressure, gravity, and factors called matrix effects. Water potential can be broken down into its individual components using the following equation:. Answer: megapascals", "output": [ "What is the measure of water potential?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1a9639590c6449ddb1631dcd0dfaf74e", "input": "Passage: In the first beaker, distilled water does not conduct a current because water is a molecular compound. In the second beaker, solid sodium chloride also does not conduct a current. Despite being ionic and thus composed of charges particles, the solid crystal lattice does not allow the ions to move between the electrodes. Mobile charged particles are required for the circuit to be complete and the light bulb to light up. In the third beaker, the NaCl has been dissolved into the distilled water. Now the crystal lattice has been broken apart and the individual positive and negative ions can move. Cations move to one electrode, while anions move to the other, allowing electricity to flow (see Figure below ). Melting an ionic compound also frees the ions to conduct a current. Ionic compounds conduct an electric current when melted or dissolved in water. Answer: molecular compound", "output": [ "In the first beaker, distilled water does not conduct a current because water is a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9be60d3522064e259d99d7ec09bfebf2", "input": "Passage: A white dwarf is a stellar remnant that is very dense. A white dwarf's mass is comparable to the Sun and its volume is comparable to that of Earth. The very low brightness of a white dwarf comes from the emission of stored heat energy. Answer: white dwarf", "output": [ "What is a stellar remnant that is very dense?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f85514e353b14062b4d375a34e28d495", "input": "Passage: Examples of fungus-like protists include slime molds and water molds. Answer: slime molds and water molds", "output": [ "What are fungus like protists?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6b7fbbf59ac549999fa3a3cc1ae246ed", "input": "Passage: The size of an ocean wave depends on how fast, over how great a distance, and how long the wind blows. The greater each of these factors is, the bigger a wave will be. Some of the biggest waves occur with hurricanes. A hurricane is a storm that forms over the ocean. Its winds may blow more than 150 miles per hour! The winds also travel over long distances and may last for many days. Answer: hurricane", "output": [ "Some of the biggest waves occur with what type of storm that forms over the ocean and brings high winds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-490b026f9d85466283c0a3d13d940d31", "input": "Passage: Water can remain in a particular location for a long time. This is known as a reservoir . Reservoirs for water include oceans, glaciers, ponds, or even the atmosphere. A water molecule may pass through a reservoir very quickly or may remain for much longer. The amount of time a molecule stays in a reservoir is known as its residence time . The residence time of water in the ocean is 3,200 years. Of course, not every molecule stays that long. That number is an average for all molecules. Answer: residence time", "output": [ "What is the amount of time a molecule stays in a reservoir known as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f4f2aea1b77f4d789c703e9408875c1d", "input": "Passage: High-decibel sounds can damage the ears and cause loss of hearing. Which sounds in the graph are dangerously loud?. Answer: ears", "output": [ "High decibel sounds can damage your?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e9ba3b0dac6548629d2f124d74bef742", "input": "Passage: Oil is a thick, dark brown or black liquid. It is found in rock layers of the Earth's crust. Oil is currently the most commonly used source of energy in the world. Answer: oil", "output": [ "What is the most commonly used source of energy in the world?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9981c90fad8142a2986f54be0c8ade4c", "input": "Passage: Eukaryotes evolved about 2 billion years ago. Unlike prokaryotes, eukaryotes have a cell nucleus. They have more structures and are better organized. Organelles within a eukaryote can perform certain functions. Some supply energy; some break down wastes. Eukaryotes were better able to live and so became the dominant life form. You can see an example of a eukaryotic cell below ( Figure below ). Answer: cell nucleus", "output": [ "Unlike prokaryotes, eukaryotes have a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3b93053b29f841639601fa81e938adab", "input": "Passage: Magnetic resonance imaging (NMR) devices use liquid nitrogen to cool the superconducting magnets. Nitrogen is a gas at room temperature and liquefies at -195.8°C. Its neighbor on the periodic table (oxygen) boils at -182.95°C. The interactions between nitrogen molecules (N 2 ) are weaker, so the boiling point is lower. Interactions between non-polar molecules depend on the degree of electron fluctuation within the molecule. Answer: liquid nitrogen", "output": [ "Magnetic resonance imaging devices use what to cool the superconducting magnets?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a87ede3571b444d387f38ee84ca93fa4", "input": "Passage: disease is sex-linked and effects mainly males (who are XY, compared to XX females).273 In the unaffected population, the FMR-1 gene contains between 6 to 50 copies of a CGG repeat. Individuals with between 6 to 50 repeats are phenotypically normal. Those with 50 to 200 repeats carry what is known as a pre-mutation; these individuals rarely display symptoms but can transmit the disease to their children. Those with more than 200 repeats typically display symptoms and often have what appears to be a broken X chromosome – from which the disease derives its name. The pathogenic sequence in Fragile X is downstream of the FMR1 gene's coding region. When this region expands, it inhibits the gene's activity. 274 Other DNA Defects: Defects in DNA repair can lead to severe diseases and often a susceptibility to cancer. A OMIM search for DNA repair returns 654 entries! For example, defects in mismatch repair lead to a susceptibility to colon cancer, while defects in translation-coupled DNA repair are associated with Cockayne syndrome. People with Cockayne's syndrome are sensitive to light, short and appear to age prematurely.275 Summary: Our introduction to genes has necessarily been quite foundational. There are lots of variations and associated complexities that occur within the biological world. The key ideas are that genes represent biologically meaningful DNA sequences. To be meaningful, the sequence must play a role within the organism, typically by encoding a gene product (which we will consider next) and/or the information needed to insure its correct “expression”, that is, where and when the information in the gene is used. A practical problem is that most studies of genes are carried out using organisms grown in the lab or in otherwise artificial or unnatural conditions. It might be possible for an organism to exist with an amorphic mutation in a gene in the lab, whereas organisms that carry that allele may well be at a significant reproductive disadvantage in the real world. Moreover, a particular set of alleles, a particular genotype, might have a reproductive advantage in one environment (one ecological/ behavioral niche) but not another. Measuring these effects can be difficult. All of which should serve as a warning to consider skeptically pronouncements that a gene, or more accurately a specific allele of a gene, is responsible for a certain trait, particularly if the trait is complex, ill-defined, and likely to be significantly influenced by genomic context (the rest of the genotype) and environmental factors. Questions to answer & to ponder: • What happens in cells with defects in DNA repair systems when they attempt to divide? • I thought RNA primers were used to make DNA! So why is there no uracil in a DNA molecule? • A base is lost, how is this loss recognized by repair systems? • How could a DNA duplication lead to the production of a totally new gene (rather than just two copies of a pre-existing gene)? • How does a mutation generate a new allele? And what exactly is the difference between a gene and an allele? 273. Answer: genes", "output": [ "What is the term for biologically meaningful dna sequences?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6c5f3e445d4c4863aedf6b89d11dea09", "input": "Passage: Gamma rays are produced during gamma decay of an excited nucleus. During gamma decay, the nucleus emits a “packet” of energy called a gamma particle. Answer: gamma particle", "output": [ "What is the“packet” of energy called that the nucleus emits during gamma decay?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a12d9df173ed4716a74033d1ea1c6fe9", "input": "Passage: Because the heat is absorbed by the system, the 177.8 kJ is written as a reactant. The heat of reaction is positive for an endothermic reaction. Answer: positive", "output": [ "Is the heat of reaction positive or negative for an endothermic reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5e93e86d6ef34b35a03b2e006adc4fa5", "input": "Passage: Reverse transcription is the transfer of information from RNA to DNA. The is the reverse of normal transcription. Reverse transcription occurs in retroviruses, such as HIV, the virus that causes AIDS. Retroviruses are RNA viruses that are duplicated in a host cell by using reverse transcriptase enzyme to produce DNA from its RNA genome. Answer: reverse transcription", "output": [ "What is the transfer of information from rna to dna called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-469ece21d141492ea5f6886e66c4c676", "input": "Passage: Bathymetric maps are made from depth soundings or sonar data. They help oceanographers understand the shape of bottoms of lakes, bays, and the ocean. This information also helps boaters navigate safely. Answer: sonar data", "output": [ "Besides depth soundings, what else are bathymetric maps made of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bfb24d0943834e9aa957168e7a133920", "input": "Passage: Variation in muscle cells gives further insight into some benefits of anaerobic respiration. In vertebrate muscles, lactic acid fermentation allows muscles to produce ATP quickly during short bursts of strenuous activity. Muscle cells specialized for this type of activity show differences in structure as well as chemistry. Red muscle fibers are “dark” because they have a rich blood supply for a steady supply of oxygen, and a protein, myoglobin, which holds extra oxygen. They also contain more mitochondria, the organelle in which the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain conclude aerobic respiration. This is endurance muscle. White muscle cells are “light” because they lack the rich blood supply, have fewer mitochondria, and store the carbohydrate glycogen rather than oxygen. This is muscle built for sprinting. Answer: anaerobic", "output": [ "Variation in muscle cells gives further insight into some benefits of what type of respiration?" ] }, { "id": "task594-657d0ee11bfd4a0fb7ca5fb801d89826", "input": "Passage: The Ordovician-Silurian extinction event is the first recorded mass extinction and the second largest. During this period, about 85 percent of marine species (few species lived outside the oceans) became extinct. The main hypothesis for its cause is a period of glaciation and then warming. The extinction event actually consists of two extinction events separated by about 1 million years. The first event was caused by cooling, and the second event was due to the subsequent warming. The climate changes affected temperatures and sea levels. Some researchers have suggested that a gamma-ray burst, caused by a nearby supernova, is a possible cause of the Ordovician-Silurian extinction. The gamma-ray burst would have stripped away. Answer: 85 percent", "output": [ "The ordovician-silurian extinction event is the first recorded mass extinction and the second largest. during this period, about what percent of marine species went extinct?" ] }, { "id": "task594-25ac19c83ae84a548a14d5cd5a3f7fdb", "input": "Passage: Insects have a pair of antennae for “smelling” and “tasting” chemicals. Some insects can also use their antennae to detect sound. Other sensory organs on the head include several simple eyes and a pair of compound eyes. The compound eyes let insects see images. Butterflies and bees can even see in color. For feeding, the head contains one pair of mandibles and two pairs of maxillae . Insects consume a wide range of foods, and their mouthparts have become specialized. Several variations are shown in Figure below . Answer: maxillae", "output": [ "For feeding, the head contains one pair of mandibles and two pairs of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4de50f52b61d436c99511e06b523e8a5", "input": "Passage: In the study of chemical reactivity, we will find that the electrons in the outermost principal energy level are very important and so they are given a special name. Valence electrons are the electrons in the highest occupied principal energy level of an atom. In the second period elements listed above, the two electrons in the 1 s sublevel are called inner-shell electrons and are not involved directly in the element’s reactivity or in the formation of compounds. Lithium has a single electron in the second principal energy level and so we say that lithium has one valence electron. Beryllium has two valence electrons. How many valence electrons does boron have? You must recognize that the second principal energy level consists of both the 2 s and the 2 p sublevels and so the answer is three. In fact, the number of valence electrons goes up by one for each step across a period until the last element is reached. Neon, with its configuration ending in s 2 p 6 , has eight valence electrons. Answer: valence electrons", "output": [ "What is electrons in the highest occupied principal energy level of an atom called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d031dc3a274b49ceafc10237b54d0b4c", "input": "Passage: The lymphatic system also plays an important role in the immune system. For example, the lymphatic system makes white blood cells that protect the body from diseases. Cells of the lymphatic system produce two types of white blood cells, T cells and B cells, that are involved in fighting specific pathogens. Lymph nodes, which are scattered throughout the lymphatic system, act as filters or traps for foreign particles and are important in the proper functioning of the immune system. The role of the lymphatic system in the immune response is discussed in additional concepts. Answer: lymphatic system", "output": [ "What system in the human body makes white blood cells that protect the body from diseases?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ea65dcd4d30d4420abcf75183727af7e", "input": "Passage: 22.8 Torque on a Current Loop: Motors and Meters Motors are the most common application of magnetic force on current-carrying wires. Motors have loops of wire in a magnetic field. When current is passed through the loops, the magnetic field exerts torque on the loops, which rotates a shaft. Electrical energy is converted to mechanical work in the process. (See Figure 22.34. Answer: magnetic field", "output": [ "Motors are the most common application of magnetic force on current-carrying wires. motors have loops of wire in this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-864ebf187bfd4d42a323935febb08b86", "input": "Passage: The visceral mass in the shelled species is characteristically twisted and the foot is modified for crawling. Most gastropods bear a head with tentacles that support eyes. A complex radula is used to scrape food particles from the substrate. The mantle cavity encloses the ctenidia as well as a pair of nephridia. The class Cephalopoda (“head foot” animals) includes octopuses, squids, cuttlefish, and nautilus. Cephalopods include shelled and reduced-shell groups. They display vivid coloration, typically seen in squids and octopuses, which is used for camouflage. The ability of some octopuses to rapidly adjust their colors to mimic a background pattern or to startle a predator is one of the more awe-inspiring feats of these animals. All animals in this class are predators and have beaklike jaws. All cephalopods have a well-developed nervous system, complex eyes, and a closed circulatory system. The foot is lobed and developed into tentacles and a funnel, which is used for locomotion. Suckers are present on the tentacles in octopuses and squid. Ctenidia are enclosed in a large mantle cavity and are serviced by large blood vessels, each with its own heart. Cephalopods (Figure 15.27) are able to move quickly via jet propulsion by contracting the mantle cavity to forcefully eject a stream of water. Cephalopods have separate sexes, and the females of some species care for the eggs for an extended period of time. Although the shell is much reduced and internal in squid and cuttlefish, and absent altogether in octopus, nautilus live inside a spiral, multi-chambered shell that is filled with gas or water to regulate buoyancy. Answer: cephalopods", "output": [ "What class of animals, translated as “head foot”, includes octopuses, squids, cuttlefish, and nautilus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0c01ecccb9b8467da1b70f2d71d021cc", "input": "Passage: Similar to chromosomal alteration mutations, deletion or insertion mutations add or remove genetic information. Small deletions or insertions in the DNA will alter the reading frame. Deletions remove one or more nucleotides from the DNA, whereas insertions add one or more nucleotides into the DNA. These mutations in the coding region of a gene may also alter the splicing of the mRNA, known as a splice site mutation . Mutations which alter the reading frame are known as frameshift mutations . Splice site mutations and frameshift mutations both can dramatically change the mRNA, altering the final protein product. Answer: nucleotides", "output": [ "Deletions remove one or more what from the dna?" ] }, { "id": "task594-49c8810a4c77412b976bed90e4eb324d", "input": "Passage: The showy petals of flowers evolved to help attract pollinators. Wind-blown pollen might land just anywhere and be wasted. A pollinator is an animal that picks up pollen on its body and carries it directly to another flower of the same species. This helps ensure that pollination occurs. Pollinators are usually small animals such as bees, butterflies, and bats. You can see an example in Figure below . Answer: pollinator", "output": [ "What is an animal that picks up pollen on its body and carries it to another flower called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2a99f3260fe9402591bf2f327ecf0517", "input": "Passage: Why is activation energy needed? A reaction won’t occur unless atoms or molecules of reactants come together. This happens only if the particles are moving, and movement takes energy. Often, reactants have to overcome forces that push them apart. This takes energy as well. Still more energy is needed to start breaking bonds in reactants. The graphs in Figure below show the changes in energy in endothermic and exothermic reactions. Both reactions need the same amount of activation energy in order to begin. Answer: energy", "output": [ "What is required to break bonds in reactants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-41273d4ef241417c9b4b5f5cc183bd55", "input": "Passage: Homeostasis refers to the balance, or equilibrium within the cell or a body. It is an organism’s ability to keep a constant internal environment. Keeping a stable internal environment requires constant adjustments as conditions change inside and outside the cell. The adjusting of systems within a cell is called homeostatic regulation. Because the internal and external environments of a cell are constantly changing, adjustments must be made continuously to stay at or near the set point (the normal level or range). Homeostasis is a dynamic equilibrium rather than an unchanging state. The cellular processes discussed in this lesson all play an important role in homeostatic regulation. More concerning homeostasis will be presented in additional concepts. Answer: homeostasis", "output": [ "What is the name of the process that refers to the balance or equilibrium within the cell or a body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c9ac50f4cbee4e2daf8031ed3bfc39bf", "input": "Passage: The solubility of the majority of solid substances increases as the temperature increases. However, the effect is difficult to predict and varies widely from one solute to another. The temperature dependence of solubility can be visualized with the help of a solubility curve , a graph of the solubility vs. temperature (see Figure below ). Answer: increases", "output": [ "As temperature increases, the solubility of the majority of solid substances does what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1345d7ec1fe94602bcdf4b54ee765655", "input": "Passage: Weight is a measure of the force of gravity pulling down on an object, whereas buoyant force pushes up on an object. Which force is greater determines whether an object sinks or floats. Look at the Figure below . On the left, the object’s weight is the same as the buoyant force acting on it, so the object floats. On the right, the object’s weight is greater than the buoyant force acting on it, so the object sinks. Answer: gravity", "output": [ "Weight is a measure of what force pulling down on an object?" ] }, { "id": "task594-14a92f6b9a4c403ca23115f554dbadf9", "input": "Passage: Lactose Lactose is known as milk sugar because it occurs in the milk of humans, cows, and other mammals. In fact, the natural synthesis of lactose occurs only in mammary tissue, whereas most other carbohydrates are plant products. Human milk contains about 7.5% lactose, and cow’s milk contains about 4.5%. This sugar is one of the lowest ranking in terms of sweetness, being about one-sixth as sweet as sucrose (seeTable 16.1 \"The Relative Sweetness of Some Compounds (Sucrose = 100)\" in Section 16.3 \"Important Hexoses\"). Lactose is produced commercially from whey, a by-product in the manufacture of cheese. It is important as an infant food and in the production of penicillin. Lactose is a reducing sugar composed of one molecule of D-galactose and one molecule of D-glucose joined by a β-1,4-glycosidic bond (the bond from the anomeric carbon of the first monosaccharide unit being directed upward). The two monosaccharides are obtained from lactose by acid hydrolysis or the catalytic action of the enzyme lactase:. Answer: mammary tissue", "output": [ "Where does the natural synthesis of lactose occur?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d93c1aa71ffc49fbb2d789249b4f6226", "input": "Passage: Crocodilia Reptiles in the Crocodilia Order are called crocodilians. They include crocodiles, alligators, caimans, and gharils. They have four sprawling legs that allow them to run surprisingly fast. They have strong jaws and replace their teeth throughout life. Crocodilians have relatively complex brains and greater intelligence than other reptiles. crocodile. Answer: reptiles", "output": [ "The crocodilia order, which includes crocodiles, alligators, caimans, and gharils, is part of what class of animals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c2c4c7344cc94f75ba77bb6a4fe17660", "input": "Passage: Each kidney is supplied by a renal artery and renal vein. Answer: renal vein", "output": [ "Each kidney is supplied by a renal artery and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-75a219fa6bdc4483a61d802df7b0db8b", "input": "Passage: Rainwater absorbs carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) as it falls. The CO 2 combines with water to form carbonic acid. The slightly acidic water is especially good at dissolving the rock limestone. Groundwater creates landforms by dissolving away rock. Answer: carbonic acid", "output": [ "Rainwater absorbs carbon dioxide (co 2 ) as it falls. the co 2 combines with water to form what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-366c92c21fd74b2a93fbc4135b3c0ceb", "input": "Passage: Reactivity is how likely an element is to react chemically with other elements. Some nonmetals are extremely reactive, whereas others are completely nonreactive. What explains this variation in nonmetals? The answer is their number of valence electrons. These are the electrons in the outer energy level of an atom that are involved in interactions with other atoms. Let’s look at two examples of nonmetals, fluorine and neon. Simple atomic models of these two elements are shown in the Figure below . Answer: reactivity", "output": [ "The number of valence electrons determines variation of what property in nonmetals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-282558147ff54e38a8101e5e331b2fab", "input": "Passage: Many flatworms are parasites with vertebrate hosts. Some are free-living carnivores that live mainly in aquatic habitats. Answer: aquatic", "output": [ "Some flatworms are free-living carnivores that live mainly in which type of habitats?" ] }, { "id": "task594-93991c7674c6487f98b7d7929b902a39", "input": "Passage: Smooth muscles in arteries and veins are largely responsible for regulation of blood pressure. Answer: smooth muscles", "output": [ "The muscles in arteries and veins that are largely responsible for regulation of blood pressure are known as what type?" ] }, { "id": "task594-84599db8eed7412dbefc0d7929aa2788", "input": "Passage: Mineralogists are scientists who study minerals. They divide minerals into groups based on chemical composition. Even though there are over 4,000 minerals, most minerals fit into one of eight mineral groups. Minerals with similar crystal structures are grouped together. Answer: minerals", "output": [ "Similarity of crystal structures is used to categorize what non-living materials?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1b062f2575334142864f45d664841e4e", "input": "Passage: Living things that undergo photosynthesis and produce glucose include plants, cyanobacteria, and algae. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "Plants, cyanobacteria, and algae are living things that undergo what process and produce glucose?" ] }, { "id": "task594-604667673cde4adc83b63896c170f7fa", "input": "Passage: Glucose is an example of a biochemical compound. The prefix bio- comes from the Greek word that means “life. ” A biochemical compound is any carbon-based compound that is found in living things. Biochemical compounds make up the cells and tissues of living things. They are also involved in all life processes, including making and using food for energy. Given their diversity of functions, it’s not surprising that there are millions of different biochemical compounds. Answer: biochemical compound", "output": [ "What is a carbon-based compound that is found in living things called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3f48b9d0f4614bd9aceb9d2ba2d8abc4", "input": "Passage: Convection currents transfer thermal energy through many fluids, not just hot water in a pot. For example, convection currents transfer thermal energy through molten rock below Earth’s surface, through water in the oceans, and through air in the atmosphere. Convection currents in the atmosphere create winds. You can see one way this happens in the Figure below . The land heats up and cools off faster than the water because it has lower specific heat. Therefore, the land gets warmer during the day and cooler at night than the water does. During the day, warm air rises above the land and cool air from the water moves in to take its place. During the night, the opposite happens. Warm air rises above the water and cool air from the land moves out to take its place. Answer: thermal", "output": [ "Convection generally involves the transfer of what type of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-50b8ea4d3d684830a74d5b0e62ac462f", "input": "Passage: Most air masses form over polar or tropical regions. They may form over continents or oceans. Air masses are moist if they form over oceans. They are dry if they form over continents. Air masses that form over oceans are called maritime air masses. Those that form over continents are called continental air masses. The image below shows air masses that form over or near North America ( Figure below ). Answer: maritime", "output": [ "If an air mass forms over an ocean it is called what type of air mass?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fc70370af00c4f2399f58df34b78adb6", "input": "Passage: Electrons are organized into shells and subshells about the nucleus of an atom. Answer: atom", "output": [ "Electrons are organized into shells and subshells about the nucleus of this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-303ee08126eb459ba8d81c9acc8c9213", "input": "Passage: Introduction Virtually every task performed by living organisms requires energy. Energy is needed to perform heavy labor and exercise, but humans also use energy while thinking, and even during sleep. In fact, the living cells of every organism constantly use energy. Nutrients and other molecules are imported into the cell, metabolized (broken down) and possibly synthesized into new molecules, modified if needed, transported around the cell, and possibly distributed to the entire organism. For example, the large proteins that make up muscles are built from smaller molecules imported from dietary amino acids. Complex carbohydrates are broken down into simple sugars that the cell uses for energy. Just as energy is required to both build and demolish a building, energy is required for the synthesis and breakdown of molecules as well as the transport of molecules into and out of cells. In addition, processes such as ingesting and breaking down pathogenic bacteria and viruses, exporting wastes and toxins, and movement of the cell require energy. From where, and in what form, does this energy come? How do living cells obtain energy, and how do they use it? This chapter will discuss different forms of energy and the physical laws that govern energy transfer. This chapter will also describe how cells use energy and replenish it, and how chemical reactions in the cell are performed with great efficiency. Answer: energy", "output": [ "Virtually every task performed by living organisms requires this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fae42bbccba34dd68d150d3b1f535506", "input": "Passage: The final type of biomolecules that we will be looking at are the nucleic acids. Like carbohydrates and proteins, nucleic acids are complex polymers of a few simple building blocks. Nucleic acids provide the molecular blueprints for all proteins produced in living systems. We will explore the process by which this information is translated into functional structures later in this lesson. First, we will look at the structures of nucleic acids. Answer: nucleic acids", "output": [ "Which acids provide the molecular blueprints for all proteins produced in living systems?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9b4f0815139a47d69dcaef0b7a24c56a", "input": "Passage: All that changed when plants moved from water to land. This may have happened by 500 million years ago or even earlier. On land, everything was wide open. There were no other living things. Without plants, there was nothing for other organisms to eat. Land could not be colonized by other organisms until land plants became established. The earliest land plants may have resembled the modern liverworts in Figure below . Answer: plants", "output": [ "Land could not be colonized by other organisms until what became established?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4a7366c9fd7241a2ab3d2a0f23de776d", "input": "Passage: Duckweed: Jonathan Jordan; Cattails: User:JoJan/Wikimedia Commons. Duckweed and cattails are respectively the primary producers in standing and running freshwater biomes . Duckweed: CC BY 2.0; Cattails: CC BY 3.0. Answer: primary producer", "output": [ "Duckweed and cattails serve what role in the food chain in freshwater biomes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ac06efd822244bb49ea6c7c9cd4aa28d", "input": "Passage: In some chordates, all four traits persist throughout life and serve important functions. However, in many chordates, including humans, all four traits are present only during the embryonic stage. After that, some of the traits disappear or develop into other organs. For example, in humans, pharyngeal slits are present in embryos and later develop into the middle ear. Answer: middle ear", "output": [ "In humans, pharyngeal slits later develop into what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5fd36165a42d4a1d97d1cfe776776b13", "input": "Passage: Reptiles typically reproduce sexually and lay eggs. Answer: sexually", "output": [ "How do reptiles typically reproduce?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4df3d18eb2604688962d413c8d868ab9", "input": "Passage: Technically, any redox reaction can be set up to make a voltaic cell. In modern society, however, only certain redox reactions are put to practical use. A portable voltaic cell that generates electricity to power devices for our convenience is called a battery. All batteries are based on redox reactions. The first battery (called a “voltaic pile”) was constructed by the Italian scientist Alessandro Volta in 1800 and was based on the copper/zinc reaction depicted in - ball-ch14_s03_f01. Unfortunately, it was messy, requiring quantities of copper and zinc salts dissolved in water. In 1866, the French scientist Georges Leclanché invented the dry cell, a precursor to today’s modern battery. A schematic of a dry cell is shown in - ball-ch14_s03_f02. The zinc case and the central carbon rod serve as the anode and cathode, respectively. The other reactants are combined into a moist paste that minimizes free liquid, so the battery is less messy (hence the name dry cell). The actual redox reaction is complex but can be represented by the following redox reaction: + 2+ Zn + 2MnO2 + 2NH4 → Zn + Mn2O3 + 2NH3 + H2O A dry cell has a voltage of about 1.56 V. While common and useful, dry cells have relatively short lifetimes and contain acidic components. They also cannot be recharged, so they are one-use only. Batteries that can be used only once are calledprimary batteries. Figure 14.2 Dry Cells. Answer: voltaic cell", "output": [ "Technically, any redox reaction can be set up to make a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e418aea913e84f68bdc0e50c3bcbd705", "input": "Passage: Ceres ( Figure below ) is a rocky body that orbits the Sun. It could be an asteroid or a planet. Before 2006, Ceres was thought to be the largest asteroid. Is it an asteroid? Ceres is in the asteroid belt. But it is by far the largest object in the belt. Ceres has such high gravity that it is spherical. Answer: high gravity", "output": [ "What explains the spherical shape of ceres, once thought to be the largest asteroid?" ] }, { "id": "task594-adfd4dddc9044fd9be60fe06935939fa", "input": "Passage: Evolution occurs by natural selection, the process by which organisms with traits that better enable them to adapt to their environment will tend to survive and reproduce in greater numbers. Evolution is due to differences in the survival and reproduction of individuals within a population. Answer: natural selection", "output": [ "What is the process that allows organisms with better traits to survive and produce?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bfa166a5e2f3493c899badcc93b81d6b", "input": "Passage: Isotopes have different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. Answer: neutrons", "output": [ "Isotopes have different number of these in their nuclei?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c620cc11b26d4726a5332bb9b3a47763", "input": "Passage: The urinary bladder is a hollow and muscular organ. It is shaped a little like a balloon. It is the organ that collects urine. Answer: urinary bladder", "output": [ "What is the hollow and muscular balloon-shaped organ that collects urine?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4ba50f50f43d40cb93dd2bf1bc0be85a", "input": "Passage: Electron transport is the final stage of aerobic respiration. In this stage, energy from NADH and FADH 2 , which result from the Krebs cycle, is transferred to ATP. Can you predict how this happens? ( Hint: How does electron transport occur in photosynthesis?). Answer: electron transport", "output": [ "What is the final stage of aerobic respiration, when energy from the krebs cycle is transferred to atp?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b277042149ee475caaa2b09d7a1c40a0", "input": "Passage: The same principles govern the solubilities of molecular solids in liquids. For example, elemental sulfur is a solid consisting of cyclic S8 molecules that have no dipole moment. Because the S8 rings in solid sulfur are held to other rings by London dispersion forces, elemental sulfur is insoluble in water. It is, however, soluble in nonpolar solvents that have comparable London dispersion forces, such as CS2 (23 g/100 mL). In contrast, glucose contains five –OH groups that can form hydrogen bonds. Consequently, glucose is very soluble in water (91 g/120 mL of water) but essentially insoluble in nonpolar solvents such as benzene. The structure of one isomer of glucose is shown here. Answer: nonpolar", "output": [ "What type of solvents is glucose insoluble in?" ] }, { "id": "task594-91ddccf4fc534c8bb2a58de37f408493", "input": "Passage: The midpiece of the sperm is packed with mitochondria. Mitochondria are organelles in cells that produce energy. Sperm use the energy in the midpiece to move. Answer: mitochondria", "output": [ "What is the midpiece of sperm packed with?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0fb1f5d372544821afc882f10dda7ad8", "input": "Passage: Watching movies, eating hot popcorn, and many other activities depend on electrical energy. Most electrical energy comes from the burning of fossil fuels, which contain stored chemical energy. When fossil fuels are burned, the chemical energy changes to thermal energy and the thermal energy is then used to generate electrical energy. These are all examples of energy conversion. Energy conversion is the process in which one kind of energy changes into another kind. When energy changes in this way, the energy isn’t used up or lost. The same amount of energy exists after the conversion as before. Energy conversion obeys the law of conservation of energy, which states that energy cannot be created or destroyed. Answer: thermal energy", "output": [ "When fossil fuel is burned the chemical energy is converted into what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ae99a19ca106471b959dff2be0420a0a", "input": "Passage: 4.1 Development of Force Concept Dynamics is the study of the forces that cause objects and systems to move. To understand this, we need a working definition of force. Our intuitive definition of force—that is, a push or a pull—is a good place to start. We know that a push or pull has both magnitude and direction (therefore, it is a vector quantity) and can vary considerably in each regard. For example, a cannon exerts a strong force on a cannonball that is launched into the air. In contrast, Earth exerts only a tiny downward pull on a flea. Our everyday experiences also give us a good idea of how multiple forces add. If two people push in different directions on a third person, as illustrated in Figure 4.3, we might expect the total force to be in the direction shown. Since force is a vector, it adds just like other vectors, as illustrated in Figure 4.3(a) for two ice skaters. Forces, like other vectors, are represented by arrows and can be added using the familiar head-to-tail method or by trigonometric methods. These ideas were developed in Two-Dimensional Kinematics. Answer: force", "output": [ "What do we call something that pushes or pulls on an object?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0b22a87d9ba04a8382c0ee58e4bc47c8", "input": "Passage: Electricity refers to a number of phenomena associated with the presence and flow of electric charge. Electricity includes such diverse things as lightning, static electricity, the current generated by a battery as it discharges, and many other influences on our daily lives. The flow or movement of charge is an electric current (Figure 17.2). Electrons or ions may carry the charge. The elementary unit of charge is the charge of a proton, which is equal in magnitude to the charge of an electron. The SI unit of charge is the coulomb (C) and the charge of a proton is 1.602 × 10−19 C. The presence of an electric charge generates an electric field. Electric current is the rate of flow of charge. The SI unit for electrical current is the SI base unit called the ampere (A), which is a flow rate of 1 coulomb of charge per second (1 A = 1 C/s). An electric current flows in a path, called an electric circuit. In most chemical systems, it is necessary to maintain a closed path for current to flow. The flow of charge is generated by an electrical potential difference, or potential, between two points in the circuit. Electrical potential is the ability of the electric field to do work on the charge. The SI unit of electrical potential is the volt (V). When 1 coulomb of charge moves through a potential difference of 1 volt, it gains or loses 1 joule (J) of energy. Table 17.1 summarizes some of this information about electricity. Common Electrical Terms Quantity. Answer: electric circuit", "output": [ "An electric current flows in a path called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a29f1137c43c4a26a6ff0342d463bf1f", "input": "Passage: A change in an object’s motion—such as Xander speeding up on his scooter—is called acceleration . Acceleration occurs whenever an object is acted upon by an unbalanced force. The greater the net force acting on the object, the greater its acceleration will be, but the mass of the object also affects its acceleration. The smaller its mass is, the greater its acceleration for a given amount of force. Newton’s second law of motion summarizes these relationships. According to this law, the acceleration of an object equals the net force acting on it divided by its mass. This can be represented by the equation:. Answer: acceleration", "output": [ "What is the term for a change in an object’s motion, which occurs whenever an object is acted upon by an unbalanced force?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5ccfa50485d24657a15f42b866edf1be", "input": "Passage: Oxidation is also defined as a loss of hydrogen atoms. In the following equation, ethanol is oxidized to acetaldehyde by the loss of two hydrogen atoms:. Answer: oxidation", "output": [ "What is defined as a loss of hydrogen atoms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ef65722ad6cc4a1982e0a21e060d256a", "input": "Passage: A point mutation is a change in a single nucleotide in DNA. This type of mutation is usually less serious than a chromosomal alteration. An example of a point mutation is a mutation that changes the codon UUU to the codon UCU. Point mutations can be silent, missense, or nonsense mutations, as shown in Table below . The effects of point mutations depend on how they change the genetic code. You can watch an animation about nonsense mutations at this link: http://www. biostudio. com/d_%20Nonsense%20Suppression%20I%20Nonsense%20Mutation. htm . Answer: point mutation", "output": [ "What is the name for a change in a single nucleotide in dna?" ] }, { "id": "task594-48b8bcf119a34cdc877613e87e0e70ab", "input": "Passage: Light may be absorbed by matter. This is called absorption of light. When light is absorbed, it doesn’t reflect from or pass through matter. Instead, its energy is transferred to particles of matter, which may increase the temperature of matter. Answer: its temperature", "output": [ "When light is absorbed by a material, what may increase?" ] }, { "id": "task594-156f370394974c808ed4ea5034a6bbfc", "input": "Passage: The muscles of the anterior compartment of the thigh flex the thigh and extend the leg. This compartment contains the quadriceps femoris group, which actually comprises four muscles that extend and stabilize the knee. The rectus femoris is on the anterior aspect of the thigh, the vastus lateralis is on the lateral aspect of the thigh, the vastus medialis is on the medial aspect of the thigh, and the vastus intermedius is between the vastus lateralis and vastus medialis and deep to the rectus femoris. The tendon common to all four is the quadriceps tendon (patellar tendon), which inserts into the patella and continues below it as the patellar ligament. The patellar ligament attaches to the tibial tuberosity. In addition to the quadriceps femoris, the sartorius is a band-like muscle that extends from the anterior superior iliac spine to the medial side. Answer: sartorius", "output": [ "Which muscle is a band-like muscle that extends from the anterior superior iliac spine to the medial side?" ] }, { "id": "task594-086c86dfb83b4936a6b2c63826c1e271", "input": "Passage: An electric field is a space around a charged particle where the particle exerts electric force on other charged particles. Because of their force fields, charged particles can exert force on each other without actually touching. Electric fields are generally represented by arrows, as you can see in the Figure below . The arrows show the direction of electric force around a positive particle and a negative particle. For an animated diagram, go to this URL: http://ocw. mit. edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizations/electrostatics/15-CreateField/CreateField_640. mpg. Answer: electric field", "output": [ "What do you call the space around a charged particle where the particle exerts electric force on other charged particles?" ] }, { "id": "task594-501c0eba8de24c38be1be7f4139635e2", "input": "Passage: A unique feature of echinoderms is their water vascular system. This is a network of canals that extends along each body part. In most echinoderms, the canals have external projections called tube feet (see Figure below ). The feet have suckers on the ends. Muscle contractions force water into the feet, causing them to extend outward. As the feet extend, they attach their suckers to new locations, farther away from their previous points of attachment. This results in a slow but powerful form of movement. The suckers are very strong. They can even be used to pry open the shells of prey. Answer: water vascular system", "output": [ "What is considered to be a unique feature of echinoderms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f37ea8d89cdb417c83aeae5be5631dc9", "input": "Passage: Phosphorus exists as several allotropes, the most common being red, black, and white phosphorus. White phosphorus consists of tetrahedral P4 molecules and melts at 44.15°C; it is converted to red phosphorus by heating at 400°C for several hours. The chemical differences between red and white phosphorus are considerable: white phosphorus burns in air, whereas red phosphorus is stable; white phosphorus is soluble in organic compounds, whereas red phosphorus is not; white phosphorus melts at 44.15°C, whereas red phosphorus melts at 597°C. If the enthalpy of fusion of white phosphorus is 0.659 kJ/mol, what is its ΔS? Black phosphorus is even less reactive than red. Based on this information, which allotrope would you predict to have the highest entropy? the lowest? Why?. Answer: white phosphorus", "output": [ "Phosphorus exists as several allotropes, the most common being red, black, and what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8a772d07b0a44eaeaf1cf2dc56681312", "input": "Passage: The core is the Sun's innermost layer. The core is plasma. It has a temperature of around 15 million degrees Celsius (C). Nuclear fusion reactions create the immense temperature. In these reactions, hydrogen atoms fuse to form helium. This releases vast amounts of energy. The energy moves towards the outer layers of the Sun. Energy from the Sun's core powers most of the solar system. Answer: core", "output": [ "What is the suns innermost layer called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-270956ebfe5d4cdabcb4e863b888320f", "input": "Passage: One example is type 1 diabetes . In this disease, the immune system attacks cells of the pancreas. Other examples are multiple sclerosis and rheumatoid arthritis. In multiple sclerosis , the immune system attacks nerve cells. This causes weakness and pain. In rheumatoid arthritis , the immune system attacks the cells of joints. This causes joint damage and pain. Answer: immune system", "output": [ "What system is involved in diseases that include type 1 diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-91d3973652bf4cb192c7a89a44c3b354", "input": "Passage: The Earth is divided into many plates. These plates move around on the surface. The plates collide or slide past each other. One may even plunge beneath another. Plate motions cause most geological activity. This activity includes earthquakes, volcanoes, and the buildup of mountains. The reason for plate movement is convection in the mantle. Earth is the only planet that we know has plate tectonics. Answer: earth", "output": [ "What is the only planet we know that has plate techtonics?" ] }, { "id": "task594-03780a27f2b5496e9f0aa1de3578e904", "input": "Passage: Starches are complex carbohydrates. They are polymers of glucose. They consist of hundreds of glucose monomers bonded together. Plants make starch to store extra sugars. Consumers get starch from plants. Common sources of starch in the human diet are pictured in Figure below . Our digestive system breaks down starch to simple sugars, which our cells use for energy. Answer: simple sugars", "output": [ "Our digestive system breaks down starch to what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5a3458cb8c684994a356a3da94811b5a", "input": "Passage: Gravity near the Earth pulls an object downwards toward the surface of the Earth with an acceleration of . In the absence of air resistance, all objects will fall with the same acceleration. The letter is used as the symbol for the acceleration of gravity. When talking about an object's acceleration, whether it is due to gravity or not, the acceleration of gravity is sometimes used as a unit of measurement where . So an object accelerating at 2g's is accelerating at or. Answer: gravity", "output": [ "Represented in equations by the letter \"g\", what pulls objects down to the earth's surface?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a023aef3e9634d9588b2223166e3d7be", "input": "Passage: Mutations are essential for evolution to occur because they increase genetic variation and the potential for individuals to differ. The majority of mutations are neutral in their effects on the organisms in which they occur. Beneficial mutations may become more common through natural selection. Harmful mutations may cause genetic disorders or cancer. Answer: mutation", "output": [ "What phenomenon is essential in order for evolution to occur because it increases genetic variation and the potential for individuals to differ?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b0b3c08649a4436c9cf8486b34114698", "input": "Passage: You can see a model of the cell membrane in Figure below . The molecules that make up the cell membrane are mainly phospholipids. There are two layers of phospholipids. They are arranged so the lipid tails are on the inside of the membrane. They make the interior of the membrane hydrophobic, or \"water fearing\". The lipid heads point toward the outside of the membrane. The make the outer surfaces of the membrane hydrophilic, or \"water loving\". Different types of proteins are embedded in the lipid layers. The proteins are needed to help transport many substances across the membrane. Answer: phospholipids", "output": [ "What is the main makeup of the cell membrane?" ] }, { "id": "task594-408038e27b884afebb5ed175dad85dd9", "input": "Passage: Like Uranus, Neptune is blue. The blue color is caused by gases in its atmosphere, including methane. Neptune is not a smooth looking ball like Uranus. The planet has a few darker and lighter spots. When Voyager 2 visited Neptune in 1986, there was a large dark-blue spot south of the equator. This spot was called the Great Dark Spot. When the Hubble Space Telescope photographed Neptune in 1994, the Great Dark Spot had disappeared. Another dark spot had appeared north of the equator. Astronomers believe that both of these spots represent gaps in the methane clouds on Neptune. Answer: blue", "output": [ "What color is neptune?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dd0cf665c5244c878f17125ff282c4f8", "input": "Passage: Graphite and diamond are two forms of elemental carbon. Write the equilibrium equation between these two forms in two different ways. Answer: diamond", "output": [ "Graphite is a form of elemental carbon what is another form?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ed45ea330bf740c99df6480a075da6e8", "input": "Passage: A liquid is a state of matter in which particles can slip past one another and take the shape of their container. However, the particles cannot pull apart and spread out to take the volume of their container. Answer: liquid", "output": [ "In which state of matter do particles take the shape of their container, but cannot expand to fill it?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d0cbf962359a41c3afcfa83259990db1", "input": "Passage: cell that transmits electrical impulses in the nervous system; commonly called nerve cell. Answer: nerve cell", "output": [ "What type of cell transmits electrical impulses in the nervous system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b8e9fbbc179d4901b69d2d953ffca6da", "input": "Passage: Complement An array of approximately 20 types of proteins, called a complement system, is also activated by infection or the activity of the cells of the adaptive immune system and functions to destroy extracellular pathogens. Liver cells and macrophages synthesize inactive forms of complement proteins continuously; these proteins are abundant in the blood serum and are capable of responding immediately to infecting microorganisms. The complement system is so named because it is complementary to the innate and adaptive immune system. Complement proteins bind to the surfaces of microorganisms and are particularly attracted to pathogens that are already tagged by the adaptive immune system. This “tagging” involves the attachment of specific proteins called antibodies (discussed in detail later) to the pathogen. When they attach, the antibodies change shape providing a binding site for one of the complement proteins. After the first few complement proteins bind, a cascade of binding in a specific sequence of proteins follows in which the pathogen rapidly becomes coated in complement proteins. Complement proteins perform several functions, one of which is to serve as a marker to indicate the presence of a pathogen to phagocytic cells and enhance engulfment. Certain complement proteins can combine to open pores in microbial cell membranes and cause lysis of the cells. Answer: complement proteins", "output": [ "Which proteins bind to the surfaces of microorganisms and are particularly attracted to pathogens that are already tagged by the adaptive immune system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7d2bca78e29a4d50b990289c8160cfce", "input": "Passage: Cold sores are caused by a herpes virus. Answer: herpes virus", "output": [ "Which virus causes cold sores?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ad1c1e4372bf4377a89f1193a053669d", "input": "Passage: The rise in greenhouse gases due to human actions is too much of a good thing. It increases the greenhouse effect and causes Earth’s average temperature to rise. Rising global temperatures, in turn, are melting polar ice caps and glaciers. Figure below shows how much smaller the Arctic ice cap was in 2012 than it was in 1984. With more liquid water on Earth’s surface, sea levels are rising. Answer: it increases", "output": [ "The rise in greenhouse gases has what effect on the temperature of earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-209f3763b1dd45de8fc689528da9d797", "input": "Passage: During this ester bond formation, three water molecules are released. The three fatty acids in the triacylglycerol may be similar or dissimilar. Fats are also called triacylglycerols or triglycerides because of their chemical structure. Some fatty acids have common names that specify their origin. For example, palmitic acid, a saturated fatty acid, is derived from the palm tree. Arachidic acid is derived from Arachis hypogea, the scientific name for groundnuts or peanuts. Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated. In a fatty acid chain, if there are only single bonds between neighboring carbons in the hydrocarbon chain, the fatty acid is said to be saturated. Saturated fatty acids are saturated with hydrogen; in other words, the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton is maximized. Stearic acid is an example of a saturated fatty acid (Figure 3.14). Answer: chemical structure", "output": [ "Fats are also called triacylglycerols or triglycerides because of their what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-08fa039517eb472981633d8fb3bd902d", "input": "Passage: Testosterone is the main sex hormone in males. Hormones are chemicals that control many body processes. Testosterone has two major roles:. Answer: testosterone", "output": [ "What is the main sex hormone in males called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fe6f2120d9b34c16af71920ec12a3c06", "input": "Passage: Biotechnology has been used to create transgenic crops. Transgenic crops are genetically modified with new genes that code for traits useful to humans. The diagram in Figure below shows how a transgenic crop is created. You can learn more about how scientists create transgenic crops with the interactive animation \"Engineer a Crop: Transgenic Manipulation\" at this link: http://www. pbs. org/wgbh/harvest/engineer/transgen. html . Answer: transgenic", "output": [ "What is the term for crops that are genetically modified with new genes that code for traits useful to humans?" ] }, { "id": "task594-331271f127a34e62992e4eddf33cf5bc", "input": "Passage: One force acting on you—and all the other objects on Earth—is gravity. Look at the physics book in the Figure below . Gravity pulls the book downward with a force of 20 Newtons. Why doesn’t the book fall to the ground? The table pushes upward on the book with the same amount of force. The combined force, or net force , acting on the book is 0 Newtons. That’s because upward and downward forces are balanced, so they cancel out. You can learn more about net force at this URL:. Answer: newtons", "output": [ "The pull of gravity is expressed as a force of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f995d284029647af9f5fe81351f29f78", "input": "Passage: A: The paper is being cut into smaller pieces, which is changing its size and shape. The ice cubes are turning into a puddle of liquid water because they are melting. This is a change of state. The tablet is disappearing in the glass of water because it is dissolving into particles that are too small to see. The lighthouse is becoming coated with ice as ocean spray freezes on its surface. This is another change of state. Answer: state", "output": [ "Melting ice cubes and freezing water are examples of change of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-60968936e2a04ae4bcef8756da7d029b", "input": "Passage: Extrusive igneous rocks form above the surface. The lava cools quickly as it pours out onto the surface ( Figure below ). Extrusive igneous rocks cool much more rapidly than intrusive rocks. The rapid cooling time does not allow time for large crystals to form. So igneous extrusive rocks have smaller crystals than igneous intrusive rocks. Extrusive igneous rocks are also called volcanic rocks . Answer: volcanic rocks", "output": [ "Extrusive igneous rocks are also called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-29e47e9ec0c644579be06156942cd2aa", "input": "Passage: The ideal gas law is used like any other gas law, with attention paid to the unit and making sure that temperature is expressed in Kelvin. However, the ideal gas law does not require a change in the conditions of a gas sample. The ideal gas law implies that if you know any three of the physical properties of a gas, you can calculate the fourth property. Answer: fourth", "output": [ "The ideal gas law is used like any other gas law, with attention paid to the unit and making sure that temperature is expressed in kelvin. however, the ideal gas law does not require a change in the conditions of a gas sample. the ideal gas law implies that if you know any three of the physical properties of a gas, you can calculate this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c4916fd11e884d4b819e9f3221a45d46", "input": "Passage: Motion of water molecules helps break up interactions between solid ions or molecules. Answer: solid ions or molecules", "output": [ "Motion of water molecules helps break up interactions between what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-baee9f14b9804d40bca21c2aa78b46c3", "input": "Passage: In everyday speech, the terms accuracy and precision are frequently used interchangeably. However, their scientific meanings are quite different. Accuracy is a measure of how close a measurement is to the correct or accepted value of the quantity being measured. Precision is a measure of how close a series of measurements are to one another. Precise measurements are highly reproducible, even if the measurements are not near the correct value. Answer: accuracy", "output": [ "In contrast to precision, this term means how close a measurement is to the correct or accepted value of the quantity being measured?" ] }, { "id": "task594-28e91fa0f70e4fe1a49d6665a5c11c57", "input": "Passage: The most common type of mirage is an illusion that light from faraway objects is reflected by a pool of water that is not really there. Mirages are generally observed in deserts, when there is a hot layer of air near the ground. Given that the refractive index of air is lower for air at higher temperatures, explain how mirages can be formed. Answer: mirage", "output": [ "What term is used to describe an illusion that light from faraway objects is reflected by a pool of water that is not really there?" ] }, { "id": "task594-21cf21ee20c7470b876950d8035dc617", "input": "Passage: Pancreatic Juice The pancreas produces over a liter of pancreatic juice each day. Unlike bile, it is clear and composed mostly of water along with some salts, sodium bicarbonate, and several digestive enzymes. Sodium bicarbonate is responsible for the slight alkalinity of pancreatic juice (pH 7.1 to 8.2), which serves to buffer the acidic gastric juice in chyme, inactivate pepsin from the stomach, and create an optimal environment for the activity of pH-sensitive digestive enzymes in the small intestine. Pancreatic enzymes are active in the digestion of sugars, proteins, and fats. The pancreas produces protein-digesting enzymes in their inactive forms. These enzymes are activated in the duodenum. If produced in an active form, they would digest the pancreas (which is exactly what occurs in the disease, pancreatitis). The intestinal brush border enzyme enteropeptidase stimulates the activation of trypsin from trypsinogen of the pancreas, which in turn changes the pancreatic enzymes procarboxypeptidase and chymotrypsinogen into their active forms, carboxypeptidase and chymotrypsin. The enzymes that digest starch (amylase), fat (lipase), and nucleic acids (nuclease) are secreted in their active forms, since they do not attack the pancreas as do the protein-digesting enzymes. Answer: pancreas", "output": [ "Unlike liver bile, 'juice' produced by what organ is clear and composed mostly of water along with some salts, sodium bicarbonate, and digestive enzymes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f8563e167ba54beeb74e58606560b207", "input": "Passage: Each protein has its own unique sequence and shape held together by chemical interactions. If the protein is subject to changes in temperature, pH, or exposure to chemicals, the protein structure may change, losing its shape in what is known as denaturation as discussed earlier. Denaturation is often reversible because the primary structure is preserved if the denaturing agent is removed, allowing the protein to resume its function. Sometimes denaturation is irreversible, leading to a loss of function. One example of protein denaturation can be seen when an egg is fried or boiled. The albumin protein in the liquid egg white is denatured when placed in a hot pan, changing from a clear substance to an opaque white substance. Not all proteins are denatured at high temperatures; for instance, bacteria that survive in hot springs have proteins that are adapted to function at those temperatures. Answer: denaturation", "output": [ "Each protein has its own unique sequence and shape held together by chemical interactions. if the protein is subject to changes in temperature, ph, or exposure to chemicals, the protein structure may change, losing its shape in what is known as this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-223440abe8114708a6fc4cf8c8108ab4", "input": "Passage: Guinea worm is a serious problem in parts of Africa that is being eradicated. Learn what is being done to decrease the number of people suffering from this parasite at the video below:. Answer: africa", "output": [ "Where is the guinea worm a serious problem?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9795125a079a42d9bbbe2af2ddce99a9", "input": "Passage: The development of new technology is called technological design . It is similar to scientific investigation. Both processes use evidence and logic to solve problems. Answer: technological design", "output": [ "What term is used to describe the development of new technology?" ] }, { "id": "task594-705dfdbe4901426c9b327aa8a90c271e", "input": "Passage: Cartilage is a tough, flexible connective tissue that contains the protein collagen. It covers the ends of bones where they meet. The gray tissue in Figure below is cartilage. Answer: cartilage", "output": [ "What is the term for tough, flexible connective tissue that contains the protein collagen?" ] }, { "id": "task594-21a953c6790b412091ce09a0a2da8733", "input": "Passage: Aggressive behavior often occurs when individuals compete for the same resources. Animals may compete for territory, water, food, or mates. There are two basic types of competition: intraspecific and interspecific. Answer: instraspecifc and interspecific", "output": [ "What are the two basic types of competition called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7def6d2b29ab41b6992309544932de62", "input": "Passage: Hormones control many cell activities, so they are very important for homeostasis. But what controls the hormones themselves? Most hormones are regulated by feedback mechanisms. A feedback mechanism is a loop in which a product feeds back to control its own production. Most hormone feedback mechanisms involve negative feedback loops. Negative feedback keeps the concentration of a hormone within a narrow range. Answer: feedback mechanism", "output": [ "What is the term for a loop in which a product feeds back to control its own production?" ] }, { "id": "task594-da15d034de0d484ca60d6f174e0f800c", "input": "Passage: The release of calcium ions initiates muscle contractions. Watch this video (http://openstaxcollege. org/l/calciumrole) to learn more about the role of calcium. (a) What are “T-tubules” and what is their role? (b) Please describe how actinbinding sites are made available for cross-bridging with myosin heads during contraction. Answer: muscle contractions", "output": [ "The release of calcium ions initiates what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e134038ff3ea44e3b6f1be05a5cc6e8e", "input": "Passage: until all atoms have octets. Because some atoms will lose electrons and some atoms will gain electrons, there is no overall change in the number of electrons, but individual atoms acquire a nonzero electric charge. Those that lose electrons become positively charged, and those that gain electrons become negatively charged. Charged atoms are called ions. Because opposite charges attract (while like charges repel), these oppositely charged ions attract each other, forming ionic bonds. The resulting compounds are called ionic compounds and are the primary subject of this chapter. The second way for an atom to obtain an octet of electrons is by sharing electrons with another atom. These shared electrons simultaneously occupy the outermost shell of more than one atom. The bond made by electron sharing is called a covalent bond. Covalent bonding and covalent compounds will be discussed in Chapter 4 \"Covalent Bonding and Simple Molecular Compounds\". Answer: ionic bonds", "output": [ "Because opposite charges attract, oppositely charged ions attract each other to form what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6818acec641d4e35a17adcd8416ada65", "input": "Passage: Plants in the haploid generation are called gametophytes . They form from haploid spores. They have male and/or female reproductive organs and reproduce sexually. They produce haploid gametes by mitosis. Fertilization of gametes produces diploid zygotes. Zygotes develop into the diploid generation. Answer: through mitosis", "output": [ "How do gametophyte plants form haploid gametes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-352d2d6ffb834b59ba1ece66187ba3ce", "input": "Passage: All living things are able to maintain a constant internal environment through homeostasis. Answer: homeostasis", "output": [ "What process enables all living things to maintain a constant internal environment?" ] }, { "id": "task594-80b942bdcc2448a39cff2ed2e4d8d151", "input": "Passage: Light is one type of electromagnetic radiation . Light is energy that travels in the form of an electromagnetic wave. Pictured below is a diagram of an electromagnetic wave ( Figure below ). An electromagnetic (EM) wave has two parts: an electric field and a magnetic field. The electric and magnetic fields vibrate up and down, which makes the wave. Answer: light", "output": [ "What is energy that travels in the form of an electromagnetic wave?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3f87e351ec144f85896c2878ce42b676", "input": "Passage: Passive transport is a way that small molecules or ions move across the cell membrane without input of energy by the cell. The three main kinds of passive transport are diffusion (or simple diffusion), osmosis, and facilitated diffusion. Simple diffusion and osmosis do not involve transport proteins. Facilitated diffusion requires the assistance of proteins. Answer: passive transport", "output": [ "What term describes a way that small molecules or ions move across the cell membrane without input of energy by the cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-08b5f113e03d4f059eedfe0f22ac54d6", "input": "Passage: Right Atrium The right atrium serves as the receiving chamber for blood returning to the heart from the systemic circulation. The two major systemic veins, the superior and inferior venae cavae, and the large coronary vein called the coronary sinus that drains the heart myocardium empty into the right atrium. The superior vena cava drains blood from regions superior to the diaphragm: the head, neck, upper limbs, and the thoracic region. It empties into the superior and posterior portions of the right atrium. The inferior vena cava drains blood from areas inferior to the diaphragm: the lower limbs and abdominopelvic region of the body. It, too, empties into the posterior portion of the atria, but inferior to the opening of the superior vena cava. Immediately superior and slightly medial to the opening of the inferior vena cava on the posterior surface of the atrium is the opening of the coronary sinus. This thin-walled vessel drains most of the coronary veins that return systemic blood from the heart. The majority of the internal heart structures discussed in this and subsequent sections are illustrated in Figure 19.9. While the bulk of the internal surface of the right atrium is smooth, the depression of the fossa ovalis is medial, and the anterior surface demonstrates prominent ridges of muscle called the pectinate muscles. The right auricle also has pectinate muscles. The left atrium does not have pectinate muscles except in the auricle. The atria receive venous blood on a nearly continuous basis, preventing venous flow from stopping while the ventricles are contracting. While most ventricular filling occurs while the atria are relaxed, they do demonstrate a contractile phase and actively pump blood into the ventricles just prior to ventricular contraction. The opening between the atrium and ventricle is guarded by the tricuspid valve. Answer: tricuspid valve", "output": [ "What guards the opening between the right atrium and the right ventricle?" ] }, { "id": "task594-123278ed45434c95bdd5c9c2d11b37ec", "input": "Passage: Cellular respiration by living things releases carbon into the atmosphere or ocean as carbon dioxide. Answer: cellular respiration", "output": [ "Living organisms release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere by what method?" ] }, { "id": "task594-615604c92fc146b8a9711049e5ae2921", "input": "Passage: Urine is a liquid that is formed by the kidneys when they filter wastes from the blood. Urine contains mostly water, but it also contains salts and nitrogen-containing molecules. The amount of urine released from the body depends on many things. Some of these include the amount of fluid and food a person consumes and how much fluid they have lost from sweating and breathing. Urine ranges from colorless to dark yellow but is usually a pale yellow color. Light yellow urine contains mostly water. The darker the urine, the less water it contains. Answer: the kidneys", "output": [ "Where is urine formed in the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9523b2830ed74d83a27b6fae539d8081", "input": "Passage: Mechanical energy commonly changes between kinetic and potential energy. Kinetic energy is the energy of moving objects. Potential energy is energy that is stored in objects, typically because of their position or shape. Kinetic energy can be used to change the position or shape of an object, giving it potential energy. Potential energy gives the object the potential to move. If it does, the potential energy changes back to kinetic energy. Answer: kinetic energy", "output": [ "What type of energy can be used to change the position or shape of an object, thus giving it potential energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8460252e1450495784ea61085564f2ac", "input": "Passage: Some prokaryotes form structures consisting of many individual cells, like the cells in Figure below . This is called a biofilm. A biofilm is a colony of prokaryotes that is stuck to a surface. The surface might be a rock or a host's tissues. The sticky plaque that collects on your teeth between brushings is a biofilm. It consists of millions of prokaryotic cells. Answer: surface", "output": [ "A biofilm is a colony of prokaryotes that is stuck to what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-940ed27aad8d4e1c9d0c5ea4a90c72f9", "input": "Passage: Images in a plane mirror are reversed left and right but not reversed top and bottom. Answer: plane mirror", "output": [ "Images in what type of mirror are reversed left and right but not reversed top and bottom?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6885b73e566a4d0a97d164fcc0c1c645", "input": "Passage: Any type of rock can change and become a new type of rock. Magma can cool and crystallize. Existing rocks can be weathered and eroded to form sediments. Rock can change by heat or pressure deep in Earth's crust. There are three main processes that can change rock:. Answer: any types of rocks", "output": [ "What kinds of rocks can change and become new types of rocks?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f415397b3d674d399fd5b44db5b5e8f3", "input": "Passage: The Fate of the Carbon Skeleton Any amino acid can be converted into an intermediate of the citric acid cycle. Once the amino group is removed, usually by transamination, the α-keto acid that remains is catabolized by a pathway unique to that acid and consisting of one or more reactions. For example, phenylalanine undergoes a series of six reactions before it splits into. Answer: transamination", "output": [ "Which process helps deaminate amino acids?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1e2dbe3fe14c424dae855f8d73cfeba5", "input": "Passage: Syndesmoses are joints in which the bones are connected by a band of connective tissue, allowing for more movement than in a suture. An example of a syndesmosis is the joint of the tibia and fibula in the ankle. The amount of movement in these types of joints is determined by the length of the connective tissue fibers. Gomphoses occur between teeth and their sockets; the term refers to the way the tooth fits into the socket like a peg (Figure 38.24). The tooth is connected to the socket by a connective tissue referred to as the periodontal ligament. Answer: syndesmoses", "output": [ "What are joints in which the bones are connected by a band of connective tissue?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c4c5696de2aa44f08d66b680387748ce", "input": "Passage: Simple carbohydrates can be classified in terms of chain length. Answer: simple", "output": [ "Which carbohydrates can be classified in terms of chain length?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5cc69c9278484d9fabddcf62197a1325", "input": "Passage: Beginning with Mendel's pea plants, genetics has become one of the most important fields of biology. Genetics discusses genetics, from Mendel's pea plants to current ethical issues associated with this field. The completion of The Human Genome Project is one of the landmark scientific events of the last 50 years. Human genetics affects many, if not every, field of medicine. Technologies associated with genetics are involved in developing products to make our lives better, but have raised a number of ethical, legal and social issues. Answer: human genome project", "output": [ "What is the name of the project concerning genetics that is one of the landmark scientific events of the last 50 years?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d1d76d55fc5a42c9a719522f1fc6b97d", "input": "Passage: Elements involved in nuclear reactions are radioactive. How do you think radioactive elements differ from other elements?. Answer: radioactive", "output": [ "Elements involved in nuclear reactions are what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-acb1e5df68d54f088a9be1ed5aead6af", "input": "Passage: Chondrichthyes: Cartilaginous Fishes The clade Chondrichthyes is diverse, consisting of sharks (Figure 29.11), rays, and skates, together with sawfishes and a few dozen species of fishes called chimaeras, or “ghost” sharks. ” Chondrichthyes are jawed fishes that possess paired fins and a skeleton made of cartilage. This clade arose approximately 370 million years ago in the early or middle Devonian. They are thought to be descended from the placoderms, which had skeletons made of bone; thus, the cartilaginous skeleton of Chondrichthyes is a later development. Parts of shark skeleton are strengthened by granules of calcium carbonate, but this is not the same as bone. Most cartilaginous fishes live in marine habitats, with a few species living in fresh water for a part or all of their lives. Most sharks are carnivores that feed on live prey, either swallowing it whole or using their jaws and teeth to tear it into smaller pieces. Shark teeth likely evolved from the jagged scales that cover their skin, called placoid scales. Some species of sharks and rays are suspension feeders that feed on plankton. Answer: placoid scales", "output": [ "Shark teeth likely evolved from the jagged scales that cover their skin, called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9dacb790f4114ae6a918e94f1f282af8", "input": "Passage: Reproduction Fungi reproduce sexually and/or asexually. Perfect fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually, while the so-called imperfect fungi reproduce only asexually (by mitosis). In both sexual and asexual reproduction, fungi produce spores that disperse from the parent organism by either floating on the wind or hitching a ride on an animal. Fungal spores are smaller and lighter than plant seeds. The giant puffball mushroom bursts open and releases trillions of spores. The huge number of spores released increases the likelihood of landing in an environment that will support growth (Figure 24.6). Answer: gas exchange process", "output": [ "What do all respiratory diseases affect?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0c7fe6bb759a488eb6e9010694989b75", "input": "Passage: The male gametophyte produces flagellated sperm that must swim to the egg formed by the female gametophyte. For this reason, sexual reproduction must happen in the presence of water. Therefore, nonvascular plants tend to live in moist environments. Though the life of a nonvascular seedless plant is a cycle, this can be considered the initial step in the life cycle. Answer: water", "output": [ "When flagellated sperm must swim to the egg, sexual reproduction requires the presence of what substance?" ] }, { "id": "task594-89b670e54989450cbf4b116cf24ee987", "input": "Passage: The entropy change is positive as the solid state changes into the liquid state. If the transition went from the liquid to the solid state, the numerical value for would be the same, but the sign would be reversed since we are going from a less ordered to a more ordered situation. Answer: liquid", "output": [ "The entropy change is positive as the solid state changes into which state?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fda7ca9f526d433697676dd90c47848a", "input": "Passage: Runoff is precipitation that flows over the surface of the land. This water may travel to a river, lake, or ocean. Runoff may pick up fertilizer and other pollutants and deliver them to a water body. In this way, runoff may pollute bodies of water. Answer: runoff", "output": [ "What term describes precipitation that flows over the surface of the land?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0cc6eb84d7fc42339c70a071a63abef3", "input": "Passage: Sugars are small, simple carbohydrates that are found in foods such as fruits and milk. The sugar found in fruits is called fructose. The sugar found in milk is called lactose. These sugars are broken down by the body to form glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ), the simplest sugar of all. Answer: glucose", "output": [ "Fructose and lactose are types of sugars broken down by the body to form what, which is the simplest sugar of all?" ] }, { "id": "task594-72343052db6f4026b486d08a129960d0", "input": "Passage: The global pattern of precipitation is influenced by movements of air masses. For example, there is a global belt of dry air masses and low precipitation at about 30° N and 30° S latitude. Answer: air masses", "output": [ "The global pattern of precipitation is influenced by movements of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-72d9e4f1f91d42008d3b0379856f350b", "input": "Passage: Bears get their energy from their food. Brown bears eat a varied diet, from nuts and berries to fish and other animals. When bears eat a berry, they are obtaining energy that the plant originally captured from the sun. Even when a bear eats another animal, the energy in that animal ultimately came from eating a producer that captured the sun's energy. Answer: sun", "output": [ "Which is the ultimate energy source in a bear's food chain?" ] }, { "id": "task594-84a6f71a4b7b4f89b07ecff24ec8c14e", "input": "Passage: A combustion engine is a complex machine that burns fuel to produce thermal energy and then uses the energy to do work. Two basic types of combustion engines are external and internal combustion engines. Answer: external and internal combustion engines", "output": [ "What are the two basic types of combustion engines?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d8bf180746b4463cad500c88336baa70", "input": "Passage: Blood Volume The relationship between blood volume, blood pressure, and blood flow is intuitively obvious. Water may merely trickle along a creek bed in a dry season, but rush quickly and under great pressure after a heavy rain. Similarly, as blood volume decreases, pressure and flow decrease. As blood volume increases, pressure and flow increase. Under normal circumstances, blood volume varies little. Low blood volume, called hypovolemia, may be caused by bleeding, dehydration, vomiting, severe burns, or some medications used to treat hypertension. It is important to recognize that other regulatory mechanisms in the body are so effective at maintaining blood pressure that an individual may be asymptomatic until 10–20 percent of the blood volume has been lost. Treatment typically includes intravenous fluid replacement. Hypervolemia, excessive fluid volume, may be caused by retention of water and sodium, as seen in patients with heart failure, liver cirrhosis, some forms of kidney disease, hyperaldosteronism, and some glucocorticoid steroid treatments. Restoring homeostasis in these patients depends upon reversing the condition that triggered the hypervolemia. Answer: blood volume", "output": [ "Referring to low what, hypovolemia may be caused by bleeding, dehydration, vomiting, severe burns, or some medications used to treat hypertension?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c3795343210544a181335e22fc0b8a6d", "input": "Passage: Figure 8.4 Photosynthesis uses solar energy, carbon dioxide, and water to produce energy-storing carbohydrates. Oxygen is generated as a waste product of photosynthesis. Answer: oxygen", "output": [ "Photosynthesis uses solar energy, carbon dioxide, and water to produce energy-storing carbohydrates.what is produced as a waste product?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4ff807c62901448499bb7c59dbf419b6", "input": "Passage: Elements are pure substances that make up all matter, so each one is given a unique name. The names of elements are also represented by unique one-, two-, or three- letter symbols. Answer: all matter", "output": [ "Elements are pure substances that make up what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4c8f330b4956449c87ec8c89f089752e", "input": "Passage: Lipids are nutrients, such as fats that store energy. Lipids also have several other roles in the body. For example, lipids protect nerves and make up the membranes that surround cells. Answer: protection", "output": [ "What are lipids' function in relation to nerves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-64adcafe6e7e410ab421a983534a9dd5", "input": "Passage: Hormones, chemical messengers used to communicate between cells, are important in regulating digestion. Answer: hormones", "output": [ "What are the chemical messengers used to communicate between cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-63993d507f91484289200db1e392b64d", "input": "Passage: A later adaption for life on land was the evolution of vascular tissue. Vascular tissue is specialized tissue that transports water, nutrients, and food in plants. In algae, vascular tissue is not necessary since the entire body is in contact with the water, and the water simply enters the algae. But on land, water may only be found deep in the ground. Vascular tissues take water and nutrients from the ground up into the plant, while also taking food down from the leaves into the rest of the plant. The two vascular tissues are xylem and phloem. Xylem is responsible for the transport of water and nutrients from the roots to the rest of the plant. Phloem carries the sugars made in the leaves to the parts of the plant where they are needed. Answer: vascular tissue", "output": [ "What type of tissue transports water, nutrients, and food in plants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5c5cfe8c1bc34b8db9f922b3ca6743fc", "input": "Passage: If a solute is a gas, increasing the temperature decreases its solubility. For example, less carbon dioxide can dissolve in warm ocean water than in cold ocean water. Answer: decrease its solubility", "output": [ "If a solute is a gas, increasing the temperature will do what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9fab32f4e93542c291bdfe41b8485e43", "input": "Passage: Different regions of the cerebral cortex can be associated with particular functions, a concept known as localization of function. In the early 1900s, a German neuroscientist named Korbinian Brodmann performed an extensive study of the microscopic anatomy—the cytoarchitecture—of the cerebral cortex and divided the cortex into 52 separate regions on the basis of the histology of the cortex. His work resulted in a system of classification known as Brodmann’s areas, which is still used today to describe the anatomical distinctions within the cortex (Figure 13.8). The results from Brodmann’s work on the anatomy align very well with the functional differences within the cortex. Areas 17 and 18 in the occipital lobe are responsible for primary visual perception. That visual information is complex, so it is processed in the temporal and parietal lobes as well. The temporal lobe is associated with primary auditory sensation, known as Brodmann’s areas 41 and 42 in the superior temporal lobe. Because regions of the temporal lobe are part of the limbic system, memory is an important function associated with that lobe. Memory is essentially a sensory function; memories are recalled sensations such as the smell of Mom’s baking or the sound of a barking dog. Even memories of movement are really the memory of sensory feedback from those movements, such as stretching muscles or the movement of the skin around a joint. Structures in the temporal lobe. Answer: localization of function", "output": [ "Different regions of the cerebral cortex can be associated with particular functions, a concept known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c055d33442334685b04272e98a25bd93", "input": "Passage: The population growth rate is how quickly a population changes in size over time. The rate of growth of a population may be positive or negative. A positive growth rate means that the population is increasing in size because more people are being added than lost. A negative growth rate means that the population is decreasing in size because more people are being lost than added. Answer: population growth rate", "output": [ "How quickly a population changes in size over time is known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-24c586e82d58496d8af6709194ed81d7", "input": "Passage: Habitats Nearly all protists exist in some type of aquatic environment, including freshwater and marine environments, damp soil, and even snow. Several protist species are parasites that infect animals or plants. A few protist species live on dead organisms or their wastes, and contribute to their decay. Answer: their decay", "output": [ "Nearly all protists exist in some type of aquatic environment, including freshwater and marine environments, damp soil, and even snow. several protist species are parasites that infect animals or plants. a few protist species live on dead organisms or their wastes, and contribute to what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b8bc28fee7004c4c8a9cedb9d77294d3", "input": "Passage: An important function of the circulatory system is transporting oxygen to cells. Answer: circulatory system", "output": [ "Which system transports oxygens to cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3d697452a6f846299e71d319f499684d", "input": "Passage: Enzymes are involved in most of the chemical reactions that take place in organisms. Answer: enzymes", "output": [ "What substances, which serve as catalysts, are involved in most of the chemical reactions that take place in organisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-733c8408473d472d919c8ce5e83a5174", "input": "Passage: The atoms that make up matter are in constant motion, so they have kinetic energy. All that motion gives matter thermal energy. Thermal energy is defined as the total kinetic energy of all the atoms that make up an object. It depends on how fast the atoms are moving and how many atoms the object has. Therefore, an object with more mass has greater thermal energy than an object with less mass, even if their individual atoms are moving at the same speed. You can see an example of this in Figure below . Answer: thermal energy", "output": [ "What kind of energy constitutes the total kinetic energy of all the atoms that make up an object?" ] }, { "id": "task594-912568ecf4934b88bcf22a74962d765f", "input": "Passage: Electric generators convert mechanical energy to electric energy. The generator consists of some number of wire loops wrapped around an iron core and placed in a strong magnetic field. The loops of wire and the iron core are called the armature . The armature is mounted so that it can rotate freely inside the magnetic field. Mechanical energy is used to spin the armature in the field so that the wire loops cut across the field and produce electric current. The of this current is calculated by . Answer: mechanical energy", "output": [ "Electric generators convert what type of energy to electric energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1579a5a1a7c94f8bad3362578f11fb30", "input": "Passage: Bacteria known as decomposers break down wastes and dead organisms into smaller molecules. These bacteria use the organic substrates they break down to get their energy, carbon, and nutrients they need for survival. Answer: bacteria", "output": [ "What organisms known as decomposers break down wastes and dead organisms into smaller molecules?" ] }, { "id": "task594-53d75b52da4b4477afa3f70dc65af0b9", "input": "Passage: Like density, the pressure of the air decreases with altitude. There is less air pressing down from above the higher up you go. Look at the bottle pictured below ( Figure below ). It was drained by a hiker at the top of a mountain. Then the hiker screwed the cap on the bottle and carried it down to sea level. At the lower altitude, air pressure crushed it. Can you explain why?. Answer: it decreases", "output": [ "How does air pressure change as altitude increases?" ] }, { "id": "task594-95eb18d978e04737bb6ed318c18bbc7d", "input": "Passage: Cell division is the process in which a cell divides to form two new cells. The original cell is called the parent cell. The two new cells are called daughter cells. All cells contain DNA. DNA is the nucleic acid that stores genetic information. Before a cell divides its DNA must be copied. That way, each daughter cell gets a complete copy of the parent cell’s genetic material. Answer: daughter cells", "output": [ "After cell division what are the two new cells called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9ebdae832ba548f8a962c730d27b7fa1", "input": "Passage: Unfortunately, using energy from nuclear fusion is far from a reality. Scientists are a long way from developing the necessary technology. One problem is raising temperatures high enough for fusion to take place. Another problem is that matter this hot exists only in the plasma state. There are no known materials that can contain plasma, although a magnet might be able to do it. That’s because plasma consists of ions and responds to magnetism. You can learn more about research on nuclear fusion at the URL below. Answer: plasma state", "output": [ "In which state does matter need to be for nuclear fusion?" ] }, { "id": "task594-12d92f638b1f4f099ea60a19dfb9abe9", "input": "Passage: If the experimental value is less than the accepted value, the error is negative. If the experimental value is larger than the accepted value, the error is positive. Often, error is reported as the absolute value of the difference in order to avoid the confusion of a negative error. The percent error is the absolute value of the error divided by the accepted value and multiplied by 100%. Answer: negative", "output": [ "If the experimental value is less than the accepted value, the error is what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8f34c477a7ba45c8bd4dd800b874db50", "input": "Passage: Liquid water is formed when water vapor condenses (i. e. , H 2 O(g) → H 2 O(l) or when ice melts (i. e. , H 2 O(s) → H 2 O(l)). Because water is a molecular substance, it is a poor conductor of electricity in its pure form. However, as we will see later, its conductivity can be improved by the addition of certain substances. Water molecules are polar, and this overall polarity gives rise to many of the properties of water. For example, an interesting effect is seen when water is placed in a static electric field, as shown in the Figure below and the video below. This phenomenon can be explained in terms of the polarity of water molecules. Answer: liquid water", "output": [ "What is type of substance is formed when water vapor condenses or when ice melts?" ] }, { "id": "task594-288a9d37a13c4ae18102072a46ec7b70", "input": "Passage: The organs of the respiratory system include the lungs, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchi. Answer: respiratory", "output": [ "Lungs, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchi are part of which system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-38614baeea374aeca4bdb13590afbbea", "input": "Passage: Primates usually rely more on the sense of vision rather than the sense of smell, which is the dominant sense in many other mammals. The importance of vision in primates is reflected by the bony socket that surrounds and protects the primate eye. Primates have widely spaced eyes in the same plane that give them stereoscopic (3-D) vision, needed for judging distances. Some primates, including humans, have also evolved color vision. Answer: smell", "output": [ "The anatomy of primate eyes shows they tend to rely more on vision than what sense, which is dominant in many other mammals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4bbbdfe71cfe4919880deebbf128bd17", "input": "Passage: Lipid-Derived Hormones (or Lipid-soluble Hormones) Most lipid hormones are derived from cholesterol and thus are structurally similar to it, as illustrated in Figure 37.2. The primary class of lipid hormones in humans is the steroid hormones. Chemically, these hormones are usually ketones or alcohols; their chemical names will end in “-ol” for alcohols or “-one” for ketones. Examples of steroid hormones include estradiol, which is an estrogen, or female sex hormone, and testosterone, which is an androgen, or male sex hormone. These two hormones are released by the female and male reproductive organs, respectively. Other steroid hormones include aldosterone and cortisol, which are released by the adrenal glands along with some other types of androgens. Steroid hormones are insoluble in water, and they are transported by transport proteins in blood. As a result, they remain in circulation longer than peptide hormones. For example, cortisol has a half-life of 60 to 90 minutes, while epinephrine, an amino acid derived-hormone, has a half-life of approximately one minute. Answer: cholesterol", "output": [ "Most lipid hormones are derived from what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ec1715aaa2e44646827890c6820b8ad9", "input": "Passage: All living things reproduce to make the next generation. Organisms that do not reproduce will go extinct. As a result, there are no species that do not reproduce ( Figure below ). Some organisms reproduce asexually ( asexual reproduction ), especially single-celled organisms, and make identical copies (or clones) of themselves. Other organisms reproduce sexually ( sexual reproduction ), combining genetic information from two parents to make genetically unique offspring. Answer: reproduction", "output": [ "What process do all species use to make the next generation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ebb9a3f214d74402afabf616a81f8661", "input": "Passage: Transpiration is like evaporation because it changes liquid water to water vapor. In transpiration, plants release water vapor through their leaves ( Figure below ). This water vapor rises into the atmosphere. Answer: transpiration", "output": [ "What is it called when plants release water vapor through their leaves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6a9d26804aa64d42988f546ca8de04b5", "input": "Passage: The anodes in each cell of a rechargeable battery are plates or grids of lead containing spongy lead metal, while the cathodes are similar grids containing powdered lead dioxide (PbO2). The electrolyte is an aqueous solution of sulfuric acid. The value of E° for such a cell is about 2 V. Connecting three such cells in series produces a 6 V battery, whereas a typical 12 V car battery contains six cells in series. When treated properly, this type of high-capacity battery can be discharged and recharged many times over. As the cell is discharged, a powder of PbSO4 forms on the electrodes. Moreover, sulfuric acid is consumed and water is produced, decreasing the density of the electrolyte and providing a convenient way of monitoring the status of a battery by simply measuring the density of the electrolyte. Answer: lead dioxide", "output": [ "The anodes in each cell of a rechargeable battery are plates or grids of lead containing spongy lead metal, while the cathodes are similar grids containing powdered what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5327089d945d43f7be516e3e303b394d", "input": "Passage: Stars shine because of nuclear fusion. Fusion reactions in the Sun's core keep our nearest star burning. Stars are made mostly of hydrogen and helium. Both are very lightweight gases. A star contains so much hydrogen and helium that the weight of these gases is enormous. The pressure at the center of a star is great enough to heat the gases. This causes nuclear fusion reactions. Answer: nuclear fusion", "output": [ "What process, which results because of great pressure at the center of a star, causes stars to shine?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9c3abae7b8774a68a7f64da383af6f24", "input": "Passage: A protein is an organic compound made up of small molecules called amino acids . There are 20 different amino acids commonly found in the proteins of living things. Small proteins may contain just a few hundred amino acids, whereas large proteins may contain thousands of amino acids. Answer: a protein", "output": [ "What is an organic compound made up of small molecules called amino acids called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f9d4813786c94e778016d46cc9aaf22a", "input": "Passage: Plants have specialized organs that help them survive and reproduce in a great diversity of habitats. Major organs of most plants include roots, stems, and leaves. Answer: leaves", "output": [ "Plants have specialized organs that help them survive and reproduce in a great diversity of habitats. major organs of most plants include roots, stems, and what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-832d17ce01084eb1b92a472207944ece", "input": "Passage: The pressure of gases in the atmosphere is greatest at sea level and decreases rapidly as altitude increases. Answer: sea level", "output": [ "Where is the pressure of gases in the atmosphere at its greatest?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e1a41acf3c0e41428badfc8d67964685", "input": "Passage: The rate of decay of carbon-14 is stable over time. Answer: remains stable", "output": [ "The rate of decay of carbon-14 does what over time?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d18ef1d2353f47aa9bdd03155bb61b9b", "input": "Passage: One idea is that evolution happens. Evolution is a change in the inherited traits of organisms over time. Living things have changed as descendants diverged from common ancestors in the past. Answer: evolution", "output": [ "What is defined as a change in the inherited traits of organisms over time?" ] }, { "id": "task594-729d94dbbb644014854597e1e76c00a6", "input": "Passage: Homeostasis refers to the balance, or equilibrium, within the cell or a body. It is an organism’s ability to keep a constant internal environment. Keeping a stable internal environment requires constant adjustments as conditions change inside and outside the cell. The adjusting of systems within a cell is referred to as homeostatic regulation. Because the internal and external environments of a cell are constantly changing, adjustments must be made continuously to stay at or near the normal proportions of all internal substances. This involves continual adjustments in transport of substances across the cell membrane. Homeostasis is a dynamic equilibrium rather than an unchanging state. The cellular processes discussed in the cell transport (passive and active transport) concepts all play an important role in homeostatic regulation. Answer: homeostatic regulation", "output": [ "What term means the adjusting of systems within a cell in order to restore balance or maintain equilibrium?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d1dccec61a48446a8d76e3fa8013b910", "input": "Passage: The Role of Energy in Chemical Reactions Chemical reactions require a sufficient amount of energy to cause the matter to collide with enough precision and force that old chemical bonds can be broken and new ones formed. In general, kinetic energy is the form of energy powering any type of matter in motion. Imagine you are building a brick wall. The energy it takes to lift and place one brick atop another is kinetic energy—the energy matter possesses because of its motion. Once the wall is in place, it stores potential energy. Potential energy is the energy of position, or the energy matter possesses because of the positioning or structure of its components. If the brick wall collapses, the stored potential energy is released as kinetic energy as the bricks fall. In the human body, potential energy is stored in the bonds between atoms and molecules. Chemical energy is the form of potential energy in which energy is stored in chemical bonds. When those bonds are formed, chemical energy is invested, and when they break, chemical energy is released. Notice that chemical energy, like all energy, is neither created nor destroyed; rather, it is converted from one form to another. When you eat an energy bar before heading out the door for a hike, the honey, nuts, and other foods the bar contains are broken down and rearranged by your body into molecules that your muscle cells convert to kinetic energy. Chemical reactions that release more energy than they absorb are characterized as exergonic. The catabolism of the foods in your energy bar is an example. Some of the chemical energy stored in the bar is absorbed into molecules your body uses. Answer: potential energy", "output": [ "In general, kinetic energy is the form of energy powering any type of matter in motion, while the energy of position is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-60baab68e3c443bdb1713458d95a4ac0", "input": "Passage: The rigid crystals of ionic compounds are brittle. They are more likely to break than bend when struck. As a result, ionic crystals tend to shatter easily. Try striking salt crystals with a hammer and you’ll find that they readily break into smaller pieces. You can learn more about the properties of ionic compounds by watching the video at this URL:. Answer: break", "output": [ "When struck, how are the rigid crystals of ionic compounds likely to react?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7490fb1b35824c869e99d04738b0c780", "input": "Passage: Amides are actually formed by bringing together an amine-containing molecule and a carboxylic acidcontaining molecule. A molecule of H2O is lost, much like when an ester forms:. Answer: carboxylic acid", "output": [ "Amides are actually formed by bringing together an amine-containing molecule and molecule containing what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f4662dae322a49969a106c2e9e1282aa", "input": "Passage: David Remahl. Polygenic traits result in a distribution that resembles a bell-shaped curve . The creator of this work allows anyone to use it for any purpose including unrestricted redistribution, commercial use, and modification. Answer: bell-shaped", "output": [ "Polygenic traits result in a distribution that resembles a curve. what is the shape of the curve?" ] }, { "id": "task594-726e2a074e8e45d28e4e127fdbda9708", "input": "Passage: Beta particles can travel up to a meter through air. They can pass through paper and cloth but not through a sheet of aluminum. They can penetrate and damage tissues beneath the skin. Answer: meter", "output": [ "How much distance can beta particles travel through air?" ] }, { "id": "task594-63baab1a9d5344d396345f031fa7c1ca", "input": "Passage: Sequencing the human genome has increased our knowledge of genetic disorders. Genetic disorders are diseases caused by mutations. Many genetic disorders are caused by mutations in a single gene. Others are caused by abnormal numbers of chromosomes. Answer: mutations", "output": [ "Genetic disorders are diseases caused by what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fe2044c29ed2447ea1c53d9190f7d5fe", "input": "Passage: The last property above requires some additional explanation. We are all familiar with the process of dissolution on a large scale. If you stir a spoonful of salt into a glass of water, the salt crystals are broken down and seem to disappear into the water. On the atomic level, the dissolution of an ionic compound occurs when water interacts with the ions in the crystal lattice, causing the lattice to break apart ( Figure below ):. Answer: ions", "output": [ "On the atomic level, the dissolution of an ionic compound occurs when water interacts with the what in the crystal lattice?" ] }, { "id": "task594-52c1c82cb332410d8ab12d4ab1bef38f", "input": "Passage: On the superior aspect of each kidney is the adrenal gland. The adrenal cortex directly influences renal function through the production of the hormone aldosterone to stimulate sodium reabsorption. Answer: kidneys", "output": [ "The adrenal cortex directly influences the function of what organs through the production of the hormone aldosterone to stimulate sodium reabsorption?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c084a01159ff4b88ba2cf82bafbd0477", "input": "Passage: The three main rock types are igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary. Answer: sedimentary", "output": [ "The three main rock types are igneous, metamorphic, and what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-520e0aa7c190402ea2bae9b85859047c", "input": "Passage: Figure 41.6 The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. The glomerulus and convoluted tubules are located in the kidney cortex, while collecting ducts are located in the pyramids of the medulla. (credit: modification of work by NIDDK). Answer: kidneys", "output": [ "The nephron is the functional unit of what pair of organs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-87ed4aa2d2e8438391625f572e9cc700", "input": "Passage: 7.2 History of cell knowledge The optical microscope was first invented in 17th century. Shortly thereafter scientists began to examine living and dead biological tissues in order to better understand the science of life. Some of the most relevant discovery milestones of the time period include: • The invention of the microscope11 , which allowed scientists for the first time to see biological cells • Robert Hooke12 in 1665 looked at cork under a microscope and described what he called cork \"cells\" • Anton van Leeuwenhoek13 called the single-celled organisms that he saw under the microscope \"animalcules\" • Matthias Jakob Schleiden14 , a botanist, in 1838 determined that all plants consist of cells • Theodor Schwann15 , a zoologist, in 1839 determined that all animals consist of cells • Rudolf Virchow16 proposed the theory that all cells arise from previously existing cells In 1838, the botanist Matthias Jakob Schleiden and the physiologist Theodor Schwann discovered that both plant cells and animal cells had nuclei. Based on their observations, the two scientists conceived of the hypothesis that all living things were composed of cells. In 1839, Schwann published 'Microscopic Investigations on the Accordance in the Structure and Growth of Plants and Animals', which contained the first statement of their joint cell theory. Answer: 17th", "output": [ "In what century was the microscope invented?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f3ed6b2d05de4d5383d07dd4332dd103", "input": "Passage: Bacteria are the most diverse and abundant group of organisms on Earth. They live in almost all environments. They are found in the ocean, the soil, and the intestines of animals. They are even found in rocks deep below Earth’s surface. Any surface that has not been sterilized is likely to be covered with bacteria. The total number of bacteria in the world is amazing. It’s estimated to be 5 × 10 30 , or five million trillion. You have more bacteria in and on your body than you have body cells!. Answer: bacteria", "output": [ "What is the most diverse and abundant group of organisms on earth, numbering in the millions of trillions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8a4d7ed713e34e2b894ba830ac77b9f4", "input": "Passage: Note the Pattern Pi bonds between carbon and the heavier chalcogenides are weak due to poor orbital overlap. Binary compounds of carbon with less electronegative elements are called carbides. The chemical and physical properties of carbides depend strongly on the identity of the second element, resulting in three general classes: ionic carbides, interstitial carbides, and covalent carbides. The reaction of carbon at high. Answer: carbides", "output": [ "Binary compounds of carbon with less electronegative elements are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-366591fbab234a7aa4e02f11891bd34e", "input": "Passage: Before leaves fall from trees in autumn, they have potential energy. Why do they have the potential to fall?. Answer: potential energy", "output": [ "What type of energy is possessed by autumn leaves before they fall?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fb47ba919dea4a0f9a468dfd1114fdf2", "input": "Passage: Most of the adult bees in a colony are workers. They cooperate to build the hive, collect food, and care for the young. Each worker has a specific task to perform, depending on its age. Young worker bees clean the hive and feed the offspring. Older worker bees build the waxy honeycomb or guard the hive. The oldest worker bees leave the hive to find food. Answer: worker bees", "output": [ "What kind of bees are most adult bees in a hive?" ] }, { "id": "task594-192d20c075df4a05b2c31ac48d43a71f", "input": "Passage: Marine biomes are found in the salt water of the ocean. Answer: marine", "output": [ "What type of biomes are found in the salt water of the ocean?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4257ed1791f8431b9823cbbc5bb63f8e", "input": "Passage: Protists do not create food sources only for sea-dwelling organisms. For instance, certain anaerobic parabasalid species exist in the digestive tracts of termites and wood-eating cockroaches, where they contribute an essential step in the digestion of cellulose ingested by these insects as they bore through wood. Answer: cellulose", "output": [ "Certain anaerobic parabasalid species exist in the digestive tracts of termites and wood-eating cockroaches, where they contribute an essential step in the digestion of this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d47b49d929ff4d2d960840d06bbc51fd", "input": "Passage: You might think that actions and reactions would cancel each other out like balanced forces do. Balanced forces, which are also equal and opposite, cancel each other out because they act on the same object. Action and reaction forces, in contrast, act on different objects, so they don’t cancel each other out and, in fact, often result in motion. For example, in Figure above , the kangaroo’s action acts on the ground, but the ground’s reaction acts on the kangaroo. As a result, the kangaroo jumps away from the ground. One of the action-reaction examples in the Figure above does not result in motion. Do you know which one it is?. Answer: balanced", "output": [ "What kind of equal and opposite forces cancel one another out when they act on the same object?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b53431ca75f74799a74a2be6487dcf04", "input": "Passage: New mitochondria and chloroplasts are produced through a process similar to binary fission. Bacteria also reproduce through binary fission. Answer: binary fission", "output": [ "How do bacteria reproduce?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3533c5f1b50e466ab33b325005ff9b74", "input": "Passage: In a hydrogen replacement reaction, the hydrogen in the acid is replaced by an active metal. Answer: an active metal", "output": [ "In a hydrogen replacement reaction, the hydrogen in the acid is replaced by what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b99f69a918284e679c964b1ec8b90e03", "input": "Passage: Sublimation and Deposition Some solids can transition directly into the gaseous state, bypassing the liquid state, via a process known as sublimation. At room temperature and standard pressure, a piece of dry ice (solid CO2) sublimes, appearing to gradually disappear without ever forming any liquid. Snow and ice sublime at temperatures below the melting point of water, a slow process that may be accelerated by winds and the reduced atmospheric pressures at high altitudes. When solid iodine is warmed, the solid sublimes and a vivid purple vapor forms (Figure 10.27). The reverse of sublimation is called deposition, a process in which gaseous substances condense directly into the solid state, bypassing the liquid state. The formation of frost is an example of deposition. Answer: sublimation", "output": [ "What is the process by which some solids transition directly into gases?" ] }, { "id": "task594-06b46905e92c4478b79f68fbfed487c5", "input": "Passage: A warm-air heating system uses thermal energy to heat air. It then forces the warm air through a system of ducts. You can see a diagram of this type of heating system in Figure below . Typically, the air is heated in a furnace that burns natural gas or heating oil. When the air is warm, a fan blows it through the ducts and out through vents that are located in each room. Warm air blowing out of a vent moves across the room, pushing cold air out of the way. The cold air enters an intake vent on the opposite side of the room and returns to the furnace with the help of another fan. In the furnace, the cold air is heated, and the cycle repeats. Answer: thermal", "output": [ "A warm-air heating system uses what kind of energy to heat air?" ] }, { "id": "task594-63c94c134f564313acd9a87aa56ea462", "input": "Passage: Community Dynamics Community dynamics are the changes in community structure and composition over time, often following environmental disturbances such as volcanoes, earthquakes, storms, fires, and climate change. Communities with a relatively constant number of species are said to be at equilibrium. The equilibrium is dynamic with species identities and relationships changing over time, but maintaining relatively constant numbers. Following a disturbance, the community may or may not return to the equilibrium state. Succession describes the sequential appearance and disappearance of species in a community over time after a severe disturbance. In primary succession, newly exposed or newly formed rock is colonized by living organisms; in secondary succession, a part of an ecosystem is disturbed and remnants of the previous community remain. In both cases, there is a sequential change in species until a more or less permanent community develops. Primary Succession and Pioneer Species Primary succession occurs when new land is formed, for example, following the eruption of volcanoes, such as those on the Big Island of Hawaii. As lava flows into the ocean, new land is continually being formed. On the Big Island, approximately 32 acres of land is added to it its size each year. Weathering and other natural forces break down the rock enough for the. Answer: succession", "output": [ "What term describes the sequential appearance and disappearance of species in a community over time after a severe disturbance?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bdd16d8e027f44e8be4d51650a15185d", "input": "Passage: Metal is regularly used in the human body for hip and knee implants. Most implants need to be replaced over time because, among other things, metal does not bond with bone. Researchers are trying to find better metal coatings that would allow metalto-bone bonding. One challenge is to find a coating that has an expansion coefficient similar to that of metal. If the expansion coefficients are too different, the thermal stresses during the manufacturing process lead to cracks at the coating-metal interface. Another example of thermal stress is found in the mouth. Dental fillings can expand differently from tooth enamel. It can give pain when eating ice cream or having a hot drink. Cracks might occur in the filling. Metal fillings (gold, silver, etc. ) are being replaced by composite fillings (porcelain), which have smaller coefficients of expansion, and are closer to those of teeth. Answer: metal", "output": [ "What material is regularly used in human hip and knee implants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-08b3584a2f124012899cb21c386a7ea8", "input": "Passage: Because chemical changes produce new substances, they often cannot be undone. For example, you can’t change a fried egg back to a raw egg. Some chemical changes can be reversed, but only by other chemical changes. For example, to undo the tarnish on copper pennies, you can place them in vinegar. The acid in the vinegar reacts with the tarnish. This is a chemical change that makes the pennies bright and shiny again. You can try this yourself at home to see how well it works. Answer: vinegar", "output": [ "To undo the tarnish on copper pennies, you can place them in what liquid?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6825eab7ee564c78960326caf920c8af", "input": "Passage: A combustion reaction occurs when a substance reacts quickly with oxygen (O 2 ). For example, in the Figure below , charcoal is combining with oxygen. Combustion is commonly called burning, and the substance that burns is usually referred to as fuel. The products of a complete combustion reaction include carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and water vapor (H 2 O). The reaction typically gives off heat and light as well. The general equation for a complete combustion reaction is:. Answer: combustion reaction", "output": [ "What kind of a reaction occurs when a substance reacts quickly with oxygen?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a72e7c746665480cb2afec47bc7c165b", "input": "Passage: The central vacuole contains large amounts of a liquid called cell sap, which differs in composition to the cell cytosol. Cell sap is a mixture of water, enzymes, ions, salts, and other substances. Cell sap may also contain toxic byproducts that have been removed from the cytosol. Toxins in the vacuole may help to protect some plants from being eaten. Answer: cell sap", "output": [ "What is the liquid inside the central vacuole called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5599b76c1b71428aa3f8b9ae6c52b197", "input": "Passage: Chlamydia is the most common STI in the United States. As shown in the graph in Figure below , females are much more likely than males to develop chlamydia. Like most STIs, rates of chlamydia are highest in teens and young adults. Answer: chlamydia", "output": [ "Which is the most common sti (sexually transmitted infection) in the united states?" ] }, { "id": "task594-63d2cb08c26445af97a7105443eb3b32", "input": "Passage: An animal-like protist, or a protozoa. These protists have the ability to move, usually with some sort of cilia or flagella, and must obtain their energy from other sources. But obviously, they are much simpler than animals. Answer: movement", "output": [ "Cilia or flagella structures give protists what ability?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3ef0f33f9e694adab0e3be70de6f5a7a", "input": "Passage: Living things need energy to carry out all life processes. They get energy from food. Answer: food", "output": [ "Where do living things obtain the energy to carry out all life processes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a772d18b82674ac5845c7af47fc53c5b", "input": "Passage: The movement of bone away from the midline of the body is called ________. circumduction b. extension c. adduction d. abduction. Answer: extension", "output": [ "The movement of bone away from the midline of the body is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2a082d2e16064f17b5286d0ca1c70095", "input": "Passage: Rotational Movement Rotational movement is the movement of a bone as it rotates around its longitudinal axis. Rotation can be toward the midline of the body, which is referred to as medial rotation, or away from the midline of the body, which is referred to as lateral rotation. Movement of the head from side to side is an example of rotation. Special Movements Some movements that cannot be classified as gliding, angular, or rotational are called special movements. Inversion involves the soles of the feet moving inward, toward the midline of the body. Eversion is the opposite of inversion, movement of the sole of the foot outward, away from the midline of the body. Protraction is the anterior movement of a bone in the horizontal plane. Retraction occurs as a joint moves back into position after protraction. Protraction and retraction can be seen in the movement of the mandible as the jaw is thrust outwards and then back inwards. Elevation is the movement of a bone upward, such as when the shoulders are shrugged, lifting the scapulae. Depression is the opposite of elevation—movement downward of a bone, such as after the shoulders are shrugged and the scapulae return to their normal position from an elevated position. Dorsiflexion is a bending at the ankle such that the toes are lifted toward the knee. Plantar flexion is a bending at the ankle when the heel is lifted, such as when standing on the toes. Supination is the movement of the radius and ulna bones of the forearm so that the palm faces forward. Pronation is the opposite movement, in which the palm faces backward. Opposition is the movement of the thumb toward the fingers of the same hand, making it possible to grasp and hold objects. Answer: medial rotation", "output": [ "What is the term for rotation of a bone toward the midline of the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-71d191beae654eda8fcf100e6b58ec5a", "input": "Passage: For these plants, the name says it all. Vascular seedless plants have vascular tissue but do not have seeds. Remember that vascular tissue is specialized tissue that transports water and nutrients throughout the plant. The development of vascular tissue allowed these plants to grow much taller than nonvascular plants, forming ancient swamp forests. Most of these large vascular seedless plants are now extinct, but their smaller relatives still remain. Vascular tissue includes xylem, which transports water from the roots to the rest of the plant; and phloem, which transports sugars and nutrients from the leaves throughout the plant. Answer: vascular tissue", "output": [ "What is the specialized tissue that transports water and nutrients throughout the plant and allows these plants to grow taller?" ] }, { "id": "task594-59abe2b5ac5849d4b9b89f02e57a417a", "input": "Passage: Most invertebrates reproduce sexually. Diploid adults produce haploid gametes (sperm and eggs). In some species, the same individuals produce both sperm and eggs. In other species, sperm and eggs are produced by separate male and female individuals. Fertilization occurs when a sperm and an egg fuse to form a diploid zygote. The zygote develops into an embryo and eventually into a new adult organism. On the way, it may pass through one or more larval stages. A larva (plural, larvae) is a juvenile, or immature, stage of an animal. It is generally quite different in form and function from the adult form of the species. For example, the larva may be able to swim freely, whereas the adult must remain permanently attached to a solid surface. Answer: sexually", "output": [ "How do invertebrates reproduce?" ] }, { "id": "task594-424f34b9f4b24973be56af4bf78cbb6a", "input": "Passage: Iron filings are attracted by a magnet. This is a physical property of iron but not of most other materials, including sand. How could you use this difference in physical properties to separate a mixture of iron filings and sand?. Answer: physical", "output": [ "Attraction of a material by a magnet is an example of what type of property?" ] }, { "id": "task594-82ab08113a31460793719190dc773b18", "input": "Passage: Generators may be set up to produce either alternating or direct current. Generators in cars and most power plants produce alternating current. Answer: alternating current", "output": [ "What type of current do generators in cars use?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b13e7e01041e4b2eb51b17bbdd35caa7", "input": "Passage: All forms of life are built of cells. A cell is the basic unit of the structure and function of living things. Answer: cell", "output": [ "What is the basic unit of structure and function of living things?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0658b9760b714ad2a2def569ec0b0365", "input": "Passage: Chemical reactions are occurring all around you. Plants use sunlight to drive their photosynthetic process and produce energy. Cars and other vehicles burn gasoline in order to power their engines. Batteries use electrochemical reactions to produce energy and power many everyday devices. Many chemical reactions are going on inside you as well, especially during the digestion of food. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "What process allows plants to convert light energy into sugars and energy for food?" ] }, { "id": "task594-578033fac6484400b35321b41e80009a", "input": "Passage: Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist a change in its motion. The inertia of an object depends on its mass. Objects with greater mass have greater inertia. To overcome inertia, an unbalanced force must be applied to an object. Answer: inertia", "output": [ "The tendency of an object to resist a change in its motion is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ed031ca093c64d2db70d5944d0b2bc31", "input": "Passage: The nucleus contains the genetic material of the cell. Answer: nucleus", "output": [ "What organelle contains the genetic material of the cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-48479e53d5b2447783f6531c806f67e1", "input": "Passage: 20.3 Terrestrial Biomes Earth has terrestrial and aquatic biomes. Aquatic biomes include both freshwater and marine environments. There are eight major terrestrial biomes: tropical rainforests, savannas, subtropical deserts, chaparral, temperate grasslands, temperate forests, boreal forests, and Arctic tundra. The same biome can occur in different geographic locations with similar climates. Temperature and precipitation, and variations in both, are key abiotic factors that shape the composition of animal and plant communities in terrestrial biomes. Some biomes, such as temperate grasslands and temperate forests, have distinct seasons with cold and hot weather alternating throughout the year. In warm, moist biomes, such as the tropical rainforest, net primary productivity is high as warm temperatures, abundant water, and a year-round growing season fuel plant growth. Other biomes, such as deserts and tundra, have low primary productivity due to extreme temperatures and a shortage of water. Answer: water", "output": [ "Terrestrial biomes are associated with land, while aquatic ones are associated with what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4d3b67d5701d42069af3eeeec1a55dbf", "input": "Passage: New mitochondria and chloroplasts are produced through a process similar to binary fission . Bacteria also reproduce through binary fission. Answer: binary fission", "output": [ "How do bacteria reproduce?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f6378610d219499f9b7c4edf8257a547", "input": "Passage: Blood Supply The major function of the lungs is to perform gas exchange, which requires blood from the pulmonary circulation. This blood supply contains deoxygenated blood and travels to the lungs where erythrocytes, also known as red blood cells, pick up oxygen to be transported to tissues throughout the body. The pulmonary artery is an artery that arises from the pulmonary trunk and carries deoxygenated, arterial blood to the alveoli. The pulmonary artery branches multiple times as it follows the bronchi, and each branch becomes progressively smaller in diameter. One arteriole and an accompanying venule supply and drain one pulmonary lobule. As they near the alveoli, the pulmonary arteries become the pulmonary capillary network. The pulmonary capillary network consists of tiny vessels with very thin walls that lack smooth muscle fibers. The capillaries branch and follow the bronchioles and structure of the alveoli. It is at this point that the capillary wall meets the alveolar wall, creating the respiratory membrane. Once the blood is oxygenated, it drains from the alveoli by way of multiple pulmonary veins, which exit the lungs through the hilum. Answer: blood", "output": [ "The lungs perform gas exchange using air and what fluid, which is coming and going from the heart?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9552ff6ed2e24a6bbc461429512c1dcd", "input": "Passage: Many lakes are not natural, but are human-made. People dam a stream in a suitable spot. Water backs up behind the dam, creating a lake. These lakes are \"reservoirs\" ( Figure below ). Answer: resevoirs", "output": [ "A man made lake is known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-19b1185ae5364fe99f0b3952b6a649a4", "input": "Passage: Carbon cycles quickly between organisms and the atmosphere. Cellular respiration releases carbon into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. Carbon is also released when organisms decompose. Human actions, such as the burning of fossil fuels, also release carbon into the atmosphere. Natural processes, such as volcanic eruptions, release carbon from magma into the atmosphere. Warm ocean waters also release carbon, whereas cold ocean water dissolves carbon from the atmosphere. Photosynthesis (autotrophs) removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and uses it to make organic compounds. Carbon cycles far more slowly through geological processes such as sedimentation. Runoff, rivers and streams dissolve carbon in rocks and carry it to the ocean. Sediments from dead organisms may form fossil fuels or carbon-containing rocks. Carbon may be stored in sedimentary rock for millions of years. Answer: millions of years", "output": [ "How long can carbon be stored in sedimentary rock?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c676e3a297cd415ebd5fdc6f34762a38", "input": "Passage: The chemical formulas for covalent compounds are referred to as molecular formulas because these compounds exist as separate, discrete molecules. Typically, a molecular formula begins with the nonmetal that is closest to the lower left corner of the periodic table, except that hydrogen is almost never written first (H2O is the prominent exception). Then the other nonmetal symbols are listed. Numerical subscripts are used if there is more than one of a particular atom. For example, we have already seen CH4, the molecular formula for methane. Naming binary (two-element) covalent compounds is similar to naming simple ionic compounds. The first element in the formula is simply listed using the name of the element. The second element is named by taking the stem of the element name and adding the suffix -ide. A system of numerical prefixes is used to specify the number of atoms in a molecule. Table 4.1 \"Numerical Prefixes for Naming Binary Covalent Compounds\" lists these numerical prefixes. Normally, no prefix is added to the first element’s name if there is only one atom of the first element in a molecule. If the second element is oxygen, the trailing vowel is usually omitted from the end of a polysyllabic prefix but not a monosyllabic one (that is, we would say “monoxide” rather than “monooxide” and “trioxide” rather than “troxide”). Table 4.1 Numerical Prefixes for Naming Binary Covalent Compounds Number of Atoms in Compound. Answer: molecular formulas", "output": [ "What are the chemical formulas for covalent compounds referred to as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-64f82194a9e34fb086fbc36b4cb760b7", "input": "Passage: Matter can be classified on the basis of how light interacts with it. Matter may be transparent, translucent, or opaque. Each type of matter is illustrated in Figure below . Answer: light", "output": [ "Matter can be classified on the basis of how what interacts with it?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c175c8c44f6848f890cf1fc424d69653", "input": "Passage: The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are located close together at the base of the brain. Answer: the brain", "output": [ "The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are located near the base of this organ?" ] }, { "id": "task594-89b3900969f64f35b434a120b011aa08", "input": "Passage: Different pathogens spread in different ways. Some pathogens spread through food. They cause food borne illnesses, which are discussed in a previous concept. Some pathogens spread through water. Giardia lamblia is one example. Water can be boiled to kill Giardia and most other pathogens. Answer: pathogens", "output": [ "Water can be boiled to kill giardia and most other what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ecc8466a5e9d432a9d8375c83b9234e1", "input": "Passage: You encounter solids and liquids in many forms in your everyday life. Solids, unlike liquids, hold a definite shape. Both solids and liquids hold a definite volume. However, on a molecular level, these two states of matter are quite different. In this lesson we will introduce some of the properties of liquids and solids that affect your interactions with the substances all around you. Answer: volume", "output": [ "Both solids and liquids hold a definite what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-15fc02d0c4d04118959dbc70e386f52d", "input": "Passage: Oxygen has an oxidation state of -2 in most of its compounds. Oxygen is the second most electronegative element, so it also tends to be assigned all shared electrons. Exceptions include O 2 (oxidation state = 0), peroxides, in which two oxygen atoms are connected by a single bond (oxidation state usually = -1), and any compound in which oxygen is bonded to fluorine (pretty rare and reactive). Answer: oxygen", "output": [ "What is the name of the second most electronegative element?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6d9a90f1d15248dfbbca6a9553389367", "input": "Passage: A combustion engine is a complex machine that burns fuel to produce thermal energy and then uses the energy to do work. In a car, the engine does the work of providing kinetic energy that turns the wheels. The combustion engine in a car is a type of engine called an internal combustion engine. (Another type of combustion engine is an external combustion engine. ). Answer: internal combustion engine", "output": [ "What is the name of the type of combustion engine that you would find in a car?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ed3dbe9619b849008b63dec76352f09f", "input": "Passage: 4. Electromagnetic energy is energy that travels through space as electrical and magnetic waves. The light flooding the stage in the Figure above is one type of electromagnetic energy. Other types include radio waves, microwaves, X rays, and gamma rays. Answer: electromagnetic energy", "output": [ "What type of energy travels through space as electrical and magnetic waves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-178fa8d6c1704873a880ae686a7ac62f", "input": "Passage: Examples of acceleration include a person riding a carousel and a skydiver in free fall. Answer: acceleration", "output": [ "What are these examples of: a person riding a carousel and a skydiver in free fall?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ddd1cd46055c4dec9fd824ab25100479", "input": "Passage: Regulation of transcription in prokaryotes typically involves operons. An operon is a region of DNA that consists of one or more genes that encode the proteins needed for a specific function. The operon also includes a promoter and an operator. The operator is a region of the operon where regulatory proteins bind. It is located near the promoter and helps regulate transcription of the operon genes. Answer: operon", "output": [ "Which region of dna consists of one or more genes that encode the proteins needed for a specific function?" ] }, { "id": "task594-05f84f5eff7e447ca6327e904d8f8754", "input": "Passage: The thermosphere is the layer above the mesosphere. Temperature increases with altitude in this layer. The northern and southern lights occur here. Answer: thermosphere", "output": [ "In which sphere of the atmosphere do the northern and southern lights occur?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3a1f59c2e66c4278a4cbae01a38d35e6", "input": "Passage: 46.4 The interplay of tropic and sex hormones regulates mammalian reproduction. Answer: tropic and sex", "output": [ "What two types of hormones regulate mammalian reproduction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2cf1e032f586457a97edcfe785985953", "input": "Passage: Sharks have well-developed sense organs that aid them in locating prey, including a keen sense of smell and electroreception, with the latter perhaps the most sensitive of any animal. Organs called ampullae of Lorenzini allow sharks to detect the electromagnetic fields that are produced by all living things, including their prey. Electroreception has only been observed in aquatic or amphibious animals. Sharks, together with most fishes and aquatic and larval amphibians, also have a sense organ called the lateral line, which is used to detect movement and vibration in the surrounding water, and is often considered homologous to “hearing” in terrestrial vertebrates. The lateral line is visible as a darker stripe that runs along the length of a fish’s body. Sharks reproduce sexually, and eggs are fertilized internally. Most species are ovoviviparous: The fertilized egg is retained in the oviduct of the mother’s body and the embryo is nourished by the egg yolk. The eggs hatch in the uterus, and young are born alive and fully functional. Some species of sharks are oviparous: They lay eggs that hatch outside of the mother’s body. Embryos are protected by a shark egg case or “mermaid’s purse” (Figure 29.12) that has the consistency of leather. The shark egg case has tentacles that snag in seaweed and give the newborn shark cover. A few species of sharks are viviparous: The young develop within the mother’s body and she gives live birth. Answer: lateral line", "output": [ "What organ do most fish have that is used to detect movement and vibration in the surrounding water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5ffb1d11e8ac474f92df3c63ccb013be", "input": "Passage: Some substances in food cannot be broken down into nutrients. They remain behind in the digestive system after the nutrients are absorbed. Any substances in food that cannot be digested and absorbed pass out of the body as solid waste. The process of passing solid food waste out of the body is called elimination. Answer: elimination", "output": [ "What is the name of the process in which solid food waste is passed out of the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dd73abbb90604f18aa6d01fe7f8b32fa", "input": "Passage: Another familiar example is the mixing of vinegar and olive oil. Olive oil is a nonpolar substance, while vinegar (which is mostly water and acetic acid) is polar. The result is a heterogeneous mixture that exhibits a bilayer. Answer: heterogeneous", "output": [ "Combining nonpolar olive oil and polar vinegar yields what type of mixture?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7a3d4b61113340ad8d7f1b592fb6a77f", "input": "Passage: We breathe because we need oxygen. Breathing also releases carbon dioxide from our bodies into the air. The respiratory system is the body system that brings air containing oxygen into the body and releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Recall that oxygen is needed to make ATP. Answer: respiratory system", "output": [ "Which system of the body is responsible for bringing air into the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cfbcb53fef8f4d6fa3e7bec98c54f4e8", "input": "Passage: All living organisms must have the ability to reproduce. Living things make more organisms like themselves. Whether the organism is a rabbit, or a tree, or a bacterium, life will create more life. If a species cannot create the next generation, the species will go extinct. Reproduction is the process of making the next generation and may be a sexual or an asexual process. Sexual reproduction involves two parents and the fusion of gametes , haploid sex cells from each parent. Sexual reproduction produces offspring that are genetically unique and increases genetic variation within a species. Asexual reproduction involves only one parent. It occurs without a fusion of gametes and produces offspring that are all genetically identical to the parent. Answer: reproduction", "output": [ "All living organisms must have what ability, in order to make more organisms like themselves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-165150be9f704b0abb7e913d6718d9e9", "input": "Passage: In a chemical reaction, the quantity of each element does not change; there is the same amount of each element in the products as there was in the reactants. This is because matter is always conserved. The conservation of matter is reflected in a reaction’s chemical equation. The same number of atoms of each element appears on each side of the arrow. For example, in the chemical equation above, there are four hydrogen atoms on each side of the arrow. Can you find all four of them on each side of this equation?. Answer: chemical reaction", "output": [ "Matter is always conserved in what type of reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2d6e58a08c994a3f9b4b4d93aac15968", "input": "Passage: Force and electric field are vectors and thus have direction as well as their value. Answer: vectors", "output": [ "Because force and electric field are what, they have direction as well as their value?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9ad54a0ea47e44c1b2f46144e57530c8", "input": "Passage: A compound is a unique substance that forms when two or more elements combine chemically. Compounds form as a result of chemical reactions. The elements in compounds are held together by chemical bonds. A chemical bond is a force of attraction between atoms or ions that share or transfer valence electrons. For a video introduction to compounds, go to this URL: http://www. youtube. com/watch?v=-HjMoTthEZ0 . Answer: chemical reactions", "output": [ "What type of reactions form compounds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4df3dfae7d974ca783f6c2be4795e755", "input": "Passage: A Mendelian trait is a trait that is controlled by a single gene that has two alleles. One of these alleles is dominant and the other is recessive. Many inheritable conditions in humans are passed to offspring in a simple Mendelian fashion. Medical professionals use Mendel’s laws to predict and understand the inheritance of certain traits in their patients. Also, farmers, animal breeders, and horticulturists who breed organisms can predict outcomes of crosses by understanding Mendelian inheritance and probability. Answer: mendelian trait", "output": [ "A trait controlled by a single gene that has two alleles is given what name, after the scientist who studied inheritance?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2f94ec729d384462ae864926bec4ff88", "input": "Passage: Natural resource that is limited in supply and cannot be replaced except over millions of years. Answer: natural resource", "output": [ "What type of resource is limited in supply and cannot be replaced except over millions of years?" ] }, { "id": "task594-733e60601bf942909eca8d1e65246542", "input": "Passage: Acid rain is rain that has a pH less than 5. It forms when nitrogen and sulfur oxides dissolve in rain. Acid rain kills living things and damages buildings and statues. Answer: acid rain", "output": [ "What is formed when nitrogen and sulfur oxides dissolve in rain?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2e88cdebcffc4155929de44bdc99a9f7", "input": "Passage: Atherosclerosis normally begins in late childhood and is typically found in most major arteries. It does not usually have any early symptoms. Causes of atherosclerosis include a high-fat diet, high cholesterol, smoking, obesity, and diabetes. Atherosclerosis becomes a threat to health when the plaque buildup prevents blood circulation in the heart or the brain. A blocked blood vessel in the heart can cause a heart attack. Blockage of the circulation in the brain can cause a stroke. Answer: stroke", "output": [ "What can happen if there is a blockage in circulation to the brain?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2b1f54be4f4842f4adc5f28f8112c51f", "input": "Passage: Photosynthesis provides over 99 percent of the energy for life on earth. A much smaller group of autotrophs - mostly bacteria in dark or low-oxygen environments - produce food using the chemical energy stored in inorganic molecules such as hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, or methane. While photosynthesis transforms light energy to chemical energy, this alternate method of making food transfers chemical energy from inorganic to organic molecules. It is therefore called chemosynthesis , and is characteristic of the tubeworms shown in Figure below . Some of the most recently discovered chemosynthetic bacteria inhabit deep ocean hot water vents or “black smokers. ” There, they use the energy in gases from the Earth’s interior to produce food for a variety of unique heterotrophs: giant tube worms, blind shrimp, giant white crabs, and armored snails. Some scientists think that chemosynthesis may support life below the surface of Mars, Jupiter's moon, Europa, and other planets as well. Ecosystems based on chemosynthesis may seem rare and exotic, but they too illustrate the absolute dependence of heterotrophs on autotrophs for food. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "What process provides over 99 percent of the energy for life on earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-736f09445e714106be7d0a1307a227d0", "input": "Passage: an endocrine system with glands that secrete chemical messenger molecules called hormones. Answer: hormones", "output": [ "What is another term for chemical messenger molecules?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8433c84a4c3a40f38e9907dc00bf85c1", "input": "Passage: Forces between Molecules Under appropriate conditions, the attractions between all gas molecules will cause them to form liquids or solids. This is due to intermolecular forces, not intramolecular forces. Intramolecular forces are those within the molecule that keep the molecule together, for example, the bonds between the atoms. Intermolecular forces are the attractions between molecules, which determine many of the physical properties of a substance. Figure 10.5 illustrates these different molecular forces. The strengths of these attractive forces vary widely, though usually the IMFs between small molecules are weak compared to the intramolecular forces that bond atoms together within a molecule. For example, to overcome the IMFs in one mole of liquid HCl and convert it into gaseous HCl requires only about 17 kilojoules. However, to break the covalent bonds between the hydrogen and chlorine atoms in one mole of HCl requires about 25 times more energy—430 kilojoules. Answer: gas", "output": [ "Under appropriate conditions, the attractions between all molecules in what state will cause them to form liquids or solids?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3a23f62476924d77997ab00fc414aeb8", "input": "Passage: Most of the steps of cellular respiration take place in the mitochondria. Answer: mitochondria", "output": [ "Where do most of the steps of cellular respiration take place?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d077fe181886484da911a652a3c82bd3", "input": "Passage: Even though they are very strong, bones can fracture , or break. Fractures can happen at different places on a bone. They are usually caused by excess bending stress on the bone. Bending stress is what causes a pencil to break if you bend it too far. Answer: excessive bending stress", "output": [ "What usually causes fractures on a bone?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2d151d0d59514b1fa22d1c9cc23568d4", "input": "Passage: Nervous system Most nematodes possess four longitudinal nerve cords that run along the length of the body in dorsal, ventral, and lateral positions. The ventral nerve cord is better developed than the dorsal or lateral cords. All nerve cords fuse at the anterior end, around the pharynx, to form head ganglia or the “brain” of the worm (which take the form of a ring around the pharynx) as well as at the posterior end to form the tail ganglia. In C. elegans, the nervous system accounts for nearly one-third of the total number of cells in the animal. Reproduction Nematodes employ a variety of reproductive strategies that range from monoecious to dioecious to parthenogenic, depending upon the species under consideration. elegans is a monoecious species and shows development of ova contained in a uterus as well as sperm contained in the spermatheca. The uterus has an external opening known as the vulva. The female genital pore is near the middle of the body, whereas the male’s is at the tip. Specialized structures at the tail of the male keep him in place while he deposits sperm with copulatory spicules. Fertilization is internal, and embryonic development starts very soon after fertilization. The embryo is released from the vulva during the gastrulation stage. The embryonic development stage lasts for 14 hours; development then continues through four successive larval stages with ecdysis between each stage—L1, L2, L3, and L4—ultimately leading to the development of a young male or female adult worm. Adverse environmental conditions like overcrowding and lack of food can result in the formation of an intermediate larval stage known as the dauer larva. Answer: vulva", "output": [ "The uterus has an external opening known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f8850f3c64fd4f25993d2ffbdfdd3638", "input": "Passage: The girl pictured above became negatively charged because electrons flowed from the van de Graaff generator to her. Whenever electrons are transferred between objects, neutral matter becomes charged. This occurs even with individual atoms. Atoms are neutral in electric charge because they have the same number of negative electrons as positive protons. However, if atoms lose or gain electrons, they become charged particles called ions. You can see how this happens in the Figure below . When an atom loses electrons, it becomes a positively charged ion, or cation. When an atom gains electrons, it becomes a negative charged ion, or anion. Answer: electrons", "output": [ "Gain or loss of what causes an atom to become a negatively or positively charged ion?" ] }, { "id": "task594-551d6fd1944042879ad7f3304bee0603", "input": "Passage: A human sperm is a tiny cell with a tail. A human egg is much larger. Both cells are mature haploid gametes that are capable of fertilization. What process is shown in this photograph?. Answer: human egg", "output": [ "Which is larger: the human sperm or the human egg?" ] }, { "id": "task594-448d2513e2ec4250a2d439945e6f9da8", "input": "Passage: Neural Controls The walls of the alimentary canal contain a variety of sensors that help regulate digestive functions. These include mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors, and osmoreceptors, which are capable of detecting mechanical, chemical, and osmotic stimuli, respectively. For example, these receptors can sense when the presence of food has caused the stomach to expand, whether food particles have been sufficiently broken down, how much liquid is present, and the type of nutrients in the food (lipids, carbohydrates, and/or proteins). Stimulation of these receptors provokes an appropriate reflex that furthers the process of digestion. This may entail sending a message that activates the glands that secrete digestive juices into the lumen, or it may mean the stimulation of muscles within the alimentary canal, thereby activating peristalsis and segmentation that move food along the intestinal tract. The walls of the entire alimentary canal are embedded with nerve plexuses that interact with the central nervous system and other nerve plexuses—either within the same digestive organ or in different ones. These interactions prompt several types of reflexes. Extrinsic nerve plexuses orchestrate long reflexes, which involve the central and autonomic nervous systems and work in response to stimuli from outside the digestive system. Short reflexes, on the other hand, are orchestrated by intrinsic nerve plexuses within the alimentary canal wall. These two plexuses and their connections were introduced earlier as the enteric nervous system. Short reflexes regulate activities in one area of the digestive tract and may coordinate local peristaltic movements and stimulate digestive secretions. For example, the sight, smell, and taste of food initiate long reflexes that begin with a sensory neuron delivering a signal to the medulla oblongata. The response to the signal is to. Answer: digestive", "output": [ "The alimentary canal is associated with what organ system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bf9d2e2decc449528f2efc5ab44c12d9", "input": "Passage: Unlike sponge adults, sponge larvae can swim. They have cilia that propel them through the water. As larvae develop and grow, they become more similar to an adult sponge and lose their ability to swim. Answer: cilia", "output": [ "What helps to propel sponge larvae through the water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3bc6c187226a4cd4822b624c38cf05bd", "input": "Passage: Figure below shows what happens to waves near shore. As waves move into shallow water, they start to touch the bottom. The base of the waves drag and slow. Soon the waves slow down and pile up. They get steeper and unstable as the top moves faster than the base. When they reach the shore, the waves topple over and break. Answer: topple and break", "output": [ "What happens when waves reach the shore?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ca7b3dac792b43ac8d7ca9476789b043", "input": "Passage: Collisions between gas particles and between particles and the container walls are elastic collisions . An elastic collision is one in which there is no overall loss of kinetic energy. Kinetic energy may be transferred from one particle to another during an elastic collision, but there is no change in the total energy of the colliding particles. Answer: elastic", "output": [ "What sorts of collisions do not result in an overall loss of kinetic energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7339667df50a418383f67532104bf347", "input": "Passage: In the study of thermochemical processes, things are viewed from the point of view of the system. A chemical reaction or physical change is endothermic if heat is absorbed by the system from the surroundings. In the course of an endothermic process, the system gains heat from the surroundings and so the temperature of the surroundings decreases. The quantity of heat for a process is represented by the letter . The sign of for an endothermic process is positive because the system is gaining heat. A chemical reaction or physical change is exothermic if heat is released by the system into the surroundings. Because the surroundings is gaining heat from the system, the temperature of the surroundings increases. The sign of for an exothermic process is negative because the system is losing heat. Answer: exothermic", "output": [ "If heat is released by the system into the surroundings, a chemical reaction or physical change is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2f8dc1a4834041939e0f012dbf577cf0", "input": "Passage: 25°C is 4.83. Butyric acid is responsible for the foul smell of rancid butter. Answer: butyric acid", "output": [ "What is responsible for the foul smell of rancid butt?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9f5d3557bc9245bfb2c5b108d4167625", "input": "Passage: Chemistry in Everyday Life Culinary Aspects of Chemistry Cooking is essentially synthetic chemistry that happens to be safe to eat. There are a number of examples of acid-base chemistry in the culinary world. One example is the use of baking soda, or sodium bicarbonate in baking. NaHCO3 is a base. When it reacts with an acid such as lemon juice, buttermilk, or sour cream in a batter, bubbles of carbon dioxide gas are formed from decomposition of the resulting carbonic acid, and the batter “rises. ” Baking powder is a combination of sodium bicarbonate, and one or more acid salts that react when the two chemicals come in contact with water in the batter. Many people like to put lemon juice or vinegar, both of which are acids, on cooked fish (Figure 14.15). It turns out that fish have volatile amines (bases) in their systems, which are neutralized by the acids to yield involatile ammonium salts. This reduces the odor of the fish, and also adds a “sour” taste that we seem to enjoy. Answer: due to neutralization", "output": [ "Why does the fish odour diminish when you put lemon juice over cooked fish?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9d57d8f7a2494b369d1548e71e17f0bf", "input": "Passage: Reaction with Elements Oxygen reacts directly at room temperature or at elevated temperatures with all other elements except the noble gases, the halogens, and few second- and third-row transition metals of low reactivity (those with higher reduction potentials than copper). Rust is an example of the reaction of oxygen with iron. The more active metals form peroxides or superoxides. Less active metals and the nonmetals give oxides. Two examples of these reactions are: 2Mg(s) + O 2(g) ⟶ 2MgO(s) P 4(s) + 5O 2(g) ⟶ P 4 O 10(s) The oxides of halogens, at least one of the noble gases, and metals with higher reduction potentials than copper do not form by the direct action of the elements with oxygen. Answer: iron", "output": [ "Rust is an example of the reaction of oxygen with what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ca05327a27064011817ccdefd937d8c0", "input": "Passage: Vitamins are organic compounds that the body needs in small amounts to function properly. Humans need 13 different vitamins. Some of them are listed below ( Table below ). The table also shows how much of each vitamin you need every day. Vitamins have many roles in the body. For example, Vitamin A helps maintain good vision. Vitamin B 9 helps form red blood cells. Vitamin K is needed for blood to clot when you have a cut or other wound. Answer: vitamins", "output": [ "What are the organic compounds that the body needs in small amounts to function properly; humans need 13 different ones?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bd5c82480ebd49f29a9851fffc2ed3c3", "input": "Passage: Arachnids have four pairs of legs, specialized appendages, and a fused head and thorax. Answer: 4", "output": [ "How many pairs of legs do arachnids have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6bc8cd23f5d04cb28f03ea881000ec20", "input": "Passage: When two or more waves meet, they interact with each other. The interaction of waves with other waves is called wave interference . Wave interference may occur when two waves that are traveling in opposite directions meet. The two waves pass through each other, and this affects their amplitude. Amplitude is the maximum distance the particles of the medium move from their resting positions when a wave passes through. How amplitude is affected by wave interference depends on the type of interference. Interference can be constructive or destructive. Answer: wave interference", "output": [ "What is the interaction of waves with other waves called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7eccf80f9c244a8f9beddee4ab93447c", "input": "Passage: into the brain, and the posterior region becomes the spinal cord. Tissues at the edges of the neural groove, when it closes off, are called the neural crest and migrate through the embryo to give rise to PNS structures as well as some non-nervous tissues. The brain develops from this early tube structure and gives rise to specific regions of the adult brain. As the neural tube grows and differentiates, it enlarges into three vesicles that correspond to the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain regions of the adult brain. Later in development, two of these three vesicles differentiate further, resulting in five vesicles. Those five vesicles can be aligned with the four major regions of the adult brain. The cerebrum is formed directly from the telencephalon. The diencephalon is the only region that keeps its embryonic name. The mesencephalon, metencephalon, and myelencephalon become the brain stem. The cerebellum also develops from the metencephalon and is a separate region of the adult brain. The spinal cord develops out of the rest of the neural tube and retains the tube structure, with the nervous tissue thickening and the hollow center becoming a very small central canal through the cord. The rest of the hollow center of the neural tube corresponds to open spaces within the brain called the ventricles, where cerebrospinal fluid is found. Answer: hindbrain", "output": [ "The brain develops from this early tube structure and gives rise to specific regions of the adult brain. as the neural tube grows and differentiates, it enlarges into three vesicles that correspond to the forebrain, midbrain, and this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7f045bd855d34108b2404a9ea624c035", "input": "Passage: Alkenes can have different shapes. They can form straight chains, branched chains, or rings. Alkenes with the same atoms but different shapes are called isomers. Smaller alkenes have relatively high boiling and melting points, so they are gases at room temperature. Larger alkenes have lower boiling and melting points, so they are liquids or waxy solids at room temperature. Answer: isomers", "output": [ "Alkenes with the same atoms but different shapes are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a4add2043b74497381fc04834ac193cf", "input": "Passage: Lipid Absorption About 95 percent of lipids are absorbed in the small intestine. Bile salts not only speed up lipid digestion, they are also essential to the absorption of the end products of lipid digestion. Short-chain fatty acids are relatively water soluble and can enter the absorptive cells (enterocytes) directly. Despite being hydrophobic, the small size of short-chain fatty acids enables them to be absorbed by enterocytes via simple diffusion, and then take the same path as monosaccharides and amino acids into the blood capillary of a villus. The large and hydrophobic long-chain fatty acids and monoacylglycerides are not so easily suspended in the watery intestinal chyme. However, bile salts and lecithin resolve this issue by enclosing them in a micelle, which is a tiny sphere with polar (hydrophilic) ends facing the watery environment and hydrophobic tails turned to the interior, creating a receptive environment for the long-chain fatty acids. The core also includes cholesterol and fat-soluble vitamins. Without micelles, lipids would sit on the surface of chyme and never come in contact with the absorptive surfaces of the epithelial cells. Micelles can easily squeeze between microvilli and get very near the luminal cell surface. At this point, lipid substances exit the micelle and are absorbed via simple diffusion. The free fatty acids and monoacylglycerides that enter the epithelial cells are reincorporated into triglycerides. The triglycerides are mixed with phospholipids and cholesterol, and surrounded with a protein coat. This new complex, called a chylomicron, is a water-soluble lipoprotein. After being processed by the Golgi apparatus, chylomicrons are released from the cell (Figure 23.33). Too big to pass through the basement membranes of blood capillaries, chylomicrons instead enter the large pores of lacteals. The lacteals come together to form the lymphatic vessels. The chylomicrons are transported in the lymphatic vessels and empty through the thoracic duct into the subclavian vein of the circulatory system. Once in the bloodstream, the enzyme lipoprotein lipase breaks down the triglycerides of the chylomicrons into free fatty acids and glycerol. These breakdown products then pass through capillary walls to be used for energy by cells or stored in adipose tissue as fat. Liver cells combine the remaining chylomicron remnants with proteins, forming lipoproteins that transport cholesterol in the blood. Answer: small intestine", "output": [ "About 95 percent of lipids are absorbed in what organ of the digestive system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cd620a11e0b641ba87b9537ed3bbfab7", "input": "Passage: After trees are cut, logging companies often move these materials down a river to a sawmill where they can be shaped into building materials or other products. The logs float on the water because they are less dense than the water they are in. Knowledge of density is important in the characterization and separation of materials. Information about density allows us to make predictions about the behavior of matter. Answer: density", "output": [ "What property allows cut logs to float on water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4bf253dfec344f96ab8f355aa7035c5e", "input": "Passage: After puberty, an egg develops in an ovary about once a month. As you can see in Figure below , the egg rests in a nest of cells called a follicle. The follicle and egg grow larger and go through other changes. Answer: follicle", "output": [ "What is the nest of cell an egg rests in called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8218dbaf150f4ce3b8e62a0aadb1817e", "input": "Passage: At birth, a female’s ovaries contain all the eggs she will ever produce. However, the eggs do not start to mature until she enters puberty. After menarche, one egg typically matures each month until a woman reaches middle adulthood. Answer: puberty", "output": [ "When do the eggs in a female's ovaries start to mature?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fad58460f1a941f7a785404ae85684c8", "input": "Passage: Sperm ( Figure below ), the male reproductive cells, are tiny. In fact, they are the smallest cells in the human body. What do you think a sperm cell looks like? Some people think that it looks like a tadpole. Do you agree?. Answer: sperm", "output": [ "What are the male reproductive cells called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d2662faee40b4439a4d3cde0ef53662b", "input": "Passage: Efforts to reduce future global warming mainly involve energy use. We need to use less energy, for example, by driving more fuel-efficient cars. We also need to switch to energy sources that produce less carbon dioxide, such as solar and wind energy. At the same time, we can increase the amount of carbon dioxide that is removed from air. We can stop destroying forests and plant new ones. Answer: carbon dioxide", "output": [ "Reducing the production of what gas, or removing it from the air, are practices that could reduce global warming?" ] }, { "id": "task594-267e7166334a4c3f947bfff7aee1e1b0", "input": "Passage: A person can live a normal, healthy life with just one kidney. However, at least one kidney must function properly to maintain life. Diseases that threaten the health and functioning of the kidneys include kidney stones, infections, and diabetes. Answer: kidneys", "output": [ "Stones, infections, and diabetes threaten the health and functioning of what paired organs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d8b1e2c999f64ff385f8a00844c94bd6", "input": "Passage: Why is animal communication important? Without it, animals would not be able to live together in groups. Animals that live in groups with other members of their species are called social animals . Social animals include many species of insects, birds, and mammals. Specific examples of social animals are ants, bees, crows, wolves, lions, and humans. To live together with one another, these animals must be able to share information. Answer: social animals", "output": [ "Animals that live in groups with other members of their species are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-350d838bed78405ba2f3249610286b6f", "input": "Passage: When an alkene is acquired by an alkyl halide during an organic reaction. An example of elimination reaction. Answer: elimination", "output": [ "Whan an alkene is aquired by an alkyl halide in an organic reaction, what kind of reaction is this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c35a6bcb98d04cc0aff6ffccf61bbd5a", "input": "Passage: A homogeneous mixture is a mixture in which the composition is uniform throughout the mixture. The salt water described above is homogeneous because the dissolved salt is evenly distributed throughout the entire salt water sample. Often it is easy to confuse a homogeneous mixture with a pure substance because they are both uniform. The difference is that the composition of the substance is always the same. The amount of salt in the salt water can vary from one sample to another. All solutions would be considered homogeneous because the dissolved material is present in the same amount throughout the solution. Answer: uniform composition throughout", "output": [ "What is the most important characteristic of a homogeneous mixture?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5ad7f56429bb400da61a3d469da4666a", "input": "Passage: Some modern seed plants are gymnosperms that produce seeds in cones. Answer: gymnosperms", "output": [ "What term is used to describe modern seed plants that produce seeds in cones?" ] }, { "id": "task594-908670ebfb7041a5852b95f873ed3c35", "input": "Passage: Pedigree for Color Blindness. Color blindness is an X-linked recessive trait. Mothers pass the recessive allele for the trait to their sons, who pass it to their daughters. Answer: recessive", "output": [ "What type of x-linked trait is color blindness?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8786f3d6167c43bfa4edd508a8ac5d72", "input": "Passage: Soil formation requires weathering. Where there is less weathering, soils are thinner. However, soluble minerals may be present. Where there is intense weathering, soils may be thick. Minerals and nutrients would have been washed out. Soil development takes a very long time. It may take hundreds or even thousands of years to form the fertile upper layer of soil. Soil scientists estimate that in the very best soil forming conditions, soil forms at a rate of about 1mm/year. In poor conditions, it may take thousands of years!. Answer: weathering", "output": [ "What slow process is required for formation of soil?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5d8bfe2d06b4450d9667f16cff298152", "input": "Passage: The nitrogen cycle moves nitrogen back and forth between the atmosphere and organisms. Bacteria change nitrogen gas from the atmosphere to nitrogen compounds that plants can absorb. Other bacteria change nitrogen compounds back to nitrogen gas, which re-enters the atmosphere. Answer: organisms", "output": [ "The nitrogen cycle moves nitrogen back and forth between the atmosphere and what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-69056cbdf0fe432784da036a4fc7198a", "input": "Passage: The ostrich egg - unfertilized, of course. Yes, this egg, just like a human ovum, is just one cell. The egg shell membrane encloses the nucleus containing the genetic material and the cytoplasm. Answer: the nucleus", "output": [ "What part of an egg contains the genetic material ?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7f39b1e4d10d4e198c85832b9101f6f2", "input": "Passage: In science, sound is defined as the transfer of energy from a vibrating object in waves that travel through matter. Most people commonly use the term sound to mean what they hear when sound waves enter their ears. The tree above generated sound waves when it fell to the ground, so it made sound according to the scientific definition. But the sound wasn’t detected by a person’s ears if there was nobody in the forest. So the answer to the riddle is both yes and no!. Answer: sound", "output": [ "In science, what is defined as the transfer of energy from a vibrating object in waves that travel through matter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1f8e5e3cb44548e28c9c7d6719e5fc8a", "input": "Passage: “Municipal” refers to the community. Households and businesses in a community can pollute the water supply. Municipal pollution comes from sewage, storm drains, septic tanks, boats, and runoff from yards. For example:. Answer: municipal", "output": [ "What type of pollution comes from sewage, storm drains, septic tanks, boats, and runoff from yards?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1c28b21906cd424faaa902965ab31491", "input": "Passage: Bacteria are so small that they can only be seen with a microscope. When viewed under the microscope, they have three distinct shapes ( Figure below ). Bacteria can be identified and classified by their shape:. Answer: by their shape", "output": [ "How are bacteria identified and classified?" ] }, { "id": "task594-53b89b6b33354d27b5d33fd310b5cc6b", "input": "Passage: All cells have certain parts in common. These parts include the cell membrane, cytoplasm, DNA, and ribosomes. Answer: ribosomes", "output": [ "All cells have certain parts in common. these parts include the cell membrane, cytoplasm, dna, and what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-72c02186e2b6430c8723c9836b41e486", "input": "Passage: The dermis is the inner layer of skin. It is made of tough connective tissue. The dermis is attached to the epidermis by fibers made of the protein collagen. The dermis is where most skin structures are located. Look again at Figure above . You’ll see that the dermis has blood vessels and nerve endings. The nerve endings explain why skin can sense pain, pressure, and temperature. If you cut your skin and it bleeds, the cut has penetrated the dermis and damaged a blood vessel. The cut probably hurts as well because of the nerve endings in this skin layer. Answer: the dermis", "output": [ "What is the inner layer of skin called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c3a7a5683e604e9eb40cc562032fcd89", "input": "Passage: It is hard to overstate the importance of hydrocarbons to modern life. Hydrocarbons have even been called the driving force of western civilization. You saw some ways they are used in Figure above . Several other ways are illustrated in Figure below . Their most important use is as fuels. Gasoline, natural gas, fuel oil, diesel fuel, jet fuel, coal, kerosene, and propane are just some of the hydrocarbon compounds that are burned for fuel. Hydrocarbons are also used to manufacture many products, including plastics and synthetic fabrics such as polyester. Answer: hydrocarbons", "output": [ "What compounds, which serve as fuels and are used in manufacturing, are called the driving force of western civilization?" ] }, { "id": "task594-74521ec7068e4d889a4bfb59e52f093a", "input": "Passage: Wavelength is one way of measuring the size of waves. It is the distance between two corresponding points on adjacent waves, and it is usually measured in meters. How it is measured is a little different for transverse and longitudinal waves. Answer: waves", "output": [ "What do wavelengths measure the size of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fd208fa38b764c44acb988a5a6a16996", "input": "Passage: After a polypeptide chain is synthesized, it may undergo additional processes. For example, it may assume a folded shape due to interactions among its amino acids. It may also bind with other polypeptides or with different types of molecules, such as lipids or carbohydrates. Many proteins travel to the Golgi apparatus to be modified for the specific job they will do. You can see how this occurs by watching the animation at this link: http://vcell. ndsu. edu/animations/proteinmodification/movie-flash. htm . Answer: golgi apparatus", "output": [ "What part of a cell do proteins travel to to be modified for the specific job they will do?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8add2a25bf91461ea8e6aa38635893f7", "input": "Passage: O 3(g) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ → O(g) + O 2(g) The reactive oxygen atoms recombine with molecular oxygen to complete the ozone cycle. The presence of stratospheric ozone decreases the frequency of skin cancer and other damaging effects of ultraviolet radiation. It has been clearly demonstrated that chlorofluorocarbons, CFCs (known commercially as Freons), which were present as aerosol propellants in spray cans and as refrigerants, caused depletion of ozone in the stratosphere. This occurred because ultraviolet light also causes CFCs to decompose, producing atomic chlorine. The chlorine atoms react with ozone molecules, resulting in a net removal of O3 molecules from stratosphere. This process is explored in detail in our coverage of chemical kinetics. There is a worldwide effort to reduce the amount of CFCs used commercially, and the ozone hole is already beginning to decrease in size as atmospheric concentrations of atomic chlorine decrease. While ozone in the stratosphere helps protect us, ozone in the troposphere is a problem. This ozone is a toxic component of photochemical smog. The uses of ozone depend on its reactivity with other substances. It can be used as a bleaching agent for oils, waxes, fabrics, and starch: It oxidizes the colored compounds in these substances to colorless compounds. It is an alternative to chlorine as a disinfectant for water. Answer: ozone", "output": [ "The presence of what stratospheric gas layer decreases the frequency of skin cancer and other damaging effects of ultraviolet radiation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f8008561352a4f47b59047af435bb9ac", "input": "Passage: Oceanic crust is thinner and denser than continental crust. Answer: oceanic", "output": [ "What crust is thinner and denser than continental crust?" ] }, { "id": "task594-744319a96b7c4a37a06460cd7a8192f8", "input": "Passage: Kidneys: The Main Osmoregulatory Organ The kidneys, illustrated in Figure 41.4, are a pair of bean-shaped structures that are located just below and posterior to the liver in the peritoneal cavity. The adrenal glands sit on top of each kidney and are also called the suprarenal glands. Kidneys filter blood and purify it. All the blood in the human body is filtered many times a day by the kidneys; these organs use up almost 25 percent of the oxygen absorbed through the lungs to perform this function. Oxygen allows the kidney cells to efficiently manufacture chemical energy in the form of ATP through aerobic respiration. The filtrate coming out of the kidneys is called urine. Answer: peritoneal cavity", "output": [ "The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped structures that are located just below and posterior to the liver in this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d0c79d63b6744438998e890ea5e29974", "input": "Passage: The oceans are most polluted along coasts. Why do you think that's the case? Of course, it's because most pollution enters the oceans from the land. Runoff and rivers carry the majority of pollution into the ocean. Many cities dump their wastewater , water mixed with waste, directly into coastal waters. In some parts of the world, raw sewage and trash may be thrown into the water ( Figure below ). Coastal water may become so polluted that people get sick if they swim in it or eat seafood from it. The polluted water may also kill fish and other ocean life. Answer: along coasts", "output": [ "Where are the oceans most polluted?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f51fcf74e22841fdaea6e2600db3d7ec", "input": "Passage: We can see two general types of effects when humans are exposed to radiation. Low-level exposure can lead to development of cancer. The regulatory processes regulating cell growth are disrupted, leading to uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells. Acute exposure can produce nausea, weakness, skin burns, and internal tissue damage. Cancer patients receiving radiation therapy experience these symptoms, but the radiation is targeted to a specific site in the body so that the damage is primarily to the cancer cells and the patient is able to recover from the exposure. Answer: cancer", "output": [ "Low-level exposure of humans to radiation can cause what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ee0045158cc84559bdede8f9de9ae2de", "input": "Passage: We will use sodium chloride as an example to demonstrate the nature of the ionic bond and how it forms. As you know, sodium is a metal and loses its one valence electron to become a cation. Chlorine is a nonmetal and gains one electron in becoming an anion. Both achieve a noble-gas electron configuration. However, electrons cannot be simply “lost” to nowhere in particular. A more accurate way to describe what is happening is that a single electron is transferred from the sodium atom to the chlorine atom as shown below. Answer: anion", "output": [ "Chlorine is a nonmetal and gains one electron in becoming a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3f4f647d6b584f87b800f0c7b22ed5f8", "input": "Passage: Polysaccharides are long carbohydrate molecules of repeated monomer units joined together by glycosidic bonds. A polysaccharide may contain anywhere from a few monosaccharides to several thousand monosaccharides. Polysaccharides are also called complex carbohydrates . Polysaccharides have a general formula of C x (H2O) y , where x is usually a large number between 200 and 2500. Considering that the repeating units in the polymer backbone are often six-carbon monosaccharides, the general formula can also be represented as (C 6 H 10 O 5 ) n , where 40≤n≤3000. Answer: polysaccharides", "output": [ "What is the term for long carbohydrate molecules of repeated monomer units joined together by glycosidic bonds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d1c3a357bb2e45c0b235e8d8d3ebf683", "input": "Passage: Reactant concentrations are highest at the beginning of a reaction. The plot of [C] versus tis a curve with a slope that becomes steadily less positive. Answer: beginning", "output": [ "Reactant concentrations are highest at which part of a reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-db7573504c0c4ff7b0acc4b914760e52", "input": "Passage: Besides social insects, animals in many other species also cooperate. For example, in meerkat colonies, young female meerkats act as babysitters. They take care of the baby meerkats while their parents are out looking for food. Answer: babysitters", "output": [ "What do young female meerkats act as in colonies?" ] }, { "id": "task594-06248f6920c54a1d8fef1af490e57ddf", "input": "Passage: Archaea live everywhere on Earth, including extreme environments. Answer: everywhere", "output": [ "Where do archea live?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b42223ef3f764baba9bc46fcc8435a63", "input": "Passage: Penguins are flightless birds that are strong swimmers and spend much of their time in the water. Answer: penguins", "output": [ "What are flightless birds that are strong swimmers and spend much of their time in the water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8371099f9ba249f49d3a64e687a621a6", "input": "Passage: Figure 15.2 All animals that derive energy from food are heterotrophs. The (a) black bear is an omnivore, eating both plants and animals. The (b) heartworm Dirofilaria immitis is a parasite that derives energy from its hosts. It spends its larval stage in mosquitos and its adult stage infesting the hearts of dogs and other mammals, as shown here. (credit a: modification of work by USDA Forest Service; credit b: modification of work by Clyde Robinson). Answer: heterotrophs", "output": [ "All animals that derive energy from food are classified as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cd7a16919ffd4a37a41110fcf669f32b", "input": "Passage: Excretion is the process of removing wastes and excess water from the body. It is one of the major ways the body maintains homeostasis. Although the kidneys are the main organs of excretion, several other organs also excrete wastes. They include the large intestine, liver, skin, and lungs. All of these organs of excretion, along with the kidneys, make up the excretory system . This lesson focuses on the role of the kidneys in excretion. The roles of the other excretory organs are summarized below:. Answer: kidneys", "output": [ "Excretion is the process of removing excess water and wastes from the body. what are the main organs of excretion?" ] }, { "id": "task594-35937f9a8b6948f68f3f878ef0ffc8f5", "input": "Passage: This increase in global temperature will cause the sea level to rise. It is also expected to produce an increase in extreme weather events and change the amount of precipitation. Global warming may also cause food shortages and species extinction. Answer: rise", "output": [ "What will happen to sea levels due to increased global temperatures?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3a1ad6d2b13f4ff29504d4a376f85329", "input": "Passage: As we saw when we studied States of Matter , the driving force for particles in the liquid phase to escape into the gas phase depends on both the temperature and identity of the substance. The vapor pressure of a liquid is a measure of this ability. Specifically, vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by a vapor that is in equilibrium with its solid or liquid phase. For substances with a stronger drive to enter the gas phase, more vapor particles will be present in the same amount of space, resulting in a higher pressure. At a given temperature, the vapor pressures of various liquids depends primarily on the strength of intermolecular attractions between individual particles. Figure below shows the relative vapor pressures of several different substances. Answer: intermolecular", "output": [ "The vapor pressures of various liquids depends primarily on the strength of what kind of attractions between individual particles?" ] }, { "id": "task594-039e8f3b738c462fa78aa0e3951932a2", "input": "Passage: Kidney failure may be treated with dialysis. Answer: kidneys", "output": [ "Dialysis is a treatment for failure of what organs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6fe665d04b394bdfac398d0cc28be62c", "input": "Passage: Photosynthesis provides over 99% of the energy supply for life on Earth. A much smaller group of autotrophs - mostly bacteria in dark or low-oxygen environments - produce food using the chemical energy stored in inorganic molecules such as hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, or methane. While photosynthesis transforms light energy to chemical energy, this alternate method of making food transfers chemical energy from inorganic to organic molecules. It is therefore called chemosynthesis , and is characteristic of the tubeworms shown in Figure below . Some of the most recently discovered chemosynthetic bacteria inhabit deep ocean hot water vents or “black smokers. ” There, they use the energy in gases from the Earth’s interior to produce food for a variety of unique heterotrophs: giant tube worms, blind shrimp, giant white crabs, and armored snails. Some scientists think that chemosynthesis may support life below the surface of Mars, Jupiter's moon, Europa, and other planets as well. Ecosystems based on chemosynthesis may seem rare and exotic, but they too illustrate the absolute dependence of heterotrophs on autotrophs for food. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "What process provides over 99% of the energy supply for life on earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-030f20b574c54e16a5039174e9b34bf8", "input": "Passage: Sound intensity levels are quoted in decibels (dB) much more often than sound intensities in watts per meter squared. Decibels are the unit of choice in the scientific literature as well as in the popular media. The reasons for this choice of units are related to how we perceive sounds. How our ears perceive sound can be more accurately described by the logarithm of the intensity rather than directly to the intensity. The sound intensity level β in decibels of a sound having an intensity I in watts per meter squared is defined to be. Answer: decibels", "output": [ "What is the measure of sound intensity levels?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f42cb9035ee44961a48d786fa8f033e7", "input": "Passage: synostoses and fusing the bony components together into the single hip bone of the adult. Similarly, synostoses unite the sacral vertebrae that fuse together to form the adult sacrum. Answer: adult sacrum", "output": [ "Synostoses unite the sacral vertebrae that fuse together to form the what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7bdd6c3c4b284fe8a863a73b78d87920", "input": "Passage: Radioisotopes are widely used in medical diagnosis. These isotopes need to have short half-lives so that they can be administered in very low doses, thus minimizing damage to cells. Answer: radioisotopes", "output": [ "What type of isotopes have short half-lives and are given in very low doses?" ] }, { "id": "task594-61a0d241699243508cf9dda80353d9ec", "input": "Passage: Muscles That Move the Tongue Although the tongue is obviously important for tasting food, it is also necessary for mastication, deglutition (swallowing), and speech (Figure 11.11 and Figure 11.12). Because it is so moveable, the tongue facilitates complex speech patterns and sounds. Answer: tongue", "output": [ "Besides tasting food, what organ is necessary for mastication, deglutition (swallowing), and speech?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1b79b4cb6c7a4097b10e99d3f8d6d802", "input": "Passage: Acids and bases are important in living things because most enzymes can do their job only at a certain level of acidity. Cells secrete acids and bases to maintain the proper pH for enzymes to work. For example, every time you digest food, acids and bases are at work in your digestive system. Consider the enzyme pepsin, which helps break down proteins in the stomach. Pepsin needs an acidic environment to do its job, and the stomach secretes a strong acid that allows pepsin to work. However, when stomach contents enter the small intestine, the acid must be neutralized. This is because enzymes in the small intestine need a basic environment in order to work. An organ called the pancreas secretes a strong base into the small intestine, and this base neutralizes the acid. Answer: stomach", "output": [ "In what organ does pepsin help break down proteins?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4454a4367988417ea7e5cc80f78115d6", "input": "Passage: The problem doesn’t stop with plowing. Crops are usually planted in rows, with bare soil in between the rows. In places where crops grow only during part of the year, the land may be bare for a few months. Answer: months", "output": [ "In places where crops grow only during part of the year, the land may be bare for a few?" ] }, { "id": "task594-59f130f168ba44079ed576142c5999b3", "input": "Passage: Amides are carbonyls attached to one nitrogen atom and one carbon or hydrogen atom. Amides are used in materials such as crayons and inks, as well as in paper rubber products. Answer: hydrogen", "output": [ "Amides are carbonyls attached to one nitrogen atom and one carbon or which other atom?" ] }, { "id": "task594-74a2b455e5f3494c8a3811641e921099", "input": "Passage: Red blood cells are shaped like flattened disks. There are trillions of red blood cells in your blood. Each red blood cell has millions of molecules of hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is a protein that contains iron. The iron in hemoglobin gives red blood cells their red color. It also explains how hemoglobin carries oxygen. The iron in hemoglobin binds with oxygen molecules so they can be carried by red blood cells. Answer: iron", "output": [ "What in hemoglobin gives red blood cells their red color?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6b11c927e7344cc4a3171e072f74336b", "input": "Passage: The kidneys are responsible for removing excess H+ ions from the blood. If the kidneys fail, what would happen to blood pH and to hemoglobin affinity for oxygen? Factors That Affect Oxygen Binding The oxygen-carrying capacity of hemoglobin determines how much oxygen is carried in the blood. In addition to P O , 2 other environmental factors and diseases can affect oxygen carrying capacity and delivery. Carbon dioxide levels, blood pH, and body temperature affect oxygen-carrying capacity (Figure 39.20). When carbon + dioxide is in the blood, it reacts with water to form bicarbonate (HCO− 3 ) and hydrogen ions (H ). As the level of carbon dioxide in the blood increases, more H+ is produced and the pH decreases. This increase in carbon dioxide and subsequent decrease in pH reduce the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen. The oxygen dissociates from the Hb molecule, shifting the oxygen dissociation curve to the right. Therefore, more oxygen is needed to reach the same hemoglobin saturation level as when the pH was higher. A similar shift in the curve also results from an increase in body temperature. Increased temperature, such as from increased activity of skeletal muscle, causes the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen to be reduced. Diseases like sickle cell anemia and thalassemia decrease the blood’s ability to deliver oxygen to tissues and its oxygencarrying capacity. In sickle cell anemia, the shape of the red blood cell is crescent-shaped, elongated, and stiffened, reducing its ability to deliver oxygen (Figure 39.21). In this form, red blood cells cannot pass through the capillaries. This is painful when it occurs. Thalassemia is a rare genetic disease caused by a defect in either the alpha or the beta subunit of Hb. Patients with thalassemia produce a high number of red blood cells, but these cells have lower-than-normal levels of hemoglobin. Therefore, the oxygen-carrying capacity is diminished. Answer: kidneys", "output": [ "What are responsible for removing excess h+ ions from the blood?" ] }, { "id": "task594-63754096b6104ee5a21fe9694ce25ec6", "input": "Passage: Watch this animation (http://openstaxcollege. org/l/sintestine) that depicts the structure of the small intestine, and, in particular, the villi. Epithelial cells continue the digestion and absorption of nutrients and transport these nutrients to the lymphatic and circulatory systems. In the small intestine, the products of food digestion are absorbed by different structures in the villi. Which structure absorbs and transports fats?. Answer: epithelial cells", "output": [ "Which cells continue the digestion and absorption of nutrients and transport these nutrients to the lymphatic and circulatory systems?" ] }, { "id": "task594-35b90732bb3d4f1b8f692e1355e9829c", "input": "Passage: A pedigree is a chart which shows the inheritance of a trait over several generations. A pedigree is commonly created for families, as it can be used to outlines the inheritance patterns of familial traits or genetic disorders. It can be used to demonstrate autosomal dominant or recessive inheritance, or sex-linked inheritance. Figure below shows a pedigree depicting recessive inheritance of a disorder through three generations. The trait is thought to be recessive as for the two individuals with the trait, neither has a parent who also has the trait. Geneticists may also be able to determine whether individuals with the trait in question are heterozygous or homozygous for the allele associated with the trait. When alleles are added to the pedigree shown ( A or a ), recessive inheritance in conformed. Answer: generations", "output": [ "A pedigree is a chart which shows the inheritance of a trait over several what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ddab8d00c294459eba7f0b2e44b8be1e", "input": "Passage: A virus cannot reproduce on its own. However, a virus can reproduce by infecting the cell of a living host. Inside the host cell, the virus uses the cell’s structures, materials, and energy to make copies of itself. Answer: virus", "output": [ "What can reproduce by infecting the cell of a living host?" ] }, { "id": "task594-685b9fd02fe14375ac031e24d8f26551", "input": "Passage: ocean zone in the top 200 meters of water that receives enough sunlight for photosynthesis. Answer: photic zone", "output": [ "What is the top 200 meters of water in the ocean called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a90784b519364e41898c93376196372b", "input": "Passage: Lysosomes are like the recycling trucks that carry waste away from the factory. Lysosomes have digestive enzymes that break down old molecules into parts that can be recycled. Answer: digestive", "output": [ "Lysosomes have what type of enzymes that break down old molecules into parts that can be recycled?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a8201128f32742a89dfbe09dae7453df", "input": "Passage: example, if you hold an ice cube in your hand, the ice cube slowly melts as energy in the form of heat is transferred from your hand to the ice. As your hand loses energy, it starts to feel cold. Because of their interrelationships, energy, work, and heat have the same units. The SI unit of energy, work, and heat is the joule (J). A joule is a tiny amount of energy. For example, it takes about 4 J to warm 1 mL of H2O by 1°C. Many processes occur with energy changes in thousands of joules, so the kilojoule (kJ) is also common. Another unit of energy, used widely in the health professions and everyday life, is the calorie (cal). The calorie was initially defined as the amount of energy needed to warm 1 g of H2O by 1°C, but in modern times, the calorie is related directly to the joule, as follows: 1 cal = 4.184 J We can use this relationship to convert quantities of energy, work, or heat from one unit to another. The calorie is used in nutrition to express the energy content of foods. However, because a calorie is a rather small quantity, nutritional energies are usually expressed in kilocalories (kcal), also called Calories (capitalized; Cal). For example, a candy bar may provide 120 Cal (nutritional calories) of energy, which is equal to 120,000 cal. Proteins and carbohydrates supply 4 kcal/g, while fat supplies 9 kcal/g. Answer: calorie ( cal )", "output": [ "Another unit of energy, used widely in the health professions and everyday life, is _______?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0d463e95692645b4ac002f5224c272e7", "input": "Passage: A lever is a simple machine that consists of a bar that rotates around a fixed point called the fulcrum. There are three classes of levers. Depending on its class, a lever may have an ideal mechanical advantage that is less than, equal to, or greater than 1. First-class levers also change the direction of the input force. Answer: lever", "output": [ "What simple machine consists of a bar that rotates around a fixed point called the fulcrum?" ] }, { "id": "task594-788871c340cb4691a7b0e659057b2302", "input": "Passage: When an earthquake occurs under the ocean, it sends waves through the water as well as the ground. When the energy of the earthquake reaches shore, it forms a huge wave called a tsunami. Answer: a tsunami", "output": [ "When the energy of the earthquake reaches shore, it forms a huge wave called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-92d079f7eadf4041a0b604a6fe8f424c", "input": "Passage: The structure of a mitochondrion is defined by an inner and outer membrane. This structure plays an important role in aerobic respiration. Answer: aerobic respiration", "output": [ "The structure of mitochondrion plays an important role in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a95e883d6174403bbe03e26e55945ba9", "input": "Passage: A mudflow is the sudden flow of mud down a slope because of gravity. Mudflows occur where the soil is mostly clay. Like landslides, mudflows usually occur when the soil is wet. Wet clay forms very slippery mud that slides easily. Mudflows follow river channels, washing out bridges, trees, and homes that are in their path. Answer: mudflow", "output": [ "What's it called when there's a sudden flow of mud?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e9bbef990a884196afec9d6d438232d4", "input": "Passage: Thermal energy can be trapped in Earth’s atmosphere by gases such as CO2, water vapor, methane, and chlorofluorocarbons before it can be radiated into space—like the effect of a greenhouse. It is not yet clear how large an increase in the temperature of Earth’s surface can be attributed to this phenomenon. Venus is an example of a planet that has a runaway greenhouse effect. The atmosphere of Venus is about 95 times denser than that of Earth and contains about 95% CO2. Because Venus is closer to the sun, it also receives more solar radiation than Earth does. The result of increased solar radiation and high CO2 levels is an average surface temperature of about 450°C, which is hot enough to melt lead. Data such as those in Figure 5.22 \"Changes in Atmospheric CO\" indicate that atmospheric levels of greenhouse gases have increased dramatically over the past 100 years, and it seems clear that the heavy use of fossil fuels by industry is largely responsible. It is not clear, however, how large an increase in temperature (global warming) may result from a continued increase in the levels of these gases. Estimates of the effects of doubling the preindustrial levels of CO2 range from a 0°C to a 4.5°C increase in the average temperature of Earth’s surface, which is currently about. Answer: thermal energy", "output": [ "Gases such as co2 and methane can trap what energy in earth's atmosphere, before radiating it into space?" ] }, { "id": "task594-de200c8b88944302bac4ede1d1a9b149", "input": "Passage: All objects absorb and emit electromagnetic radiation. The rate of heat transfer by radiation is largely determined by the color of the object. Black is the most effective, and white is the least effective. People living in hot climates generally avoid wearing black clothing, for instance (see Take-Home Experiment: Temperature in the Sun). Similarly, black asphalt in a parking lot will be hotter than adjacent gray sidewalk on a summer day, because black absorbs better than gray. The reverse is also true—black radiates better than gray. Thus, on a clear summer night, the asphalt will be colder than the gray sidewalk, because black radiates the energy more rapidly than gray. An ideal radiator is the same color as an ideal absorber, and captures all the radiation that falls on it. In contrast, white is a poor absorber and is also a poor radiator. A white object reflects all radiation, like a mirror. (A perfect, polished white surface is mirror-like in appearance, and a crushed mirror looks white. Answer: color", "output": [ "The rate of heat transfer by radiation is largely determined by what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6a23795896cf45dfbe9070045ea3d3eb", "input": "Passage: Linkage Map for the Human X Chromosome. This linkage map shows the locations of several genes on the X chromosome. Some of the genes code for normal proteins. Others code for abnormal proteins that lead to genetic disorders. Which pair of genes would you expect to have a lower frequency of crossing-over: the genes that code for hemophilia A and G6PD deficiency, or the genes that code for protan and Xm?. Answer: the linkage map", "output": [ "What map shows the locations of several genes on the x chromosome?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e1784d34f6834a20a063cedc7cfe2d5b", "input": "Passage: The axes of rotation of the planets are mostly nearly perpendicular to the orbital plane. Answer: nearly perpendicular", "output": [ "How do planets usually rotate to their orbital planes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2f325fcc37ca43f8a027ef867c763409", "input": "Passage: The ozone in smog may damage plants. The effects of ozone add up over time. Plants such as trees, which normally live a long time, are most affected. Entire forests may die out if ozone levels are very high. Other plants, including crop plants, may also be damaged by ozone. You can see evidence of ozone damage in Figure below . Answer: ozone", "output": [ "What is the term for the gas in smog that can damage plants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f3f6ec8aeaf64f3e825de4b6d5bcb92f", "input": "Passage: In an electrically neutral atom, the number of protons equals the number of electrons. Answer: they are equal", "output": [ "How does the number of protons compare to the number of electrons in an electrically neutral atom?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1baa6adea92c499fbd1a171520ec5080", "input": "Passage: Evolution occurs in a population when allele frequencies change over time. What causes allele frequencies to change? That question was answered by Godfrey Hardy and Wilhelm Weinberg in 1908. Answer: allele frequency changes", "output": [ "What kind of change causes evolution in population?" ] }, { "id": "task594-61a778b261104e539db3fcf1674ad03d", "input": "Passage: Cnidarians such as jellyfish have radial symmetry. Flatworms and roundworms, which you will read about next, have bilateral symmetry. Answer: nematocysts", "output": [ "What are jellyfish and other cnidarian's stingers called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d53ed8bda39549b4ba88d525a3a90714", "input": "Passage: Salts of Weak Bases and Strong Acids When we neutralize a weak base with a strong acid, the product is a salt containing the conjugate acid of the weak base. This conjugate acid is a weak acid. For example, ammonium chloride, NH4Cl, is a salt formed by the reaction of the weak base ammonia with the strong acid HCl: NH 3(aq) + HCl(aq) ⟶ NH 4 Cl(aq) A solution of this salt contains ammonium ions and chloride ions. The chloride ion has no effect on the acidity of the solution since HCl is a strong acid. Chloride is a very weak base and will not accept a proton to a measurable extent. However, the ammonium ion, the conjugate acid of ammonia, reacts with water and increases the hydronium ion concentration: NH 4 +(aq) + H 2 O(l) ⇌ H 3 O +(aq) + NH 3(aq) The equilibrium equation for this reaction is simply the ionization constant. Ka, for the acid NH 4 + :. Answer: salt", "output": [ "When we neutralize a weak base with a strong acid, the product is ________ containing the conjugate acid of the weak base." ] }, { "id": "task594-4277faeb2b264014a42f7078f185b6c9", "input": "Passage: Fish also have a centralized nervous system with a brain. Fish brains are small compared with the brains of other vertebrates, but they are large and complex compared with the brains of invertebrates. Fish also have highly developed sense organs that allow them to see, hear, feel, smell, and taste. Sharks and some other fish can even sense the very low levels of electricity emitted by other animals. This helps them locate prey. Answer: to locate prey", "output": [ "Why do sharks sense low levels of electricity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a87f9408cebf41ab9d6b4b30b4441802", "input": "Passage: Butter is a fat that is a solid at room temperature. What type of fatty acid does butter contain? How do you know?. Answer: pressure", "output": [ "What else besides temperature has an effect on the phase of a substance?" ] }, { "id": "task594-76154392c0b141b481c4975696433705", "input": "Passage: Abscisic acid is misnamed because it was once believed to play a role in abscission (the dropping of leaves, fruits, and flowers), but we now know abscission is caused by ethylene. The actual role of abscisic acid is to close the stomata, the tiny openings in leaves that allow substances to enter and leave, and to maintain dormancy. When a plant is stressed due to lack of water, abscisic acid tells the stomata to close. This prevents water loss through the stomata. Answer: abscission", "output": [ "What is the scientific term for the dropping of leaves, fruits, and flowers, which led to the naming of an acid thought to play a role in the process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-652677a059004f01a57c5133e2b1e9a4", "input": "Passage: Charge Carried by Electrons and Protons Franklin wrote in his letters and books that he could see the effects of electric charge but did not understand what caused the phenomenon. Today we have the advantage of knowing that normal matter is made of atoms, and that atoms contain positive and negative charges, usually in equal amounts. Figure 18.5 shows a simple model of an atom with negative electrons orbiting its positive nucleus. The nucleus is positive due to the presence of positively charged protons. Nearly all charge in nature is due to electrons and protons, which are two of the. Answer: nucleus", "output": [ "What part of an atom is positive due to the presence of positively charged protons?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ed9b1a4dd9884a999a24eb61d166aa96", "input": "Passage: There are some noticeable spikes on the BE / A graph, which represent particularly tightly bound nuclei. These spikes reveal further details of nuclear forces, such as confirming that closed-shell nuclei (those with magic numbers of protons or neutrons or both) are more tightly bound. The spikes also indicate that some nuclei with even numbers for Z and N , and with Z = N , are exceptionally tightly bound. This finding can be correlated with some of the cosmic abundances of the elements. The most common elements in the universe, as determined by observations of atomic spectra from outer space, are hydrogen, followed by 4 He , with much smaller amounts of 12 C and other elements. It should be noted that the heavier elements are created in supernova explosions, while the lighter ones are produced by nuclear fusion during the normal life cycles of stars, as will be discussed in subsequent chapters. The most common elements have the most tightly bound nuclei. It is also no accident that one of the most tightly bound light nuclei is 4 He , emitted in α decay. Answer: nuclei", "output": [ "The most common elements have the most tightly bound __________." ] }, { "id": "task594-dc8338702c8f42a5bb9f59f45b55dfff", "input": "Passage: In ferns, the sporophyte is dominant and produces spores that germinate into a heart-shaped gametophyte. Answer: heart-shaped", "output": [ "What shape is the gametophyte in ferns?" ] }, { "id": "task594-627aaf91c1e84e14a6cbab6dc595defe", "input": "Passage: Bacteria are responsible for many types of diseases in humans. Answer: diseases", "output": [ "Bacteria are responsible for many types of what in humans?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e57acc652ba7464ba1fde7c4c694985f", "input": "Passage: Protons and neutrons are made up of fundamental particles of matter called quarks. Electrons are another type of fundamental particles of matter called leptons. Bosons are fundamental particles that carry forces between fundamental particles of matter. Answer: quarks", "output": [ "A fundamental particle of matter, protons and neutrons are made of these?" ] }, { "id": "task594-33a4cd64907f4b8bb8b582c485b0229c", "input": "Passage: Friction is the force that resists motion. In most beginning physics classes, friction is ignored. Concepts can be understood and calculations made assuming friction to be nonexistent. Whenever physics intersects with the real world, however, friction must be taken into account. Friction exists between two touching surfaces because even the smoothest looking surface is quite rough on a microscopic scale. Answer: friction", "output": [ "What type of force exists between two touching surfaces?" ] }, { "id": "task594-75dcf80d207f47f2a372b2c2b48cc1e2", "input": "Passage: Energy and heat are expressed in units of joules. Answer: joules", "output": [ "Both energy and heat can be expressed in units of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-94ae30b4f6cf4b97956e00d2507a7128", "input": "Passage: Metamorphic rocks form as an existing rock is altered by high temperature or pressure. Answer: metamorphic", "output": [ "What kind of rocks form as an existing rock is altered by high temperature or pressure?" ] }, { "id": "task594-240fd1760c7240f19f90c888e8ced28e", "input": "Passage: All chemical changes involve a transfer of energy. When zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid, the test tube becomes very warm as energy is released during the reaction. Some other reactions absorb energy. While energy changes are a potential sign of a chemical reaction, care must be taken to ensure that a chemical reaction is indeed taking place. Physical changes also involve a transfer of energy. Melting of a solid absorbs energy, while the condensation of a gas releases energy. The only way to be certain that a chemical reaction has taken place is to test the composition of the substances after the change has taken place to see if they are different from the starting substances. Answer: energy", "output": [ "All chemical changes involve a transfer of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-12ff2c0042e64746b30dc7733a2038f2", "input": "Passage: Mollusks live in most terrestrial, freshwater, and marine habitats. However, the majority of species live in the ocean. They can be found in both shallow and deep water and from tropical to polar latitudes. They have a variety of ways of getting food. Some are free-living heterotrophs. Others are internal parasites. Mollusks are also eaten by many other organisms, including humans. Answer: ocean", "output": [ "Where do the majority of species live?" ] }, { "id": "task594-92c4709dbe864d42aee5e4b4519d84ac", "input": "Passage: Bread has little holes in it from carbon dioxide produced by yeast. Answer: yeast", "output": [ "Bread has little holes in it from carbon dioxide produced by what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a8fd2dbadd2c476d81841c6d918b5b18", "input": "Passage: All chemical reactions involve energy. Energy is used to break bonds in reactants, and energy is released when new bonds form in products. Endothermic reactions absorb energy, and exothermic reactions release energy. Answer: atp or adenozine triphosphate", "output": [ "What molecule is used for most energy functions in organisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1cb0ae17e00e40c3900e31ee23c523de", "input": "Passage: Most prokaryotes have a peptidoglycan cell wall and many have a polysaccharide capsule (Figure 4.5). The cell wall acts as an extra layer of protection, helps the cell maintain its shape, and prevents dehydration. The capsule enables the cell to attach to surfaces in its environment. Some prokaryotes have flagella, pili, or fimbriae. Flagella are used for locomotion. Pili are used to exchange genetic material during a type of reproduction called conjugation. Fimbriae are used by bacteria to attach to a host cell. Answer: dehydration", "output": [ "The cell wall acts as an extra layer of protection, helps the cell maintain its shape, and prevents what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c866a593ae364183a3c8ea8cec9dbcaf", "input": "Passage: Smoking is the major cause of chronic respiratory disease as well as cardiovascular disease and cancer. Exposure to tobacco smoke by smoking or by breathing air that contains tobacco smoke is the leading cause of preventable death in the United States. Regular smokers die about 10 years earlier than nonsmokers do. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) describes tobacco use as \"the single most important preventable risk to human health in developed countries and an important cause of [early] death worldwide. \" Simply stated: Stopping smoking can prevent many respiratory diseases. Answer: smoking", "output": [ "What is the major cause of chronic respiratory disease as well as cardiovascular disease and cancer?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f7a0e83a6a034906adbe09c1918603c9", "input": "Passage: Adulthood is divided into the stages of early, middle, and late adulthood. Answer: three", "output": [ "Adulthood is divided into how many stages?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eb0bd6d77b414019968514436debd26c", "input": "Passage: Blood enters the kidney through the renal artery, which branches into capillaries. When blood passes through capillaries of the glomerulus of a nephron, blood pressure forces some of the water and dissolved substances in the blood to cross the capillary walls into Bowman’s capsule. Answer: renal artery", "output": [ "Through which artery does blood enter the kidneys?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7c2dfb856cce407791003d700d304ba3", "input": "Passage: Hydrogen sulfide is a noxious and toxic gas produced from decaying organic matter that contains sulfur. A lethal concentration in rats corresponds to an inhaled dose of 715 molecules per million molecules of air. How many molecules does this correspond to per mole of air? How many moles of hydrogen sulfide does this correspond to per mole of air?. Answer: sulfur", "output": [ "Hydrogen sulfide is a noxious and toxic gas produced from decaying organic matter that contains what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-853bc38500e34461a5957171921fcc53", "input": "Passage: Another kind of respiration takes place within body cells. This kind of respiration is called cellular respiration. It’s the process in which cells obtain energy by “burning” glucose. Both types of respiration are connected. Cellular respiration uses oxygen and produces carbon dioxide. Respiration by the respiratory system supplies the oxygen needed for cellular respiration. It also removes the carbon dioxide produced by cellular respiration. Answer: cellular respiration", "output": [ "Respiration that occurs in the cells is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e277a07fc57e45ee9df2c5c4d25bc795", "input": "Passage: a phosphate group, which contains phosphorus and oxygen. Answer: flowers and fruit", "output": [ "What do angiosperms produce?" ] }, { "id": "task594-34f0af38638f474f9d4fba2eaa7c476f", "input": "Passage: All matter is composed of tiny indivisible particles called atoms. All atoms of an element are identical in mass and chemical properties, whereas atoms of different elements differ in mass and fundamental chemical properties. A chemical compound is a substance that always contains the same atoms in the same ratio. In chemical reactions, atoms from one or more compounds or elements redistribute or rearrange in relation to other atoms to form one or more new compounds. Atoms themselves do not undergo a change of identity in chemical reactions. This last hypothesis suggested that the alchemists’ goal of transmuting other elements to gold was impossible, at least through chemical reactions. We now know that Dalton’s atomic theory is essentially correct, with four minor modifications:. Answer: chemical properties", "output": [ "All matter is composed of tiny indivisible particles called atoms. all atoms of an element are identical in mass and this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-301165d5dad0452fa745bb6b8fb5b617", "input": "Passage: in which C is a constant that depends on the type of crystal structure; Z+ and Z– are the charges on the ions; and Ro is the interionic distance (the sum of the radii of the positive and negative ions). Thus, the lattice energy of an ionic crystal increases rapidly as the charges of the ions increase and the sizes of the ions decrease. When all other parameters are kept constant, doubling the charge of both the cation and anion quadruples the lattice energy. For example, the lattice energy of LiF (Z+ and Z– = 1) is 1023 kJ/mol, whereas that of MgO (Z+ and Z– = 2) is 3900 kJ/ mol (Ro is nearly the same—about 200 pm for both compounds). Different interatomic distances produce different lattice energies. For example, we can compare the lattice energy of MgF2 (2957 kJ/mol) to that of MgI2 (2327 kJ/mol) to observe the effect on lattice energy of the smaller ionic size of F– as compared to I–. Answer: energies", "output": [ "Different interatomic distances produce different lattice what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-db0c306daed940dd94bb3184e3de188f", "input": "Passage: Sometimes air doesn’t mix in the troposphere. This happens when air is cooler close to the ground than it is above. The cool air is dense, so it stays near the ground. This is called a temperature inversion ( Figure below ). An inversion can trap air pollution near the surface. Temperature inversions are more common in the winter. Can you explain why?. Answer: winter", "output": [ "In what season are temperature inversions more common?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5cdfa929b6fd4a08a7cb21d042f75016", "input": "Passage: A related process to diffusion is the effusion. Effusion is the process of a confined gas escaping through a tiny hole in its container. Effusion can be observed by the fact that a helium-filled balloon will stop floating and sink to the floor after a day or so. This is because the helium gas effuses through tiny pores in the balloon. Both diffusion and effusion are related to the speed at which various gas molecules move. Gases that have a lower molar mass effuse and diffuse at a faster rate than gases that have a higher molar mass. Answer: gas molecules", "output": [ "Both diffusion and effusion are related to the speed at which what objects move?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c25e6cdabc87461fb0c4f6d42beed1cf", "input": "Passage: Skin protects the body from injury, water loss, and microorganisms. It also plays a major role in maintaining a stable body temperature. Answer: skin", "output": [ "Which organ protects the body from injury, water loss, and microorganisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4d6ae3fdd1864766a2176d251410033c", "input": "Passage: Group 16 of the periodic table is also called the oxygen group. The first three elements—oxygen (O), sulfur (S), and selenium (Se)—are nonmetals. They are followed by tellurium (Te) ( Figure below ), a metalloid, and polonium (Po), a metal. All group 16 elements have six valence electrons and are very reactive. Oxygen is a gas at room temperature, and the other elements in the group are solids. Answer: oxygen group", "output": [ "What is group 16 of the periodic table referred to?" ] }, { "id": "task594-468f90fb25d84fc9ba7819136a6ca300", "input": "Passage: Although there is actually little difference between toads and frogs, this animal would most often be called a toad. Frogs have moist skin, while toads have dry, bumpy skin. Answer: toads", "output": [ "Moist skin distinguishes frogs from what animal with dry, bumpy skin?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7e7b6a2bd4284a07bded96a5566fdd4a", "input": "Passage: 37.4 Regulation of Hormone Production Hormone levels are primarily controlled through negative feedback, in which rising levels of a hormone inhibit its further release. The three mechanisms of hormonal release are humoral stimuli, hormonal stimuli, and neural stimuli. Humoral stimuli refers to the control of hormonal release in response to changes in extracellular fluid levels or ion levels. Hormonal stimuli refers to the release of hormones in response to hormones released by other endocrine glands. Neural stimuli refers to the release of hormones in response to neural stimulation. Answer: further release", "output": [ "Regulation of hormone production hormone levels are primarily controlled through negative feedback, in which rising levels of a hormone inhibit its?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a02769839d8c430f9f226d3bba61fc96", "input": "Passage: Injuries can also be prevented by proper rest and recovery. If you do not get enough rest, your body will become injured and will not react well to exercise, or improve. You can also rest by doing a different activity. For example, if you run, you can rest your running muscles and joints by swimming. Answer: rest and recovery", "output": [ "Injuries can be prevented by getting proper what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-924e74a6bc714f8d9dc32dc3a8ccaa05", "input": "Passage: The kidneys also secrete hormones that help maintain homeostasis. For example, they produce a hormone that stimulates bone marrow to produce red blood cells when more are needed. They also secrete a hormone that regulates blood pressure and keeps it in a normal range. Answer: the kidneys", "output": [ "What organs secrete hormones that help maintain homeostasis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8222400e82314e4d9660bdda29ac2fd1", "input": "Passage: The life sciences are so complex that most scientists focus on just one or two subspecialties. If you want to study insects, what would you be called? An entomologist. If you want to study the tiny things that give us the flu, then you need to enter the field of virology , the study of viruses. If you want to study the nervous system, which life science field is right for you ( Table below , Table below , and Table below )?. Answer: virology", "output": [ "What is the study of viruses called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8dc222e6910144eb80cfed0f77846c40", "input": "Passage: In order to study these characteristics, Mendel needed to control the pollination of the pea plants through artificial fertilization . Pollination occurs when the pollen from the male reproductive part of a flower, called the anthers , is transferred to the female reproductive part of a flower, called the stigma . Pea plants are self-pollinating , which means the pollen from a flower on a single plant transfers to the stigma of the same flower or another flower on the same plant. In order to avoid self-pollination, Mendel removed the anthers from the flowers on a plant. He then carefully transferred pollen from the anthers of another plant and using a small paintbrush, dusted the pollen onto the stigma of the flowers that lacked anthers. This process caused cross-pollination. The Figure below shows the location of the male and female parts of a flower. Cross-pollination occurs when pollen from one flower pollinates a flower on a different plant. In this way, Mendel controlled the characteristics that were passed onto the offspring. The product of cross-pollination is known as a hybrid. The ability to cross-pollinate pea plants allowed Mendel to study the offspring of two parents with different traits, such as a tall stem or a short stem. Answer: pollination", "output": [ "The process of transferring pollen from the male reproductive part of a flower known as the anthers to the female reproductive part of the flower known as the stigma is referred to as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7869120ce7ce46009ea9161f7fb284c6", "input": "Passage: Cold and snow are typical for Chicago in the winter. Answer: cold & snow", "output": [ "What is typical weather for chicago in winter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dca69720229a4a36969c852bdd5981f8", "input": "Passage: Which of the three domains of life do viruses belong to? None. Why? Viruses are usually considered to be nonliving. Viruses do not meet most of the criteria of life. They are not even made of cells. Answer: they are nonliving", "output": [ "Why do viruses not belong to any domain of life?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4fde1780a87a4c98995855a74e31b928", "input": "Passage: The mechanical advantage of a simple machine such as a pulley is the factor by which the machine changes the force applied to it. The ideal mechanical advantage of a machine is its mechanical advantage in the absence of friction. All machines must overcome friction, so the ideal mechanical advantage is always somewhat greater than the actual mechanical advantage of the machine as it is used in the real world. Answer: friction", "output": [ "What is something that all machines must overcome?" ] }, { "id": "task594-443d17b22f874fc3b848043c9d008f27", "input": "Passage: Loggerhead turtles spend most of their life in the ocean. Adult female loggerheads go ashore briefly to lay their eggs in the sand. Then they return to the water and leave the eggs to hatch on their own. Figure below shows baby loggerheads on a beach shortly after hatching. The baby turtles must make their way back to the water, hopefully without being snatched up by a predator. Loggerhead turtles are reptiles. Unlike amphibians, turtles and other reptiles can lay their eggs on dry land. That’s because they produce amniotic eggs. Amniotic eggs have waterproof membranes to prevent them from drying out. Answer: waterproof membranes", "output": [ "Laid on dry land by reptiles, amniotic eggs have what that prevents them from drying out?" ] }, { "id": "task594-30de1252faa141babf43b5b7841d5771", "input": "Passage: The cytoskeleton is a cellular \"scaffolding\" or \"skeleton\" that crisscrosses the cytoplasm. All eukaryotic cells have a cytoskeleton, and recent research has shown that prokaryotic cells also have a cytoskeleton. The eukaryotic cytoskeleton is made up of a network of long, thin protein fibers and has many functions. It helps to maintain cell shape. It holds organelles in place, and for some cells, it enables cell movement. The cytoskeleton also plays important roles in both the intracellular movement of substances and in cell division. Certain proteins act like a path that vesicles and organelles move along within the cell. The threadlike proteins that make up the cytoskeleton continually rebuild to adapt to the cell's constantly changing needs. Three main kinds of cytoskeleton fibers are microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments. Answer: cytoskeleton", "output": [ "What is the term for a cellular \"scaffolding\" that crisscrosses the cytoplasm?" ] }, { "id": "task594-611588947b9349b98ad2ae1363d7e097", "input": "Passage: Matter can be classified as transparent, translucent, or opaque depending on how it interacts with light. Answer: opaque", "output": [ "Depending on how matter interacts with light, it can be classified as transparent, translucent, or what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-83ec8b3d3edd4144a7c6624ebf7cd96e", "input": "Passage: Atoms are indestructible and constantly in motion. Answer: atoms", "output": [ "What are indestructible and constantly in motion?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c2dcc367214e4d61ba6116f2f64dd9a9", "input": "Passage: Seaweed is actually a plant-like protist, which are also known as algae. The green color is due to what pigment? Algae, like plants, obtain their energy through photosynthesis. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "How do plants obtain their energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eb13f650f0c2428d9ffd04f7061a4206", "input": "Passage: A desmosome is a cell junction specialized for cell-to-cell adhesion. They are found in simple and stratified squamous epithelium, and in muscle tissue where they bind muscle cells to one another. These junctions are composed of complexes of cell surface adhesion proteins and linking proteins. These proteins have both an intracellular and extracellular region. Inside the cell, they attach to intracellular filaments of the cytoskeleton. Outside the cell, they attach to other adhesion proteins. Answer: epithelium", "output": [ "Where are the desmosome found in a cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-74b64bdf1d44463a900e75d8b3dfe083", "input": "Passage: Ore is extracted from rock by heap leaching, flotation, or smelting. Answer: ore", "output": [ "What is extracted from rock by heap leaching, flotation, or smelting?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e240e42a28764028adfd50b430ebf746", "input": "Passage: Preston Hunt. Shingles is caused by the same virus that causes chicken pox . CC BY 3.0. Answer: shingles", "output": [ "What is caused by the same virus that causes chicken pox?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1be2777142384387b5dd2e7a3fec6000", "input": "Passage: Cellular respiration occurs in the cells of all living things. It takes place in the cells of both autotrophs and heterotrophs. All of them burn glucose to form ATP. Answer: glucose", "output": [ "Cellular respiration involves forming atp from what type of sugar?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0e94998f441147fcb850b37c2d2ca2ee", "input": "Passage: Green light has a higher frequency than microwaves. It is possible to calculate it, but since the speed of an electromagnetic wave is constant we know that waves with higher wavelengths must have a lower frequency based on the wave equation. Answer: frequency", "output": [ "What of a electromagnetic wave can be calculated using the wave equation due to their speed always being constant?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b7a3cf84aabd411c8f3cbfeb333dbede", "input": "Passage: We want to focus on solutions where the solvent is water. An aqueous solution is water that contains one or more dissolved substances. The dissolved substances in an aqueous solution may be solids, gases, or other liquids. Some examples are listed in the Table above . Other examples include vinegar (acetic acid in water), alcoholic beverages (ethanol in water), and liquid cough medicines (various drugs in water). Answer: aqueous solution", "output": [ "What is the term for water that contains one or more dissolved substances?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4d08c9bc6f114885b7a1a5fd780b9dca", "input": "Passage: A: Both boxes have the same volume because they are the same size. However, the books have greater mass than the feathers. Therefore, the box of books has greater density. Answer: density", "output": [ "What third property is different if two boxes have the same volume but one has greater mass?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dcb30c3e0b5c475580c8950194044176", "input": "Passage: Consider the example of water forming from hydrogen and oxygen. Both hydrogen and oxygen gases exist as diatomic (“two-atom”) molecules. These molecules are the reactants in the reaction. The Figure below shows that bonds must break to separate the atoms in the hydrogen and oxygen molecules. Then new bonds must form between hydrogen and oxygen atoms to form water molecules. The water molecules are the products of the reaction. Answer: diatomic", "output": [ "What is the name for a molecule with two atoms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5be0c1e4e52f439ba82596a82c534208", "input": "Passage: 25.7 Image Formation by Mirrors 53. What is the focal length of a makeup mirror that has a power of 1.50 D? 54. Some telephoto cameras use a mirror rather than a lens. What radius of curvature mirror is needed to replace a 800 mm focal length telephoto lens? 55. (a) Calculate the focal length of the mirror formed by the shiny back of a spoon that has a 3.00 cm radius of curvature. (b) What is its power in diopters? 56. Find the magnification of the heater element in Example 25.9. Note that its large magnitude helps spread out the reflected energy. What is the focal length of a makeup mirror that produces a magnification of 1.50 when a person’s face is 12.0 cm away? Explicitly show how you follow the steps in the Problem-Solving Strategy for Mirrors. A shopper standing 3.00 m from a convex security mirror sees his image with a magnification of 0.250. (a) Where is his image? (b) What is the focal length of the mirror? (c) What is its radius of curvature? Explicitly show how you follow the steps in the Problem-Solving Strategy for Mirrors. An object 1.50 cm high is held 3.00 cm from a person’s cornea, and its reflected image is measured to be 0.167 cm high. (a) What is the magnification? (b) Where is the image? (c) Find the radius of curvature of the convex mirror formed by the cornea. (Note that this technique is used by optometrists to measure the curvature of the cornea for contact lens fitting. The instrument used is called a keratometer, or curve measurer. ) 60. Ray tracing for a flat mirror shows that the image is located a distance behind the mirror equal to the distance of the object from the mirror. This is stated d i = –d o , since this is a negative image distance (it is a virtual image). (a) What is the focal length of a flat mirror? (b) What is its power?. Answer: curve", "output": [ "What does a keratometer measure in the cornea?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d8fbd4ddf5c94f868d6e503f0c1a1021", "input": "Passage: What happens when forces of evolution work over a long period of time? The answer is macroevolution. An example is the evolution of a new species. Answer: macroevolution", "output": [ "What happens when forces of evolution work over a long period of time?" ] }, { "id": "task594-30cbafa26a2d4868af1e2ee0295d5516", "input": "Passage: With less ozone in the stratosphere, more UV rays reach the ground. More UV rays increase skin cancer rates. Just a 1 percent loss of ozone causes a 5 percent increase in skin cancer. More UV rays also harm plants and phytoplankton. As a result, they produce less food. This may affect entire ecosystems. Answer: ozone", "output": [ "More uv rays reach the ground due to a decrease in what layer in the stratosphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6a4a516683f64d10b55bd45a7e3935f1", "input": "Passage: Hormones – Hormones are molecular signals that help regulate a number of biochemical processes. Single amino acids and short protein chains are very common types of hormones. For example, insulin is a protein hormone that regulates the amount of glucose present in the bloodstream. Answer: hormones", "output": [ "What do you call the type of molecular signals that include insulin and that help regulate a number of biochemical processes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-28164de080d94234832b6e86c5d20854", "input": "Passage: In terms of moisture, climates can be classified as arid (dry), semi-arid, humid (wet), or semi-humid. The amount of moisture depends on both precipitation and evaporation. Answer: arid", "output": [ "What is the scientific term for climates with the least moisture?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0dae3dd0190e48c68961b12edcc5166a", "input": "Passage: In the Cell Cycle: Cancer (Advanced) concept, cancer is described as developing due to unregulated cell division. That is, cancer is a disease characterized by a population of cells that grow and divide without respect to normal limits. These cancerous cells invade and destroy adjacent tissues, and they may spread throughout the body. The process by which normal cells are transformed into cancer cells is known as carcinogenesis . This process is also known as oncogenesis or tumorigenesis. Oncogenes are mutated genes involved in the development of cancer. Answer: cell division", "output": [ "Cancer develops when what process is unregulated?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d125b8295fdb4f7893860c1d58a7f6a8", "input": "Passage: External Female Genitals The external female reproductive structures are referred to collectively as the vulva (Figure 27.10). The mons pubis is a pad of fat that is located at the anterior, over the pubic bone. After puberty, it becomes covered in pubic hair. The labia majora (labia = “lips”; majora = “larger”) are folds of hair-covered skin that begin just posterior to the mons pubis. The thinner and more pigmented labia minora (labia = “lips”; minora = “smaller”) extend medial to the labia majora. Although they naturally vary in shape and size from woman to woman, the labia minora serve to protect the female urethra and the entrance to the female reproductive tract. The superior, anterior portions of the labia minora come together to encircle the clitoris (or glans clitoris), an organ that originates from the same cells as the glans penis and has abundant nerves that make it important in sexual sensation and orgasm. The hymen is a thin membrane that sometimes partially covers the entrance to the vagina. An intact hymen cannot be used as an indication of “virginity”; even at birth, this is only a partial membrane, as menstrual fluid and other secretions must be able to exit the body, regardless of penile–vaginal intercourse. The vaginal opening is located between the opening of the urethra and the anus. It is flanked by outlets to the Bartholin’s glands (or greater vestibular glands). Answer: vulva", "output": [ "What term is used to refer to the external female reproductive structures collectively?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d4796bb09f3a4d87bc60f596edd4f905", "input": "Passage: From the end of the eighth week until birth, the developing human organism is referred to as a fetus . Birth typically occurs at about 38 weeks after fertilization, so the fetal period generally lasts about 30 weeks. During this time, as outlined in Figure below , the organs complete their development. The fetus also grows rapidly in length and weight. Answer: fetus", "output": [ "What is the developing human organism referred to as from the end of the eighth week until birth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0f749994490e438a92c1c23c4e010280", "input": "Passage: With fossil fuels becoming more expensive and less available, scientists are looking for other energy sources. Hydrogen has long been considered an ideal source, since it does not pollute when it burns. The problem has been finding ways to generate hydrogen economically. One new approach that is being studied is photoelectrolysis – the generation of electricity using photovoltaic cells to split water molecules. This technique is still in the research stage, but appears to be a very promising source of power in the future. Answer: photoelectrolysis", "output": [ "What is the generation of electricity using photovoltaic cells to split water molecules called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4adf7c32efe24f139e2b49224e7f71ba", "input": "Passage: In the above equation for pressure, force is expressed in Newtons (N) and area is expressed in square meters (m 2 ). Therefore, pressure is expressed in N/m 2 , which is the SI unit for pressure. This unit is also called the Pascal (Pa) . It is named for the scientist Blaise Pascal whose discoveries about pressure in fluids led to a law of the same name. Pressure may also be expressed in the kilopascal (kPa), which equals 1000 Pascals. For example, the correct air pressure inside a mountain bike tire is usually about 200 kPa. Answer: pascal", "output": [ "What unit of pressure is named for the scientist whose discoveries about pressure in fluids led to a law of the same name?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e1b07d5049884c83a5fb75a79d1de214", "input": "Passage: Recall that the cell membrane is semipermeable. It does not allow everything to pass through. Some molecules can pass easily through your cell membranes, while others have more difficulty. Sometimes molecules need the help of special transport proteins to move across the cell membrane. Some molecules even need an input of energy to help get them across the cell membrane. The movement of molecules across a membrane without the input of energy is known as passive transport . When energy (ATP) is needed, the movement is known as active transport . Active transport moves molecules against their concentration gradient, from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration. Answer: passive transport", "output": [ "What do you call the movement of molecules across a membrane without the input of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-77c56b25e21b4f0f81b7953816628d05", "input": "Passage: Absorption, Feces Formation, and Defecation The small intestine absorbs about 90 percent of the water you ingest (either as liquid or within solid food). The large intestine absorbs most of the remaining water, a process that converts the liquid chyme residue into semisolid feces (“stool”). Feces is composed of undigested food residues, unabsorbed digested substances, millions of bacteria, old epithelial cells from the GI mucosa, inorganic salts, and enough water to let it pass smoothly out of the body. Of every 500 mL (17 ounces) of food residue that enters the cecum each day, about 150 mL (5 ounces) become feces. Feces are eliminated through contractions of the rectal muscles. You help this process by a voluntary procedure called Valsalva’s maneuver, in which you increase intra-abdominal pressure by contracting your diaphragm and abdominal wall muscles, and closing your glottis. The process of defecation begins when mass movements force feces from the colon into the rectum, stretching the rectal wall and provoking the defecation reflex, which eliminates feces from the rectum. This parasympathetic reflex is mediated by the spinal cord. It contracts the sigmoid colon and rectum, relaxes the internal anal sphincter, and initially contracts the external anal sphincter. The presence of feces in the anal canal sends a signal to the brain, which gives you the choice of voluntarily opening the external anal sphincter (defecating) or keeping it temporarily closed. If you decide to delay defecation, it takes a few seconds for the reflex contractions to stop and the rectal walls to relax. The next mass movement will trigger additional defecation reflexes until you defecate. If defecation is delayed for an extended time, additional water is absorbed, making the feces firmer and potentially leading to constipation. On the other hand, if the waste matter moves too quickly through the intestines, not enough water is absorbed, and diarrhea can result. This can be caused by the ingestion of foodborne pathogens. In general, diet, health, and stress determine the frequency of bowel movements. The number of bowel movements varies greatly between individuals, ranging from two or three per day to three or four per week. Answer: small intestine", "output": [ "What organ absorbs about 90 percent of the water you ingest?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ce0854db13674aa2a8c2eec8cabdeb92", "input": "Passage: The average annual temperature on Earth has been rising for the past 100 years. Answer: rising", "output": [ "Has the average annual temperature on earth been rising or falling for the past 100 years?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eb4287b784304386aedf63aa2fcd9f3f", "input": "Passage: Another exception to Mendel's laws is a phenomenon called codominance . For example, our blood type shows codominance. Do you know what your blood type is? Are you A? O? AB? Those letters actually represent alleles. Unlike other traits, your blood type has three alleles, instead of two!. Answer: alleles", "output": [ "What do the letters in our blood types represent?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a0ce93bbe42c4dd8a9caf04089cc303b", "input": "Passage: Plants may have colonized the land as early as 700 million years ago. The oldest fossils of land plants date back about 470 million years. The first land plants probably resembled modern plants called liverworts , like the one shown in Figure below . Answer: 470 million years", "output": [ "The oldest fossil of land plants date back how many millions of years?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bf427852496c431e8623301fdf27e5e4", "input": "Passage: Oxygen has 6 valence electrons in its ground state. Remember that ground state refers to the neutral atom in which the electrons occupy the lowest possible energy positions. Oxygen is two electrons away from being isoelectronic with the nearest noble gas. Oxygen will therefore form ions by gaining two electrons to become isoelectronic with neon, as shown below:. Answer: lowest energy positions", "output": [ "What kind of energy positions do electrons occupy during ground state?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4518f50e41be4e428023164eb09d5dfc", "input": "Passage: In conduction, heat is transferred from molecule to molecule by contact. Warmer molecules vibrate faster than cooler ones. They bump into the cooler molecules. When they do they transfer some of their energy. Conduction happens mainly in the lower atmosphere. Can you explain why?. Answer: conduction", "output": [ "What is the term for heat being transferred from molecule to molecule?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6cc9c52b9ee748cbb59a4b795688a6e5", "input": "Passage: Insight learning is learning from past experiences and reasoning. It generally involves coming up with new ways to solve problems. Insight learning generally happens quickly. An animal has a sudden flash of insight. Insight learning requires relatively great intelligence. Human beings use insight learning more than any other species. They have used it to invent the wheel to land astronauts on the moon. Answer: insight learning", "output": [ "What is the term for learning from past experiences and reasoning?" ] }, { "id": "task594-35cec4db9e8744d8a88e16e43d0efcbe", "input": "Passage: Exocytosis is the type of vesicle transport that moves a substance out of the cell. A vesicle containing the substance moves through the cytoplasm to the cell membrane. Then, the vesicle membrane fuses with the cell membrane, and the substance is released outside the cell. You can watch an animation of exocytosis at the link below. Answer: exocytosis", "output": [ "The type of vesicle transport that moves a substance out of the cell is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-16cb3b68c3aa46b8ba884af413c4b7a4", "input": "Passage: Bombarding a target of one element with high-energy nuclei or subatomic particles can create new elements. Electrostatic repulsions normally prevent a positively charged particle from colliding and reacting with a positively charged nucleus. If the positively charged particle is moving at a very high speed, however, its kinetic energy may be great enough to overcome the electrostatic repulsions, and it may collide with the target nucleus. Such collisions can result in a nuclear transmutation reaction. Answer: electrostatic repulsions", "output": [ "What normally prevent a positively charged particle from colliding and reacting with a positively charged nucleus, but may be overcome by kinetic energy?." ] }, { "id": "task594-0191f0cfc9a549249f80badc38a18084", "input": "Passage: 31.2 The Soil Plants obtain mineral nutrients from the soil. Soil is the outer loose layer that covers the surface of Earth. Soil quality depends on the chemical composition of the soil, the topography, the presence of living organisms, the climate, and time. Agricultural practice and history may also modify the characteristics and fertility of soil. Soil consists of four major components: 1) inorganic mineral matter, 2) organic matter, 3) water and air, and 4) living matter. The organic material of soil is made of humus, which improves soil structure and provides water and minerals. Soil inorganic material consists of rock slowly broken down into smaller particles that vary in size, such as sand, silt, and loam. Soil formation results from a combination of biological, physical, and chemical processes. Soil is not homogenous because its formation results in the production of layers called a soil profile. Factors that affect soil formation include: parent material, climate, topography, biological factors, and time. Soils are classified based on their horizons, soil particle size, and proportions. Most soils have four distinct horizons: O, A, B, and C. Answer: soil", "output": [ "What consists of four major components: inorganic mineral matter, organic matter, water and air, and living matter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-00554f69f91f4771887005f578321296", "input": "Passage: in animals but also in plants. An organ system is a higher level of organization that consists of functionally related organs. Mammals have many organ systems. For instance, the circulatory system transports blood through the body and to and from the lungs; it includes organs such as the heart and blood vessels. Organisms are individual living entities. For example, each tree in a forest is an organism. Single-celled prokaryotes and single-celled eukaryotes are also considered organisms and are typically referred to as microorganisms. All the individuals of a species living within a specific area are collectively called a population. For example, a forest may include many pine trees. All of these pine trees represent the population of pine trees in this forest. Different populations may live in the same specific area. For example, the forest with the pine trees includes populations of flowering plants and also insects and microbial populations. A community is the sum of populations inhabiting a particular area. For instance, all of the trees, flowers, insects, and other populations in a forest form the forest’s community. The forest itself is an ecosystem. An ecosystem consists of all the living things in a particular area together with the abiotic, non-living parts of that environment such as nitrogen in the soil or rain water. At the highest level of organization (Figure 1.16), the biosphere is the collection of all ecosystems, and it represents the zones of life on earth. It includes land, water, and even the atmosphere to a certain extent. Answer: circulatory", "output": [ "What organ system transports blood through the body and to and from the lungs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fbd66fffbd864b979099b18813f4df8d", "input": "Passage: The direct conversion of a solid to a gas, without an intervening liquid phase, is calledsublimation. The amount of energy required to sublime 1 mol of a pure solid is theenthalpy of sublimation (ΔHsub). Common substances that sublime at standard temperature and pressure (STP; 0°C, 1 atm) include CO2 (dry ice); iodine (Figure 11.18 \"The Sublimation of Solid Iodine\"); naphthalene, a substance used to protect woolen clothing against moths; and 1,4-dichlorobenzene. As shown in Figure 11.17 \"The Three Phases of Matter and the Processes That Interconvert Them When the Temperature Is Changed\", the enthalpy of sublimation of a substance is the sum of its enthalpies of fusion and vaporization provided all values are at the same T; this is an application of Hess’s law. (For more information about Hess’s law, see Chapter 5 \"Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions\", Section 5.2 \"Enthalpy\"). Equation 11.3. Answer: sublimation", "output": [ "The direct conversion of a solid to a gas, without an intervening liquid phase, is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-54e3086291974ed8b9b8422eae0b64ae", "input": "Passage: The immune system usually protects you from pathogens and other causes of disease. When the immune system is working properly, it keeps you from getting sick. But the immune system is like any other system of the body. It can break down or develop diseases. Answer: immune", "output": [ "What system of the body can specifically protect you from pathogens and other things that might make you ill?" ] }, { "id": "task594-efab70e3369a4c97bfa955bd2a4c7bcc", "input": "Passage: Earliest Reptile: Hylonomus . The earliest known reptile is given the genus name Hylonomus . It was about 20 to 30 centimeters (8 to 12 inches) long, lived in swamps, and ate insects and other small invertebrates. Answer: hylonomus", "output": [ "What are the earliest reptile genus named?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b6e6d54ffbab4f678634db77ce6ca5ed", "input": "Passage: Figure 41.13 Nitrogenous waste is excreted in different forms by different species. These include (a) ammonia, (b) urea, and (c) uric acid. (credit a: modification of work by Eric Engbretson, USFWS; credit b: modification of work by B. \"Moose\" Peterson, USFWS; credit c: modification of work by Dave Menke, USFWS). Answer: nitrogenous waste", "output": [ "Urea, ammonia and uric acid are types of what waste, excreted in different forms by different species?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ce8fc87362f341ed85be606b2cf0bc78", "input": "Passage: Unlike amphibians, reptiles do not have a larval stage. Instead, newly hatched reptiles look like smaller versions of the adults. They are able to move about on their own, but they are vulnerable to predators. Even so, most reptile parents provide no care to their hatchlings. In fact, most reptiles don’t even take care of their eggs. For example, female sea turtles lay their eggs on a sandy beach and then return to the ocean. The only exceptions are female crocodiles and alligators. They may defend their nest from predators and help the hatchlings reach the water. If the young remain in the area, the mother may continue to protect them for up to a year. Answer: larval", "output": [ "Unlike amphibians, reptiles do not have what stage?" ] }, { "id": "task594-29c7453daf0b4a11adcb5ad566bd630a", "input": "Passage: The problem doesn’t stop with plowing. Crops are usually planted in rows with bare soil in between the rows. In places where crops grow only during part of the year, the land may be bare for a few months. Answer: crops", "output": [ "What are usually planted in rows with bare soil in between the rows?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1f2336021c7e483c8b79bfd76eae8dd5", "input": "Passage: \"Cardio\" has become slang for aerobic exercise that raises your heart rate for an extended amount of time. Cardio can include biking, running, or swimming. Can you guess one of the main organs of the cardiovascular system? Yes, your heart. Answer: aerobic", "output": [ "\"cardio\" has become slang for what type of exercise that raises your heart rate for an extended amount of time?" ] }, { "id": "task594-776e71ee204446c3bc8fe69a10b79bc6", "input": "Passage: The high specific heat of liquid water has important implications for life on Earth. A given mass of water releases more than five times as much heat for a 1°C temperature change as does the same mass of limestone or granite. Consequently, coastal regions of our planet tend to have less variable climates than regions in the center of a continent. After absorbing large amounts of thermal energy from the sun in summer, the water slowly releases the energy during the winter, thus keeping coastal areas warmer than otherwise would be expected (Figure 5.13 \"The High Specific Heat of Liquid Water Has Major Effects on Climate\"). Water’s capacity to absorb large amounts of energy without undergoing a large increase in temperature also explains why swimming pools and waterbeds are usually heated. Heat must be applied to raise the temperature of the water to a comfortable level for swimming or sleeping and to maintain that level as heat is exchanged with the surroundings. Moreover, because the human body is about 70% water by mass, a great deal of energy is required to change its temperature by even 1°C. Consequently, the mechanism for maintaining our body temperature at about 37°C does not have to be as finely tuned as would be necessary if our bodies were primarily composed of a substance with a lower specific heat. Figure 5.13 The High Specific Heat of Liquid Water Has Major Effects on Climate. Answer: energy", "output": [ "Because the human body is about 70% water by mass, and liquid water has high specific heat, a great deal of what is required to change its temperature?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d04d53348fce45b697f5ae5c100cbc70", "input": "Passage: Muscle tissue that is attached to bone is skeletal muscle . Whether you are blinking your eyes or running a marathon, you are using skeletal muscle. Contractions of skeletal muscle are voluntary, or under conscious control. When skeletal muscle contracts, bones move. Skeletal muscle is the most common type of muscle in the human body. Answer: skeletal", "output": [ "What is the most common type of muscle in the human body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-41d968d0f86b4d8f91874be952f7d332", "input": "Passage: Animals such as bats and dolphins send out ultrasound waves and use their echoes, or reflected waves, to identify the locations of objects they cannot see. This is called echolocation. Animals use echolocation to find prey and avoid running into objects in the dark. You can see in the Figure below and also at the following URL how a bat uses echolocation to find insect prey. http://www. bsos. umd. edu/psyc/batlab/headaimmovies/nsf_challenge/nsf4. wmv. Answer: echolocation", "output": [ "What is the term for the method of sending out ultrasound waves to determine the locations of objects?" ] }, { "id": "task594-72a196a1709246b2b5f57a700aa321af", "input": "Passage: Echinoderms are found in many different ocean environments, but most are found in reefs. Answer: in reefs", "output": [ "Echinoderms are found in many different ocean environments, but most are found where?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1d240272b8cb470da8713ebcc5d76e90", "input": "Passage: Carbon is an element. Carbon is the basis of all life on Earth. Since carbon can combine with many other elements it forms a variety of different substances. Answer: carbon", "output": [ "Which chemical element is the basis of all life on earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1a5182c191234c019c969a5c52ad309d", "input": "Passage: Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) The solute concentration of the blood, or blood osmolarity, may change in response to the consumption of certain foods and fluids, as well as in response to disease, injury, medications, or other factors. Blood osmolarity is constantly monitored by osmoreceptors—specialized cells within the hypothalamus that are particularly sensitive to the concentration of sodium ions and other solutes. In response to high blood osmolarity, which can occur during dehydration or following a very salty meal, the osmoreceptors signal the posterior pituitary to release antidiuretic hormone (ADH). The target cells of ADH are located in the tubular cells of the kidneys. Its effect is to increase epithelial permeability to water, allowing increased water reabsorption. The more water reabsorbed from the filtrate, the greater the amount of water that is returned to the blood and the less that is excreted in the urine. A greater concentration of water results in a reduced concentration of solutes. ADH is also known as vasopressin because, in very high concentrations, it causes constriction of blood vessels, which increases blood pressure by increasing peripheral resistance. The release of ADH is controlled by a negative feedback loop. As blood osmolarity decreases, the hypothalamic osmoreceptors sense the change and prompt a corresponding decrease in the secretion of ADH. As a result, less water is reabsorbed from the urine filtrate. Interestingly, drugs can affect the secretion of ADH. For example, alcohol consumption inhibits the release of ADH, resulting in increased urine production that can eventually lead to dehydration and a hangover. A disease called diabetes insipidus is characterized by chronic underproduction of ADH that causes chronic dehydration. Because little ADH is produced and secreted, not enough water is reabsorbed by the kidneys. Although patients feel thirsty, and increase their fluid consumption, this doesn’t effectively decrease the solute concentration in their blood because ADH levels are not high enough to trigger water reabsorption in the kidneys. Electrolyte imbalances can occur in severe cases of diabetes insipidus. Answer: antidiuretic hormone (adh)", "output": [ "In response to high blood osmolarity, which can occur during dehydration or following a very salty meal, the osmoreceptors signal the posterior pituitary to release this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-11cce0a92d17428c9cc2c7c1a68472e3", "input": "Passage: Tar sands are rocky materials mixed with very thick oil. The tar is too thick to pump, and so tar sands are strip-mined. Hot water and caustic soda are used to separate the oil from the rock. This creates a slurry, which is shaken. The oil floats to the top and is skimmed off. Answer: very thick oil", "output": [ "Tar sands are rocky materials mixed with what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e53c0ea61bc143fa8f4c74e78c030788", "input": "Passage: Birds evolved from a reptile ancestor but they are very different from reptiles today. Birds are also the most numerous tetrapod vertebrates. Answer: tetrapod", "output": [ "Birds are the most numerous type of what vertebrates?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ff30f1b6e52a47519fab2b8a1b32596b", "input": "Passage: Phototrophs are organisms that capture light energy and convert it to chemical energy inside their cell. Most phototrophs are the autotrophs that perform photosynthesis, which are also known as photoautotrophs. These organisms have the ability to fix carbon from carbon dioxide into organic compounds, such as glucose. Chemotrophs , on the other hand, do not get their energy from carbon. These are organisms that break down either organic or inorganic molecules to supply energy for the cell through chemosynthesis. Chemotrophs can be either autotrophic (chemoautotrophs) or heterotrophic (chemoheterotrophs). Chemoautotrophs derive their energy from chemical reactions, and synthesize all necessary organic compounds from carbon dioxide. Chemoheterotrophs are unable to fix carbon to form their own organic compounds. The various types of metabolisms are discussed in the Prokaryotes: Nutrition and Metabolism (Advanced) concept. Answer: phototrophs", "output": [ "Which organisms capture light energy and convert it to chemical energy inside their cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5b1758d67ab544159fc9d02cc86460c3", "input": "Passage: Natural selection occurs when there are differences in fitness among members of a population. Answer: natural selection", "output": [ "Differences in fitness among different members of a population can lead to what kind of selection?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2fb1f297a943478e95fa5345f8de1920", "input": "Passage: Many species use their body shape and coloration to avoid being detected by predators. The tropical walking stick is an insect with the coloration and body shape of a twig, which makes it very hard to see when it is stationary against a background of real twigs (Figure 19.15a). In another example, the chameleon can change its color to match its surroundings (Figure 19.15b). Answer: predators", "output": [ "Many species use their body shape and coloration to avoid being detected by what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-11fe6209f22a4346bcad365961e11d16", "input": "Passage: The Sun is Earth’s main source of energy. The Sun gives us both light and heat. The Sun changes hydrogen into helium through nuclear fusion. This releases huge amounts of energy. The energy travels to the Earth mostly as visible light. The energy is carried through the empty space by radiation . We can use sunlight as an energy resource, called solar energy ( Figure above ). Answer: the sun", "output": [ "What is earth's main source of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8e1edd7343e444d0a2361848fd6290d3", "input": "Passage: No doubt you already have a good idea of what temperature is. You might define it as how hot or cold something feels. In physics, temperature is defined as the average kinetic energy of the particles in an object. When particles move more quickly, temperature is higher and an object feels warmer. When particles move more slowly, temperature is lower and an object feels cooler. Answer: temperature", "output": [ "In physics, _______ is defined as the average kinetic energy of the particles in an object?" ] }, { "id": "task594-69f89f4165f64969b2ba70bd10d06941", "input": "Passage: States of matter are different phases in which any given type of matter can exist. There are four well-known states of matter—solid, liquid, gas, and plasma—but only the first three states are common on Earth. Answer: plasma", "output": [ "Which state of matter is not common on earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1dd39bf447d04f0696d666c94bca4079", "input": "Passage: Earth is hottest at the equator and gets cooler toward the poles. The differences in heating create huge convection currents in the troposphere. At the equator, for example, warm air rises up to the tropopause. It can’t rise any higher, so it flows north or south. Answer: north or south", "output": [ "When warm air rises up to the tropopause, where does it flow?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b4f4cb4464d74139940ef297af2bf634", "input": "Passage: There are two different types of specific immune responses. One type involves B cells. The other type involves T cells. Recall that B cells and T cells are types of white blood cells that are key in the immune response. Whereas the immune system's first and second line of defense are more generalized or non-specific, the immune response is specific. It can be described as a specific response to a specific pathogen, meaning it uses methods to target just one pathogen at a time. These methods involve B and T cells. Answer: white blood cells", "output": [ "B cells and t cells are examples of what type of cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3c2e160d9d694a4ebddfca1e99a5afa8", "input": "Passage: This bacterium, called Mycobacterium tuberculosis , causes the disease Tuberculosis (TB). These bacteria usually attack the lungs. If left untreated, the infection can be fatal. Many other illnesses, mild and severe, are also caused by certain types of bacteria. Answer: lungs", "output": [ "What part of the body does the mycobacterium tuberculosis bacterium usually attack?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f48748634ea04b018762de391e4a1add", "input": "Passage: Carbon dioxide is the main greenhouse gas causing global warming. There are several possible ways to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. They include cap-and-trade systems, carbon taxes, and carbon sequestration. Answer: carbon dioxide", "output": [ "What is the main greenhouse gas causing global warming?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dd7a636e9ad84bf6a61a377d8b9ea277", "input": "Passage: In beta decay, an electron and a proton form from a neutron (another unusual particle, called an antineutrino, is also produced). Only the electron is emitted from the nucleus. How does this change the atomic number and atomic mass of the atom?. Answer: electron and a proton", "output": [ "What particles are formed from a neutron in beta decay?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c93eb9c592004523a07b4dcbb7a9fbc0", "input": "Passage: Gene expression is regulated to ensure that the correct proteins are made when and where they are needed. Regulation may occur at any point in the expression of a gene, from the start of transcription to the processing of a protein after translation. The focus in this lesson is the regulation of transcription. Answer: gene expression", "output": [ "What is regulated to ensure that the correct proteins are made?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cbc73d67baec4de1917f0dbbe2d4f0b8", "input": "Passage: Cyclins regulate the cell cycle only when they are tightly bound to Cdks. To be fully active, the Cdk/cyclin complex must also be phosphorylated in specific locations. Like all kinases, Cdks are enzymes (kinases) that phosphorylate other proteins. Phosphorylation activates the protein by changing its shape. The proteins phosphorylated by Cdks are involved in advancing the cell to the next phase. (Figure 10.12). The levels of Cdk proteins are relatively stable throughout the cell cycle; however, the concentrations of cyclin fluctuate and determine when Cdk/cyclin complexes form. The different cyclins and Cdks bind at specific points in the cell cycle and thus regulate different checkpoints. Answer: cyclins", "output": [ "What regulates the cell cycle only when they are tightly bound to cdks?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8d75b45ada7049c8acd84b0924bae526", "input": "Passage: Cardiac muscle undergoes aerobic respiration patterns, primarily metabolizing lipids and carbohydrates. Myoglobin, lipids, and glycogen are all stored within the cytoplasm. Cardiac muscle cells undergo twitch-type contractions with long refractory periods followed by brief relaxation periods. The relaxation is essential so the heart can fill with blood for the next cycle. The refractory period is very long to prevent the possibility of tetany, a condition in which muscle remains involuntarily contracted. In the heart, tetany is not compatible with life, since it would prevent the heart from pumping blood. Answer: cardiac muscle", "output": [ "What kind of muscle cells undergo twitch-type contractions with long refractory periods followed by brief relaxation periods, allowing the heart to fill with blood for the next cycle?" ] }, { "id": "task594-db73a32047ff4e45be4d588054e39fd5", "input": "Passage: Almost all protozoa can move. They have special appendages for this purpose. You can see different types in Figure below . Cilia (cilium, singular) are short, hair-like projections. Pseudopods are temporary extensions of the cytoplasm. Flagella are long, whip-like structures. Flagella are also found in most prokaryotes. Answer: the cytoplasm", "output": [ "Pseudopods are temporary extensions of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-672c7bcc29344e64bea47f71abb3e267", "input": "Passage: An acid-base reaction according to the Brønsted-Lowry definition is a transfer of a proton from one molecule or ion to another. When ammonia is dissolved in water, it undergoes the following reversible reaction. Answer: acid-base", "output": [ "What type of reaction is a transfer of a proton from one molecule or ion to another?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b86d763eb8ab4df780bb0fe3a181aeb2", "input": "Passage: U92235 + n01® B56141a + K3692r + 3n01 This hypothesis was confirmed by detecting the krypton-92 fission product. As discussed in Section 20.2 \"Nuclear Reactions\", the nucleus usually divides asymmetrically rather than into two equal parts, and the fission of a given nuclide does not give the same products every time. In a typical nuclear fission reaction, more than one neutron is released by each dividing nucleus. When these neutrons collide with and induce fission in other neighboring nuclei, a self-sustaining series of nuclear fission reactions known as anuclear chain reaction can result (Figure 20.16 \"The Curve of Nuclear Binding Energy\"). For example, the fission of 235U releases two to three neutrons per fission event. If absorbed by other 235U nuclei, those neutrons induce additional fission events, and the rate of the fission reaction increases geometrically. Each series of events is called a generation. Experimentally, it is found that some minimum mass of a fissile isotope is required to sustain a nuclear chain reaction; if the mass is too low, too many neutrons are able to escape without being captured and inducing a fission reaction. The minimum mass capable of supporting sustained fission is called the critical mass. This amount depends on the purity of the material and the shape of the mass, which corresponds to the amount of surface area available from which neutrons can escape, and on the identity of the isotope. If the mass of the fissile isotope is greater than the critical mass, then under the right conditions, the resulting supercritical mass can release energy explosively. The enormous energy released from nuclear chain reactions is responsible for the massive destruction caused by the detonation of nuclear weapons such as fission bombs, but it also forms the basis of the nuclear power industry. Nuclear fusion, in which two light nuclei combine to produce a heavier, more stable nucleus, is the opposite of nuclear fission. As in the nuclear transmutation reactions discussed in Section 20.2 \"Nuclear. Answer: critical mass", "output": [ "What is the minimum mass capable of supporting sustained fission called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-97fae8ef90d740c6925794b3368372cc", "input": "Passage: A gas is a form of matter that has neither a definite shape nor a definite volume. A gas takes up the shape and volume of its container. This is because the particles of a gas are very far apart from one another compared to the particles that make up solids and liquids. Gases are easily compressed because of the large spaces in between gas particles. Gas particles are often invisible, but they can be detected in various ways, such as the light emitted when an electric current is passed through a sample of a gas ( Figure below ). Answer: gas", "output": [ "What form of matter has neither a definite shape nor a definite volume?" ] }, { "id": "task594-63b9800b486045eea0148aa3742855cf", "input": "Passage: Mutations that occur in gametes can be passed on to offspring. An offspring that inherits a mutation in a gamete will have the mutation in all of its cells. Answer: cells", "output": [ "An offspring that inherits a mutation in a gamete will have the mutation in all of its?" ] }, { "id": "task594-372e352c6bcc4f349dc33623a09c036b", "input": "Passage: The acidity of a solution is typically assessed experimentally by measurement of its pH. The pOH of a solution is not usually measured, as it is easily calculated from an experimentally determined pH value. The pH of a solution can be directly measured using a pH meter (Figure 14.4). Answer: ph", "output": [ "The acidity of a solution is typically assessed experimentally by measurement of its what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fc6774626a2047d8b96851f95a7234ee", "input": "Passage: The marsupial embryo is nourished inside the uterus with food from a yolk sac instead of through a placenta. The yolk sac stores enough food for the short period of time the embryo remains in the uterus. After the embryo is born, it moves into the mother’s pouch, where it clings to a nipple. It remains inside the pouch for several months while it continues to grow and develop. Even after the offspring is big enough to leave the pouch, it may often return to the pouch for warmth and nourishment. Eventually, the offspring is mature enough to remain outside the pouch on its own. Answer: placenta", "output": [ "The marsupial embryo is nourished inside the uterus with food from a yolk sac instead of through a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b6be11c82a3c4fda8e035a5da7a8aa8e", "input": "Passage: The ocean basin begins where the ocean meets the land. The continental margin begins at the shore and goes down to the ocean floor. It includes the continental shelf, slope, and rise. The continental shelf is part of the continent, but it is underwater today. It is about 100-200 meters deep, much shallower than the rest of the ocean. The continental shelf usually goes out about 100 to 200 kilometers from the shore ( Figure below ). Answer: land", "output": [ "The ocean basin begins where the ocean meets what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ec9cb2bb12cd463b8c60d3102723a832", "input": "Passage: Fertilization occurs when an egg and sperm come together to form a zygote. Answer: zygote", "output": [ "Fertilization occurs when an egg and sperm come together to form a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-933c410598844e10b73436396fc764e0", "input": "Passage: Fluid friction is friction that acts on objects that are moving through a fluid. A fluid is a substance that can flow and take the shape of its container. Fluids include liquids and gases. If you’ve ever tried to push your open hand through the water in a tub or pool, then you’ve experienced fluid friction between your hand and the water. When a skydiver is falling toward Earth with a parachute, fluid friction between the parachute and the air slows the descent (see Figure below ). Fluid pressure with the air is called air resistance. The faster or larger a moving object is, the greater is the fluid friction resisting its motion. The very large surface area of a parachute, for example, has greater air resistance than a skydiver’s body. Answer: liquids and gases", "output": [ "What two states of matter are included in the category \"fluids\"?" ] }, { "id": "task594-883719b12b8c4a9685345572f3a11f04", "input": "Passage: Did you know that blood is a tissue? Blood is a fluid connective tissue that is made up of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma. The cells that make up blood are pictured below ( Figure below ). The different parts of blood have different roles. Answer: plasma", "output": [ "Blood is made up of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6bad600bff4f4442883da6fca5c90312", "input": "Passage: A N SW E R S 1. Gases consist of tiny particles of matter that are in constant motion. Gas particles are constantly colliding with each other and the walls of a container. These collisions are elastic; that is, there is no net loss of energy from the collisions. Gas particles are separated by large distances, with the size of a gas particle tiny compared to the distances that separate them. There are no interactive forces (i. , attraction or repulsion) between the particles of a gas. The average speed of gas particles is dependent on the temperature of the gas. Answer: energy", "output": [ "Gas particles are constantly colliding with each other and the walls of a container, and these collisions are elastic, so there is no net loss of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b16cb4cafbd34251981579075dbe2fe7", "input": "Passage: The tensor fascia latae is a thick, squarish muscle in the superior aspect of the lateral thigh. It acts as a synergist of the gluteus medius and iliopsoas in flexing and abducting the thigh. It also helps stabilize the lateral aspect of the knee by pulling on the iliotibial tract (band), making it taut. Deep to the gluteus maximus, the piriformis, obturator internus, obturator externus, superior gemellus, inferior gemellus, and quadratus femoris laterally rotate the femur at the hip. The adductor longus, adductor brevis, and adductor magnus can both medially and laterally rotate the thigh depending on the placement of the foot. The adductor longus flexes the thigh, whereas the adductor magnus extends it. The pectineus adducts and flexes the femur at the hip as well. The pectineus is located in the femoral triangle, which is formed at the junction between the hip and the leg and also includes the femoral nerve, the femoral artery, the femoral vein, and the deep inguinal lymph nodes. Answer: synergist", "output": [ "The tensor fascia latae acts as what, in relation to the gluteus medius and iliopsoas, for the purpose of flexing and abducting the thigh?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cbd31f953afb43f3b77df4e020b9ae01", "input": "Passage: Sediments are deposited horizontally so sedimentary rock layers are originally horizontal. Answer: horizontally", "output": [ "What direction are sediments deposited?" ] }, { "id": "task594-99066f8f04a940a1ad350a701811f007", "input": "Passage: Some parasites kill their host, but most do not. It’s easy to see why. If a parasite kills its host, the parasite is also likely to die. Instead, parasites usually cause relatively minor damage to their host. Answer: it dies", "output": [ "What is likely to happen to a parasite if it kills its host?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d891f37037fa47038a5cc0711a02ebf4", "input": "Passage: Jaws Beach in Maui, Hawaii has legendary waves. The largest waves come when winds are very strong, usually in the winter. The rocks and reef offshore magnify the size of the incoming wave energy. Cowabunga!. Answer: winter", "output": [ "What season do the largest waves for surfers typically come?" ] }, { "id": "task594-403ac7a17e434752a3c0e58ea028885f", "input": "Passage: Nutrients the body needs in relatively large amounts are called macronutrients . They include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and water. All macronutrients except water can be used by the body for energy. (The energy in food is measured in a unit called a Calorie. ) The exact amount of each macronutrient that an individual needs depends on many factors, including gender and age. Recommended daily intakes by teens of three macronutrients are shown in Table below . Based on your gender and age, how many grams of proteins should you eat each day?. Answer: macronutrients", "output": [ "Nutrients the body needs in relatively large amounts are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-12a042e62dea4d3aa4db04b42a74f23f", "input": "Passage: Darwin coined the term fitness to refer to an organism’s relative ability to survive and produce fertile offspring. Nature selects the variations that are most useful. Therefore, he called this type of selection natural selection . Answer: darwin", "output": [ "Who coined the term natural selection?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d9bde9f2f187419fbd097b1af8f6962e", "input": "Passage: Red blood cells carry proteins called antigens on their surface. People may vary in the exact antigens their red blood cells carry. The specific proteins are controlled by the genes they inherit from their parents. The particular antigens you inherit determine your blood type. Answer: antigens", "output": [ "What are the specfic types of proteins that determine your blood type called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cc85e04f2ee641e29ea6376fae312903", "input": "Passage: The male reproductive organ in a flower is the stamen . It has a stalk-like filament that ends in an anther. The anther is where pollen forms. Answer: stamen", "output": [ "Featuring a stalk-like filament that ends in an anther, what is the male reproductive organ in a flower?" ] }, { "id": "task594-012f79eebb684b28a79a22bbf8806213", "input": "Passage: Many ecosystems have changed because of human actions. The human species is responsible for a range of environmental problems. Answer: to transport", "output": [ "What is the main function of the cardiovascular system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8a922af86b2845cab4c491d42aa40e06", "input": "Passage: The ancestor of plants is green algae. This picture shows a close up of algae on the beach. Answer: green algae", "output": [ "Name the plant considered to be the ancestor of plants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-02fdc90589f54bcbad3879b5536d55ce", "input": "Passage: A: The copper has become tarnished. The tarnish—also called patina—is a compound called copper carbonate, which is green. Copper carbonate forms when copper undergoes a chemical reaction with carbon dioxide in moist air. The green patina that forms on copper actually preserves the underlying metal. That’s why it’s not removed from the statue. Some people also think that the patina looks attractive. Answer: copper carbonate", "output": [ "What compound gives tarnished copper it's green color?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c89a8bdb599b498393ab73e370dbee72", "input": "Passage: Glial Cells of the CNS One cell providing support to neurons of the CNS is the astrocyte, so named because it appears to be star-shaped under the microscope (astro- = “star”). Astrocytes have many processes extending from their main cell body (not axons or dendrites like neurons, just cell extensions). Those processes extend to interact with neurons, blood vessels, or the connective tissue covering the CNS that is called the pia mater (Figure 12.11). Generally, they are supporting cells for the neurons in the central nervous system. Some ways in which they support neurons in the central nervous system are by maintaining the concentration of chemicals in the extracellular space, removing excess signaling molecules, reacting to tissue damage, and contributing to the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The blood-brain barrier is a physiological barrier that keeps many. Answer: central nervous system", "output": [ "Contributing to the blood-brain barrier is one of the jobs of glial cells, which support neurons in what system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f1e7e5b952d245938cad6237c888a949", "input": "Passage: Cellulose is composed of very long strands of glucose monomers that are hydrogen bonded to one another. Cellulose is largely indigestible and comprises the cell walls of plants. Answer: cellulose", "output": [ "What is composed of very long strands of glucose monomers, is largely indigestible and comprises the cell walls of plants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-99e2fa1e62014f66a700078d25654860", "input": "Passage: The process in which an atom becomes an ion is called ionization. It may occur when atoms are exposed to high levels of radiation. The radiation may give their outer electrons enough energy to escape from the attraction of the positive nucleus. However, most ions form when atoms transfer electrons to or from other atoms or molecules. For example, sodium atoms may transfer electrons to chlorine atoms. This forms positive sodium ions (Na + ) and negative chloride ions (Cl - ). You can see an animation of this process at the URL below. Answer: ionization", "output": [ "What is the process in which an atom becomes an ion known as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9433eaeecf7144688d6810fa90fb6736", "input": "Passage: Leaf Structure and Function The outermost layer of the leaf is the epidermis; it is present on both sides of the leaf and is called the upper and lower epidermis, respectively. Botanists call the upper side the adaxial surface (or adaxis) and the lower side the abaxial surface (or abaxis). The epidermis helps in the regulation of gas exchange. It contains stomata (Figure 30.24): openings through which the exchange of gases takes place. Two guard cells surround each stoma, regulating its opening and closing. Answer: abaxial surface (or abaxis)", "output": [ "The outermost layer of the leaf is the epidermis; it is present on both sides of the leaf and is called the upper and lower epidermis, respectively. botanists call the upper side the adaxial surface (or adaxis) and the lower side this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2a2a1644269749e69d79e1851d485310", "input": "Passage: The highway above switches back and forth as it climbs up the steep hillside. The much gentler slope of the road makes it easier for vehicles to reach the top of the mountain. The highway is an example of an inclined plane. Answer: inclined plane", "output": [ "A highway that switches back and forth as it climbs up a steep hillside, yeilding a much gentler slope, is an example of what simple machine?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4b4fdf88b8fe4d3d98d62618c88e4f3a", "input": "Passage: Abiotic factors are the nonliving aspects of the environment. They include factors such as sunlight, soil, temperature, and water. Answer: abiotic factors", "output": [ "What are the nonliving aspects of the environment called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ef6fbc83333c45579aa7ee4d30b65208", "input": "Passage: Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine The digestion of proteins and carbohydrates, which partially occurs in the stomach, is completed in the small intestine with the aid of intestinal and pancreatic juices. Lipids arrive in the intestine largely undigested, so much of the focus here is on lipid digestion, which is facilitated by bile and the enzyme pancreatic lipase. Moreover, intestinal juice combines with pancreatic juice to provide a liquid medium that facilitates absorption. The intestine is also where most water is absorbed, via osmosis. The small intestine’s absorptive cells also synthesize digestive enzymes and then place them in the plasma membranes of the microvilli. This distinguishes the small intestine from the stomach; that is, enzymatic digestion occurs not only in the lumen, but also on the luminal surfaces of the mucosal cells. For optimal chemical digestion, chyme must be delivered from the stomach slowly and in small amounts. This is because chyme from the stomach is typically hypertonic, and if large quantities were forced all at once into the small intestine, the resulting osmotic water loss from the blood into the intestinal lumen would result in potentially life-threatening low blood volume. In addition, continued digestion requires an upward adjustment of the low pH of stomach chyme, along with rigorous mixing of the chyme with bile and pancreatic juices. Both processes take time, so the pumping action of the pylorus must be carefully controlled to prevent the duodenum from being overwhelmed with chyme. Answer: intestinal and pancreatic", "output": [ "What two types of juices help digestion within the small intestine?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0afef123fc804be7833c14526f5917f1", "input": "Passage: Most reptiles are carnivores, and large reptiles are the top predators in their ecosystems. Answer: carnivores", "output": [ "What type of animal are most reptiles in regards to diet?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0cb0a452724145d1aca79a7bbcbf6773", "input": "Passage: Internal Energy U We can think about the internal energy of a system in two different but consistent ways. The first is the atomic and molecular view, which examines the system on the atomic and molecular scale. The internal energy U of a system is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of its atoms and molecules. Recall that kinetic plus potential energy is called mechanical energy. Thus internal energy is the sum of atomic and molecular mechanical energy. Because it is impossible to keep track of all individual atoms and molecules, we must deal with averages and distributions. A second way to view the internal energy of a system is in terms of its macroscopic characteristics, which are very similar to atomic and molecular average values. Macroscopically, we define the change in internal energy. Answer: internal energy u", "output": [ "What type of energy of a system is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of its atoms and molecules?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5defc1f2802e420d90c37e51561f9209", "input": "Passage: 16.5 | The Coordination and Gait Exams By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Explain the relationship between the location of the cerebellum and its function in movement • Chart the major divisions of the cerebellum • List the major connections of the cerebellum • Describe the relationship of the cerebellum to axial and appendicular musculature • Explain the prevalent causes of cerebellar ataxia The role of the cerebellum is a subject of debate. There is an obvious connection to motor function based on the clinical implications of cerebellar damage. There is also strong evidence of the cerebellar role in procedural memory. The two are not incompatible; in fact, procedural memory is motor memory, such as learning to ride a bicycle. Significant work has been performed to describe the connections within the cerebellum that result in learning. A model for this learning is classical conditioning, as shown by the famous dogs from the physiologist Ivan Pavlov’s work. This classical conditioning, which can be related to motor learning, fits with the neural connections of the cerebellum. The cerebellum is 10 percent of the mass of the brain and has varied functions that all point to a role in the motor system. Answer: cerebellum", "output": [ "Comprising 10 percent of the mass of the brain, what structure has varied functions that all point to a role in the motor system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4c57422edac148b49b9afc2e4bcf025a", "input": "Passage: Segmented worms have a well-developed body cavity filled with fluid. This fluid-filled cavity serves as a hydroskeleton , a supportive structure that helps move the worm's muscles. Only the most primitive worms (the flatworms) lack a body cavity. Answer: hydroskeleton", "output": [ "What is the name of the supportive structed that helps move a worm's muscles?" ] }, { "id": "task594-14993b9a33a14e89ae141a71bb870d5a", "input": "Passage: Amphibians play important roles in many ecosystems, especially as middle players in many food chains and food webs. In addition to consuming many worms and insects and other arthropods, and even some small reptiles and mammals and fish, they are prey for turtles and snakes, as well as some fish and birds. Tadpoles keep waterways clean by feeding on algae. Answer: algae", "output": [ "What do tadpoles clear out of waterways?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eab21365562242278ffc59627cdb38a3", "input": "Passage: The Nasal Septum and Nasal Conchae The nasal septum consists of both bone and cartilage components (Figure 7.17; see also Figure 7.11). The upper portion of the septum is formed by the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone. The lower and posterior parts of the septum are formed by the triangular-shaped vomer bone. In an anterior view of the skull, the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone is easily seen inside the nasal opening as the upper nasal septum, but only a small portion of the vomer is seen as the inferior septum. A better view of the vomer bone is seen when looking into the posterior nasal cavity with an inferior view of the skull, where the vomer forms the full height of the nasal septum. The anterior nasal septum is formed by the septal cartilage, a flexible plate that fills in the gap between the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid and vomer bones. This cartilage also extends outward into the nose where it separates the right and left nostrils. The septal cartilage is not found in the dry skull. Attached to the lateral wall on each side of the nasal cavity are the superior, middle, and inferior nasal conchae (singular = concha), which are named for their positions (see Figure 7.13). These are bony plates that curve downward as they project into the space of the nasal cavity. They serve to swirl the incoming air, which helps to warm and moisturize it before the air moves into the delicate air sacs of the lungs. This also allows mucus, secreted by the tissue lining the nasal cavity, to trap incoming dust, pollen, bacteria, and viruses. The largest of the conchae is the inferior nasal concha, which is an independent bone of the skull. The middle concha and the superior conchae, which is the smallest, are both formed by the ethmoid bone. When looking into the anterior nasal opening of the skull, only the inferior and middle conchae can be seen. The small superior nasal concha is well hidden above and behind the middle concha. Answer: ethmoid bone", "output": [ "The upper portion of the septum is formed by the perpendicular plate of which bone?" ] }, { "id": "task594-07daa9b75da34836b210183cfcfa7ec8", "input": "Passage: isobaric expansion is a process occurring without a change in pressure. Answer: pressure", "output": [ "Isobaric expansion is a process occurring without a change in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8bb22aa7e45540d1973aaa4586c34785", "input": "Passage: You learned about the three rock types: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. You also learned that all of these rocks can change. In fact, any rock can change to become any other type of rock. These changes usually happen very slowly. Some changes happen below Earth’s surface. Some changes happen above ground. These changes are all part of the rock cycle. The rock cycle describes each of the main types of rocks, how they form, and how they change. Answer: igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic", "output": [ "What are the three types of rocks?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f0db1abe97644ad58b0259dd8d4e7160", "input": "Passage: If a solute is a solid or liquid, increasing the temperature increases its solubility. For example, more sugar can dissolve in hot water than in cold water. Answer: increases its solubility", "output": [ "What does increasing a solute's temperature do?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e0e6cce55e7c4c3bbf347c6f9badb2cb", "input": "Passage: A mountain-building event is called an orogeny . Orogenies take place over tens or hundreds of millions of years. Continents smash into each other. Microcontinents and island arcs smash into continents. All of these events cause mountains to rise. Answer: orogeny", "output": [ "What is the term for a mountain-building event?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0c0baee8cb1d418e8c52784b603ded16", "input": "Passage: The structure of a chloroplast shows how membrane and molecular architecture helps life processes. A chloroplast consists of thylakoid membranes surrounded by stroma. The thylakoids stack on top of each other, like a stack of pancakes. The thylakoid stacks arrange chlorophyll, accessory pigment molecules, and photosynthetic proteins to capture sunlight and allow a concentration of ions within the sacs. You can see the green color of the chlorophyll. You cannot see the electron carriers, sequenced within the sac membranes, but their arrangement helps harvest small amounts of energy from excited electrons. The thylakoid membranes contain molecules of the green pigment chlorophyll. Answer: chlorophyll", "output": [ "Thylakoid membranes contain molecules of what green pigment used in photosynthesis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ae9f30ac48fe41d3bb5e91aec57098db", "input": "Passage: The temperature of a region is the other important part of climate. The rate of chemical reactions increases with higher temperatures. The rate doubles for every 10°C increase in temperature. Plants and bacteria grow and multiply faster in warmer areas. Answer: they increase", "output": [ "What happens to the rate of chemical reactions in higher temperatures?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dfe67f1b1dc8449f8e02101caebce0c7", "input": "Passage: A population is a group of organisms of the same species that live in the same area. All the genes in all the members of a population make up the population’s gene pool . For each gene, the gene pool includes all the different alleles in the population. The gene pool can be described by its allele frequencies for specific genes. The frequency of an allele is the number of copies of that allele divided by the total number of alleles for the gene in the gene pool. Answer: gene pool", "output": [ "All the genes in all the members of a population make up its what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-87003223078544d3879e4c95e714658e", "input": "Passage: Regular weight-bearing exercise can reduce the risk of osteoporosis. Apply lesson concepts to explain why. Answer: osteoporosis", "output": [ "Regularly performing weight-bearing exercise can reduce the risk of what condition that affects bones?" ] }, { "id": "task594-705208167eb34099837d2ed6b011f841", "input": "Passage: Most of the organisms that once lived on Earth are now extinct. Earth’s environment has changed many times. Many organisms could not adapt to the changes. They died out. The organisms that did survive passed traits on to their offspring. The changes added up, eventually producing the species we see today. Answer: extinct", "output": [ "Species of organisms that have permanently died out can also be called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4cc265737f234c0ab67bac28d1fc757b", "input": "Passage: The diagrams above can serve as a pathway to understanding evolutionary history. The pathway can be traced from the origin of life to any individual species by navigating through the evolutionary branches between the two points. Also, by starting with a single species and tracing back towards the \"trunk\" of the tree, one can discover that species' ancestors, as well as where lineages share a common ancestry. In addition, the tree can be used to study entire groups of organisms. Another point to mention on phylogenetic tree structure is that rotation at branch points does not change the information. For example, if a branch point was rotated and the taxon order changed, this would not alter the information because the evolution of each taxon from the branch point was independent of the other. Many disciplines within the study of biology contribute to understanding how past and present life evolved over time; these disciplines together contribute to building, updating, and maintaining the “tree of life. ” Information is used to organize and classify organisms based on evolutionary relationships in a scientific field called systematics. Data may be collected from fossils, from studying the structure of body parts or molecules used by an organism, and by DNA analysis. By combining data from many sources, scientists can put together the phylogeny of an organism; since phylogenetic trees are hypotheses, they will continue to change as new types of life are discovered and new information is learned. Answer: tree of life", "output": [ "Many disciplines within the study of biology contribute to understanding how past and present life evolved over time; these disciplines together contribute to building, updating, and maintaining this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5cff47f1001047a4b3a5a9423f4540f1", "input": "Passage: Molten Salts and Ionic Liquids Heating a salt to its melting point produces a molten salt. If we heated a sample of solid NaCl to its melting point of 801°C, for example, it would melt to give a stable liquid that conducts electricity. The characteristics of molten salts other than electrical conductivity are their high heat capacity, ability to attain very high temperatures (over 700°C) as a liquid, and utility as solvents because of their relatively low toxicity. Molten salts have many uses in industry and the laboratory. For example, in solar power towers in the desert of California, mirrors collect and focus sunlight to melt a mixture of sodium nitrite and sodium nitrate. The heat stored in the molten salt is used to produce steam that drives a steam turbine and a generator, thereby producing electricity from the sun for southern California. Due to their low toxicity and high thermal efficiency, molten salts have also been used in nuclear reactors to enable operation at temperatures greater than 750°C. One prototype reactor tested in the 1950s used a fuel and a coolant consisting of molten fluoride salts, including NaF, ZrF 4, and UF4. Molten salts are also. Answer: molten salt", "output": [ "Ionic liquids heating a salt to its melting point produces a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ac1db78cadf048558b669e4d8624bcba", "input": "Passage: 26.1 Physics of the Eye The eye is perhaps the most interesting of all optical instruments. The eye is remarkable in how it forms images and in the richness of detail and color it can detect. However, our eyes commonly need some correction, to reach what is called “normal” vision, but should be called ideal rather than normal. Image formation by our eyes and common vision correction are easy to analyze with the optics discussed in Geometric Optics. Figure 26.2 shows the basic anatomy of the eye. The cornea and lens form a system that, to a good approximation, acts as a single thin lens. For clear vision, a real image must be projected onto the light-sensitive retina, which lies at a fixed distance from the lens. The lens of the eye adjusts its power to produce an image on the retina for objects at different distances. The center of the image falls on the fovea, which has the greatest density of light receptors and the greatest acuity (sharpness) in the visual field. The variable opening (or pupil) of the eye along with chemical adaptation allows the eye to detect light intensities from the 10 lowest observable to 10 times greater (without damage). This is an incredible range of detection. Our eyes perform a vast number of functions, such as sense direction, movement, sophisticated colors, and distance. Processing of visual nerve impulses begins with interconnections in the retina and continues in the brain. The optic nerve conveys signals received by the eye to the brain. Answer: optic nerve", "output": [ "What conveys signals received by the eye to the brain?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c4fadd6d3e2a45d384678b82a8b8215e", "input": "Passage: Larynx The larynx is a cartilaginous structure inferior to the laryngopharynx that connects the pharynx to the trachea and helps regulate the volume of air that enters and leaves the lungs (Figure 22.7). The structure of the larynx is formed by several pieces of cartilage. Three large cartilage pieces—the thyroid cartilage (anterior), epiglottis (superior), and cricoid cartilage (inferior)—form the major structure of the larynx. The thyroid cartilage is the largest piece of cartilage that makes up the larynx. The thyroid cartilage consists of the laryngeal prominence, or “Adam’s apple,” which tends to be more prominent in males. The thick cricoid cartilage forms a ring, with a wide posterior region and a thinner anterior region. Three smaller,. Answer: larynx", "output": [ "What structure connects the pharynx to the trachea?" ] }, { "id": "task594-077dc6910fc64f4397a2da1e9093a96c", "input": "Passage: 12.5 The Onset of Turbulence Sometimes we can predict if flow will be laminar or turbulent. We know that flow in a very smooth tube or around a smooth, streamlined object will be laminar at low velocity. We also know that at high velocity, even flow in a smooth tube or around a smooth object will experience turbulence. In between, it is more difficult to predict. In fact, at intermediate velocities, flow may oscillate back and forth indefinitely between laminar and turbulent. An occlusion, or narrowing, of an artery, such as shown in Figure 12.17, is likely to cause turbulence because of the irregularity of the blockage, as well as the complexity of blood as a fluid. Turbulence in the circulatory system is noisy and can sometimes be detected with a stethoscope, such as when measuring diastolic pressure in the upper arm’s partially collapsed brachial artery. These turbulent sounds, at the onset of blood flow when the cuff pressure becomes sufficiently small, are called Korotkoff sounds. Aneurysms, or ballooning of arteries, create significant turbulence and can sometimes be detected with a stethoscope. Heart murmurs, consistent with their name, are sounds produced by turbulent flow around damaged and insufficiently closed heart valves. Ultrasound can also be used to detect turbulence as a medical indicator in a process analogous to Doppler-shift radar used to detect storms. Answer: korotkoff sounds", "output": [ "Turbulent sounds, at the onset of blood flow when the cuff pressure becomes sufficiently small are called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6317a7a610994c1fb26bba89933ea84e", "input": "Passage: The rare earth metals are a set of seventeen chemical elements (the lanthanide series plus scandium and yttrium) that have particular importance for a variety of industrial processes and are used frequently in modern technology. Despite their name, rare earth metals are actually relatively abundant in the earth’s crust. However, the extraction of many of these metals is quite difficult and has made their supply somewhat limited. They are highly sought after for this reason. Figure below shows the rare earth metals. Answer: rare earth metals", "output": [ "What do you call the set of seventeen chemical elements possessing particular importance for a variety of industrial processes, used frequently in modern technology?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b6cd53c91da940aa93fb717b04b4a0b4", "input": "Passage: the fact that stars are made up of very lightweight hydrogen gas. Answer: hydrogen", "output": [ "What type of gas are stars made up of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-079cc83da0c9445788fca5f5d2a36d28", "input": "Passage: Molecular and Formula Masses The molecular mass of a substance is the sum of the average masses of the atoms in one molecule of a substance. It is calculated by adding together the atomic masses of the elements in the substance, each multiplied by its subscript (written or implied) in the molecular formula. Because the units of atomic mass are atomic mass units, the units of molecular mass are also atomic mass units. The procedure for calculating molecular masses is illustrated in Example 1. Answer: molecular mass", "output": [ "What is calculated by adding together the atomic masses of the elements in the substance, each multiplied by its subscript (written or implied) in the molecular formula?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a22556bcffff42b393767ff99926da86", "input": "Passage: Introduction Coral reefs are home to about 25% of all marine species. They are being threatened by climate change, oceanic acidification, and water pollution, all of which change the composition of the solution we know as seawater. Dissolved oxygen in seawater is critical for sea creatures, but as the oceans warm, oxygen becomes less soluble. As the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the oceans increases, contributing to oceanic acidification. Coral reefs are particularly sensitive to the acidification of the ocean, since the exoskeletons of the coral polyps are soluble in acidic solutions. Humans contribute to the changing of seawater composition by allowing agricultural runoff and other forms of pollution to affect our oceans. Solutions are crucial to the processes that sustain life and to many other processes involving chemical reactions. In this chapter, we will consider the nature of solutions, and examine factors that determine whether a solution will form and what properties it may have. In addition, we will discuss colloids—systems that resemble solutions but consist of dispersions of particles somewhat larger than ordinary molecules or ions. Answer: soluble", "output": [ "Dissolved oxygen in seawater is critical for sea creatures, but as the oceans warm, oxygen becomes less what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eef5a28a7efa4784839a7c9acf9e3ca2", "input": "Passage: Venus rotates slowly in a direction opposite to the direction of its orbit. Answer: its orbit", "output": [ "Venus rotates slowly in a direction opposite to the direction of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9314467200124ec0bcedcc21fbd5e493", "input": "Passage: The water Americans get from their faucets is safe. This water has been treated and purified. At least 20% of the world’s people do not have clean drinking water always available. That's more than 1 billion people. They must drink water from where they can get it. Maybe straight from a river or pond ( Figure below ). Human wastes may be in the water. If that's the case, the water will probably contain pathogens. Pathogens are organisms that cause diseases. Answer: clean drinking water", "output": [ "At least 20 percent of the world’s people do not have a ready supply of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f6cd9497fdce47559d7f5eefa47c558b", "input": "Passage: Climate change in Earth history was due to natural processes. Recent global warming is due mainly to human actions. The burning of fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases into the air. This creates greater greenhouse effect and global warming. Answer: human actions", "output": [ "While climate change in earth history was due to natural processes, what is primarily to blame for recent global warming?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8f99b5fe51d04449993e00d8132564ee", "input": "Passage: Ice, water, and steam appear quite differently to the eye. If you were to look at these three states of matter on the molecular level, you would see that the arrangement of molecules is very different here as well. However, solids and liquids have definite volumes, unlike gases which tend to take on the shape of their container. In this lesson, you will learn about the unique behavior of gas particles on a molecular level and the basis for kinetic molecular theory. Answer: solids and liquids", "output": [ "Which two states of matter have definite volumes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ae4d40334e654dd48f470d344a954a27", "input": "Passage: Diabetes is another type of noninfectious disease. Diabetes occurs when the pancreas doesn’t make enough insulin or else the body’s cells are resistant to the effects of insulin. Insulin is a hormone that helps cells absorb glucose from the blood. Answer: diabetes", "output": [ "What occurs when the pancreas doesn’t make enough insulin or else the body’s cells are resistant to the effects of insulin?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f756153a7b984b0696f42964fa85ef8e", "input": "Passage: CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 18. Why is it beneficial for cells to use ATP rather than energy directly from the bonds of carbohydrates? What are the greatest drawbacks to harnessing energy directly from the bonds of several different compounds? 19. Nearly all organisms on earth carry out some form of glycolysis. How does that fact support or not support the assertion that glycolysis is one of the oldest metabolic pathways? 20. Red blood cells do not perform aerobic respiration, but they do perform glycolysis. Why do all cells need an energy source, and what would happen if glycolysis were blocked in a red blood cell? 21. What is the primary difference between a circular pathway and a linear pathway?. Answer: glycolysis", "output": [ "Red blood cells do not perform aerobic respiration, but they do perform what process that is nearly universal to organisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cefcba5716974f2492eb7b2465b73a32", "input": "Passage: type of cancer in which bone marrow produces abnormal white blood cells that cannot fight infections. Answer: leukemia", "output": [ "What is the type of cancer in which bone marrow produces abnormal white blood cells that cannot fight infections?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fd06c694886d485ab449a8999160860b", "input": "Passage: Physical and chemical properties of geometric isomers are generally different. While cis -2-butene is a polar molecule, trans -2-butene is nonpolar. Heat or irradiation with light can be used to bring about the conversion of one geometric isomer to another. The input of energy must be large enough to break the pi bond between the two carbon atoms, which is weaker than the sigma bond. At that point, the now single bond is free to rotate and the isomers can interconvert. Answer: different", "output": [ "Physical and chemical properties of geometric isomers are generally what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eb2e349b4bc54d26b22965e3e7bc41d8", "input": "Passage: A ribosome is a small organelle where proteins are made. It’s like a factory in the cell. It gathers amino acids and joins them together into proteins. Unlike other organelles, the ribosome is not surrounded by a membrane. As a result, some scientists do not classify it as an organelle. Ribosomes may be found floating in the cytoplasm. Some ribosomes are located on the surface of another organelle, the endoplasmic reticulum. Answer: ribosome", "output": [ "What is the term for a small organelle where proteins are made?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c9b60391b6044b6f90950f009278b03d", "input": "Passage: High-energy electrons are released from NADH and FADH 2 , and they move along electron transport chains, like those used in photosynthesis. The electron transport chains are on the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. As the high-energy electrons are transported along the chains, some of their energy is captured. This energy is used to pump hydrogen ions (from NADH and FADH 2 ) across the inner membrane, from the matrix into the intermembrane space. Electron transport in a mitochondrion is shown in Figure below . Answer: mitochondrion", "output": [ "The electron transport chains are located on the inner membrane of which organelle?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ecc21a3f7dcb482093453d4a32cb2d94", "input": "Passage: Proteins have different shapes and molecular weights; some proteins are globular in shape whereas others are fibrous in nature. For example, hemoglobin is a globular protein, but collagen, found in our skin, is a fibrous protein. Protein shape is critical to its function, and this shape is maintained by many different types of chemical bonds. Changes in temperature, pH, and exposure to chemicals may lead to permanent changes in the shape of the protein, leading to loss of function, known as denaturation. All proteins are made up of different arrangements of the same 20 types of amino acids. Answer: denaturation", "output": [ "Changes in temperature, ph, and exposure to chemicals may lead to permanent changes in the shape of a protein, leading to loss of function known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-92ca9cc594f348408a97d6b4acb77606", "input": "Passage: The main function of the cardiovascular system is transporting substances around the body. Figure above shows some of the substances that are transported in the blood. They include hormones, oxygen, nutrients from digested food, and cellular wastes. Transport of all these materials is necessary to maintain homeostasis of the body and life itself. Answer: transporting substances around the body", "output": [ "What is the main function of the cardiovascular system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d3799c4a44b047b8aaa127329bdc5896", "input": "Passage: As mentioned earlier, echinoderms show radial symmetry. Other key echinoderm features include an internal skeleton and spines, as well as a few organs and organ systems. Although echinoderms look like they have a hard exterior, they do not have an external skeleton. Instead, a thin outer skin covers an internal skeleton made of tiny plates and spines. This provides rigid support. Some groups of echinoderms, such as sea urchins ( Figure below ), have spines that protect the organism. Sea cucumbers use these spines to help them move. Answer: radial", "output": [ "What type of symmetry do echinoderms show?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ae41133b333747f49880e483c6c35c6d", "input": "Passage: The warm-air vent is placed near the floor of the room. Warm air is less dense than cold air so it rises. If the warm-air vent were placed near the ceiling instead, how would this affect the transfer of thermal energy throughout the room?. Answer: lower density", "output": [ "What property of warm air causes it to rise above cold air?" ] }, { "id": "task594-74ee7cf8f5644f469b74fc08d687584a", "input": "Passage: Unlike protons and neutrons, which are located inside the nucleus at the center of the atom, electrons are found outside the nucleus. Because opposite electric charges attract each other, negative electrons are attracted to the positive nucleus. This force of attraction keeps electrons constantly moving through the otherwise empty space around the nucleus. The Figure below is a common way to represent the structure of an atom. It shows the electron as a particle orbiting the nucleus, similar to the way that planets orbit the sun. Answer: nucleus", "output": [ "Where are protons and neutrons located?" ] }, { "id": "task594-11792905c575441e828eb501b085c436", "input": "Passage: from the atmosphere at sea level. As a diver descends, the increase in pressure causes the body’s air pockets in the ears and lungs to compress; on the ascent, the decrease in pressure causes these air pockets to expand, potentially rupturing eardrums or bursting the lungs. Divers must therefore undergo equalization by adding air to body airspaces on the descent by breathing normally and adding air to the mask by breathing out of the nose or adding air to the ears and sinuses by equalization techniques; the corollary is also true on ascent, divers must release air from the body to maintain equalization. Buoyancy, or the ability to control whether a diver sinks or floats, is controlled by the buoyancy compensator (BCD). If a diver is ascending, the air in his BCD expands because of lower pressure according to Boyle’s law (decreasing the pressure of gases increases the volume). The expanding air increases the buoyancy of the diver, and she or he begins to ascend. The diver must vent air from the BCD or risk an uncontrolled ascent that could rupture the lungs. In descending, the increased pressure causes the air in the BCD to compress and the diver sinks much more quickly; the diver must add air to the BCD or risk an uncontrolled descent, facing much higher pressures near the ocean floor. The pressure also impacts how long a diver can stay underwater before ascending. The deeper a diver dives, the more compressed the air that is breathed because of increased pressure: If a diver dives 33 feet, the pressure is 2 ATA and the air would be compressed to one-half of its original volume. The diver uses up available air twice as fast as at the surface. Answer: compress", "output": [ "As a diver descends, the increase in pressure causes the body’s air pockets in the ears and lungs to do what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c4703c8eb6df42cd8657b5fc8b1463a9", "input": "Passage: levels. If a solid has a filled valence band with a relatively low-lying empty band above it (a conduction band), then electrons can be excited by thermal energy from the filled band into the vacant band where they can then migrate through the crystal, resulting in electrical conductivity. Electrical insulators are poor conductors because their valence bands are full. Semiconductors have electrical conductivities intermediate between those of insulators and metals. The electrical conductivity of semiconductors increases rapidly with increasing temperature, whereas the electrical conductivity of metals decreases slowly with increasing temperature. The properties of semiconductors can be modified by doping, or introducing impurities. Adding an element with more valence electrons than the atoms of the host populates the conduction band, resulting in an n-type semiconductor with increased electrical conductivity. Adding an element with fewer valence electrons than the atoms of the host generates holes in the valence band, resulting in a p-type semiconductor that also exhibits increased electrical conductivity. Answer: decreases slowly", "output": [ "What happens to the electrical conductivity of metals when placed in a pot of boiling water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2e8c5837dda549f7ac7b80fb301d43a5", "input": "Passage: A more crucial use of RC circuits for timing purposes is in the artificial pacemaker, used to control heart rate. The heart rate is normally controlled by electrical signals generated by the sino-atrial (SA) node, which is on the wall of the right atrium chamber. This causes the muscles to contract and pump blood. Sometimes the heart rhythm is abnormal and the heartbeat is too high or too low. The artificial pacemaker is inserted near the heart to provide electrical signals to the heart when needed with the appropriate time constant. Pacemakers have sensors that detect body motion and breathing to increase the heart rate during exercise to meet the body’s increased needs for blood and oxygen. Answer: heart rate", "output": [ "A more crucial use of rc circuits for timing purposes is in the artificial pacemaker, used to control what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-22bdfd663df548bba201128e627c2b4b", "input": "Passage: STIs are diseases caused by pathogens that spread through sexual contact. Answer: pathogens", "output": [ "What spreads sti during sexual contact?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b2a1ec8484934f3690ba900200f1f0b9", "input": "Passage: Chemical reactions that release energy are called exothermic reactions . An example is the combustion of methane described at the beginning of this lesson. In organisms, exothermic reactions are called catabolic reactions . Catabolic reactions break down molecules into smaller units. An example is a decomposition reaction, such as the breakdown of glucose molecules for energy. Exothermic reactions can be represented by the general chemical equation:. Answer: exothermic reactions", "output": [ "What type of reactions are chemical reactions that release energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-697bb2eabd764b4794e3a50d3acc0a4e", "input": "Passage: Sliding friction is friction that acts on objects when they are sliding over a surface. Sliding friction is weaker than static friction. That’s why it’s easier to slide a piece of furniture over the floor after you start it moving than it is to get it moving in the first place. Sliding friction can be useful. For example, you use sliding friction when you write with a pencil. The pencil “lead” slides easily over the paper, but there’s just enough friction between the pencil and paper to leave a mark. Answer: sliding friction", "output": [ "What type of friction is friction that acts on objects when they are sliding over a surface?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0d7f54e0f5184b7a94db3d0089c2f14a", "input": "Passage: Some bacteria are spread by vectors. A vector is an organism that spreads bacteria or other pathogens. Most vectors are animals, commonly insects. For example, deer ticks like the one in Figure below spread Lyme disease. Ticks carry Lyme disease bacteria from deer to people when they bite them. Answer: vector", "output": [ "What is an organism that spreads bacteria or other pathogens?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bdebdf660bbe48bf9ea938cf5351b272", "input": "Passage: Sediments are small fragments of rocks and minerals. Pebbles, sand, silt, and clay are examples of sediments. Sedimentary rocks may include fossils. Fossils are materials left behind by once-living organisms. Fossils can be pieces of the organism, like bones. They can also be traces of the organism, like footprints. Answer: fossils", "output": [ "What is the term for materials that have been left behind by organisms that once lived?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0e19cc45d1354a0c9c63b6170eae5a9d", "input": "Passage: In 1858, after using microscopes much better than Hooke’s first microscope, Rudolf Virchow developed the hypothesis that cells only come from other cells. For example, bacteria, which are single-celled organisms, divide in half (after they grow some) to make new bacteria. In the same way, your body makes new cells by dividing the cells you already have. In all cases, cells only come from cells that have existed before. This idea led to the development of one of the most important theories in biology, the cell theory . Answer: 1858", "output": [ "Rudolf virchow developed the hypothesis that cells only come from other cells in what year?" ] }, { "id": "task594-28abf52dc26348d6804a236ce6ca5ef3", "input": "Passage: Radioactive dating is the use of radioactive decay to estimate the ages of fossils and rocks. An example is carbon-14 dating. Answer: radioactive dating", "output": [ "What is the term for the use of radioactive decay to estimate the ages of fossils and rock?" ] }, { "id": "task594-df88c8a0130649499c6173cad1c4323b", "input": "Passage: Most cells are so small that you cannot see them without the help of a microscope . It was not until 1665 that English scientist Robert Hooke invented a basic light microscope and observed cells for the first time, by looking at a piece of cork. You may use light microscopes in the classroom. You can use a light microscope to see cells ( Figure below ). But many structures in the cell are too small to see with a light microscope. So, what do you do if you want to see the tiny structures inside of cells?. Answer: microscope", "output": [ "What would you need to see most cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-73513844662440ec91de80e8c28428df", "input": "Passage: Archaea that produce methane are called methanogens. Answer: methane", "output": [ "Which gas is released by the group of archaea known as methanogens?" ] }, { "id": "task594-aabc8d7ed63b49b284b154091564c006", "input": "Passage: Carbon-14 has a relatively short half-life. It decays quickly compared to some other unstable isotopes. So carbon-14 dating is useful for specimens younger than 50,000 years old. That’s a blink of an eye in geologic time. But radiocarbon dating is very useful for more recent events. One important use of radiocarbon is early human sites. Carbon-14 dating is also limited to the remains of once-living things. To date rocks, scientists use other radioactive isotopes. Answer: half-life", "output": [ "What property of carbon and other elements can be used to date fossils and rocks, among other things?" ] }, { "id": "task594-51eb9aa6485b4c7981308632e7c52170", "input": "Passage: The rate at which two gases mix. Inversely proportional to the density of the gas. Answer: gas", "output": [ "When thinking of the rate at which two gases mix, it is inverse proportional to the density of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1140b33dd3f44cf1afc2e88162003810", "input": "Passage: Population growth is determined by rates of birth, death, immigration, and emigration. Answer: emigration", "output": [ "Population growth is determined by rates of birth, death, immigration, and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b51b1162bdce46f293badde4585e923c", "input": "Passage: Approximate colors are shown, along with pKin values and the pH range over which the color changes. It is important to be aware that an indicator does not change color abruptly at a particular pH value; instead, it actually undergoes a pH titration just like any other acid or base. As the concentration of HIn decreases and the concentration of In− increases, the color of the solution slowly changes from the characteristic color of HIn to that of In−. As we will see in Section 16.6 \"Buffers\", the [In−]/[HIn] ratio changes from 0.1 at a pH one unit below pKin to 10 at a pH one unit above pKin. Thus most indicators change color over a pH range of about two pH units. We have stated that a good indicator should have a pKin value that is close to the expected pH at the equivalence point. For a strong acid–strong base titration, the choice of the indicator is not especially critical due to the very large change in pH that occurs around the equivalence point. In contrast, using the Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: plantar", "output": [ "What reflex is commonly tested in newborn infants to establish the presence of neuromuscular function?" ] }, { "id": "task594-546cfc9af3b3483a88154b135caaa644", "input": "Passage: This passage from a Bach cello suite could be played by any trained musician from any country, because there is agreement as to what the symbols on the page mean. In the same way, molecules are represented using symbols that all chemists agree upon. Answer: chemists", "output": [ "Molecules are represented by symbols that all who agree on?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f856b8cbe7824f30b4c09052beea7bb1", "input": "Passage: Gas particles are constantly moving and bumping into things, and this creates force. The amount of force pushing against a given area is called pressure. Answer: pressure", "output": [ "What is the term for an amount of force pushing against a given area?" ] }, { "id": "task594-36c68f84fee74e4894b8c0ae23209a5d", "input": "Passage: Most STIs are caused by bacteria or viruses. Several of them are described below. Bacterial STIs can be cured with antibiotics. Viral STIs cannot be cured. Once you are infected with a viral STI, you are likely to be infected for life. Answer: antibiotics", "output": [ "What can bacterial stis be cured with?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7e26eea0e0a44fe1be7ed89884726d8d", "input": "Passage: Is Ceres a planet? Ceres only has about 1.3% of the mass of the Earth’s Moon. Its orbit is full of other smaller bodies. Its gravity was not high enough to clear its orbit. Ceres fails the fourth criterion for being a planet. Ceres is now considered a dwarf planet, the closest to the Sun. Answer: dwarf planet", "output": [ "What kind of planet do we consider ceres to be?" ] }, { "id": "task594-aa691c76b97146ae8a28b94f46662d7b", "input": "Passage: Other modifications that reduce weight include the lack of a urinary bladder. Birds possess a cloaca, a structure that allows water to be reabsorbed from waste back into the bloodstream. Uric acid is not expelled as a liquid but is concentrated into urate salts, which are expelled along with fecal matter. In this way, water is not held in the urinary bladder, which would increase body weight. Most bird species only possess one ovary rather than two, further reducing body mass. The air sacs that extend into bones to form pneumatic bones also join with the lungs and function in respiration. Unlike mammalian lungs in which air flows in two directions, as it is breathed in and out, airflow through bird lungs travels in one direction (Figure 29.32). Air sacs allow for this unidirectional airflow, which also creates a cross-current exchange system with the blood. In a cross-current or counter-current system, the air flows in one direction and the blood flows in the opposite direction, creating a very efficient means of gas exchange. Answer: blood stream", "output": [ "Birds possess a cloaca, a structure that allows water to be reabsorbed from waste back into this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2874ee6f849a4c9ca42e85f7b390d1fa", "input": "Passage: stamens The part of the flower that produces pollen. Answer: stamen", "output": [ "What is the part of the flower that produces pollen?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c9b423aba8844efa9401e3a843b366aa", "input": "Passage: 55.3 Energy transfer between trophic levels is typically only 10% efficient. Answer: trophic", "output": [ "Energy transfer between what kinds of levels is generally rather inefficient?" ] }, { "id": "task594-485a381e778b469499cdca2116bfd8e7", "input": "Passage: The oldest crust is coldest and lies deepest in the ocean. Answer: oldest", "output": [ "Which crust lies deep inside the ocean?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f022d0ee65554f239dfbf1ad537f2937", "input": "Passage: What if you want a different approach? Let's say you don't want to wrap a flat piece of paper around a round object. You could put a flat piece of paper right on the area that you want to map. This type of map is called a gnomonic map projection ( Figure below ). The paper only touches Earth at one point. The sizes and shapes of countries near that point are good. The poles are often mapped this way to avoid distortion. A gnomic projection is best for use over a small area. Answer: gnomic projection", "output": [ "What type of map projection is used for small areas to avoid distortion?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7469233eb4294513b790bb8855c012b3", "input": "Passage: 33.2 The Four Basic Forces • The four basic forces and their carrier particles are summarized in the Table 33.1. • Feynman diagrams are graphs of time versus position and are highly useful pictorial representations of particle processes. • The theory of electromagnetism on the particle scale is called quantum electrodynamics (QED). Answer: quantum electrodynamics", "output": [ "What do we call the theory of electromagnetism on the particle scale?" ] }, { "id": "task594-296ab09ece4d41d99cd9c3433f0543c3", "input": "Passage: Serge Melki (Flickr:Serge Melki). The burning of charcoal is a combustion reaction . CC BY 2.0. Answer: combustion", "output": [ "The burning of charcoal is what type of reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cf01bdc65c514ef1adbcce2d987b55d2", "input": "Passage: There are multiple ways to prevent these situations from occurring. The three most common protective devices are fuses, circuit breakers, and surge protectors. Answer: fuses, circuit breaks & surge protectors", "output": [ "What are the three most common protective devices?" ] }, { "id": "task594-67558666d1554acb8b827f3f5232d5c1", "input": "Passage: Many mammals are herbivores. Herbivores are heterotrophs that eat only or mainly plant foods (or algae). Depending on the species of mammals, they may eat leaves, shoots, stems, roots, seeds, nuts, fruits, flowers, and/or grasses. Some mammals even eat conifer needles or tree bark. Mammals that are herbivores include rabbits, mice, sheep, zebras, deer, kangaroos, and monkeys. The manatee in Figure below is also a herbivorous mammal. It eats mainly kelp (seaweed). Answer: plants", "output": [ "Herbivores are heterotrophs that eat only or mainly what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1e0a1b78fedc4e07978b99bea0280edc", "input": "Passage: Notice the differences in the species’ beaks in Figure 18.13. Evolution in response to natural selection based on specific food sources in each new habitat led to evolution of a different beak suited to the specific food source. The seed-eating bird has a thicker, stronger beak which is suited to break hard nuts. The nectar-eating birds have long beaks to dip into flowers to reach the nectar. The insect-eating birds have beaks like swords, appropriate for stabbing and impaling insects. Darwin’s finches are another example of adaptive radiation in an archipelago. Answer: beaks", "output": [ "Evolutionary adaptation is evidenced by different shapes of what structures in birds with different food preferences?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7f305ad8586e482f92b8ece71cc21121", "input": "Passage: After a mass extinction, many habitats are no longer inhabited by organisms because they have gone extinct. With new habitats available, some species will adapt to the new environments. Evolutionary processes act rapidly during these times. Many new species evolve to fill those available habitats. The process in which many new species evolve in a short period of time to fill available niches is called adaptive radiation . At the end of this period of rapid evolution, the life forms do not look much like the ones that were around before the mass extinction. One example came after the extinction of the dinosaurs. Mammals underwent adaptive radiation and became the dominant life form. Although they lived in the habitats the dinosaurs had lived in, they didn't look much like the dinosaurs. Answer: adaptive radiation", "output": [ "What is the process in which many new species evolve in a short period of time to fill available niches called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-46ce1ea597134544b849a6696af852b5", "input": "Passage: The kidneys are the chief organs of the urinary system. Answer: kidney", "output": [ "What is the chief organ of the urinary system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dac01132e0424eafa4a9472b182bc216", "input": "Passage: Terrestrial biomes include tropical rainforest, temperate grassland, and tundra. Answer: terrestrial", "output": [ "Tropical rainforest, temperate grassland, and tundra are examples of what type of biomes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a792332c84d945e6ae5ad6426332cf21", "input": "Passage: Bacteria and viruses can infect the brain or spinal cord. An infection of the brain is called encephalitis. An infection of the membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord is called meningitis. A vaccine is available to prevent meningitis caused by viruses (see Figure below ). Answer: encephalitis", "output": [ "An infection of the brain is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3ac98e84d28c4195b51397ebe17bc2e8", "input": "Passage: Electronic components are the parts used in electronic devices such as computers. Types of electronic components include diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits. Answer: electronic components", "output": [ "What are the parts used in electronic devices such as computers called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-484a161dabdd4707882caee64c9bb0b2", "input": "Passage: Natural selection occurs when there are differences in fitness among members of a population. As a result, some individuals pass more genes to the next generation. This causes allele frequencies to change. Answer: natural selection", "output": [ "What occurs when there are differences in fitness among a population?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bceb5e767f074b1aa9cc1b2f3bbf9e8e", "input": "Passage: The fluoride ion is acting as a weak Brønsted-Lowry base. The hydroxide ion that is produced as a result of the above reaction makes the solution slightly basic. Salt hydrolysis is a reaction in which one of the ions from a salt reacts with water, forming either an acidic or basic solution. Answer: water", "output": [ "Salt hydrolysis is a reaction in which one of the ions from a salt reacts with what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7dcaee736e3943748d4f08388b2511aa", "input": "Passage: Biotechnology in Medicine and Agriculture It is easy to see how biotechnology can be used for medicinal purposes. Knowledge of the genetic makeup of our species, the genetic basis of heritable diseases, and the invention of technology to manipulate and fix mutant genes provides methods to treat the disease. Biotechnology in agriculture can enhance resistance to disease, pest, and environmental stress, and improve both crop yield and quality. Genetic Diagnosis and Gene Therapy The process of testing for suspected genetic defects before administering treatment is called genetic diagnosis by genetic testing. Depending on the inheritance patterns of a disease-causing gene, family members are advised to undergo genetic testing. For example, women diagnosed with breast cancer are usually advised to have a biopsy so that the medical team can determine the genetic basis of cancer development. Treatment plans are based on the findings of genetic tests that determine the type of cancer. If the cancer is caused by inherited gene mutations, other female relatives are also advised to undergo genetic testing and periodic screening for breast cancer. Genetic testing is also offered for fetuses (or embryos with in vitro fertilization) to determine the presence or absence of disease-causing genes in families with specific debilitating diseases. Gene therapy is a genetic engineering technique used to cure disease. In its simplest form, it involves the introduction of a good gene at a random location in the genome to aid the cure of a disease that is caused by a mutated gene. The good gene is usually introduced into diseased cells as part of a vector transmitted by a virus that can infect the host cell and deliver the foreign DNA (Figure 17.9). More advanced forms of gene therapy try to correct the mutation at the original site in the genome, such as is the case with treatment of severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID). Answer: genetic engineering", "output": [ "Gene therapy is a type of what kind of engineering?" ] }, { "id": "task594-30249145e7fc4125a6180423e94d1458", "input": "Passage: New technologies can be developed. Renewable energy sources emit fewer or no greenhouse gases. These sources are discussed in the chapter Natural Resources . Answer: renewable", "output": [ "What type energy sources emit fewer or no greenhouse gases?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b7dad567d7f64a5da26bcc989ebab413", "input": "Passage: The lithosphere is the brittle crust and uppermost mantle. Answer: lithosphere", "output": [ "Where part of the atmosphere is the uppermost mantle?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c7131aae56d2411a8297d4d91a95a264", "input": "Passage: Organ systems are organized into the organism. The different organ systems work together to carry out all the life functions of the individual. For example, cardiovascular and respiratory systems work together to provide the individual with oxygen and rid it of carbon dioxide. Answer: organ systems", "output": [ "The different types of what systems work together to carry out all the life functions of the individual?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a326bf9a893f424da47148e5c53d874b", "input": "Passage: Experiments show that each O2 molecule has two unpaired electrons. The Lewis-structure model does not predict the presence of these two unpaired electrons. Unlike oxygen, the apparent weight of most molecules decreases slightly in the presence of an inhomogeneous magnetic field. Materials in which all of the electrons are paired are diamagnetic and weakly repel a magnetic field. Paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials do not act as permanent magnets. Only in the presence of an applied magnetic field do they demonstrate attraction or repulsion. Answer: electrons", "output": [ "Experiments show that each o2 molecule has two unpaired what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-114e072c686342debc911e18e48192e3", "input": "Passage: Another benefit of Earth’s magnetic field is its use for navigation. People use compasses to detect Earth’s magnetic north pole and tell direction. Many animals have natural “compasses” that work just as well. For example, the loggerhead turtle in the Figure below senses the direction and strength of Earth’s magnetic field and uses it to navigate along migration routes. Many migratory bird species can also sense the magnetic field and use it for navigation. Recent research suggests that they may have structures in their eyes that let them see Earth’s magnetic field as a visual pattern. You can learn more at this URL: http://www. smithsonianmag. com/science-nature/How-Do-Birds-Find-Their-Way-Home. html. Answer: magnetic field", "output": [ "What part of earth do many animals use for navigation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-23de01ccb05c4505b423dbdd802e6534", "input": "Passage: Blue cheese is blue because of the fungus growing throughout it. Answer: blue", "output": [ "What color is the fungus in blue cheese?" ] }, { "id": "task594-88a5454842ed4b44b4457f7466d2338d", "input": "Passage: Wave-cut cliffs form when waves erode a rocky shoreline. They create a vertical wall of exposed rock layers. Answer: wave-cut", "output": [ "What are the cliffs called which are created when waves erode a rocky shoreline, leaving a vertical wall of exposed rock layers?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3f6aef4f7e004df3a9cd7c27a0585d18", "input": "Passage: Imagine walking in the forest in Figure below . The towering trees have been growing here for hundreds of years. It may seem as though the forest has been there forever. But no ecosystem is truly static. The numbers and types of species in most ecosystems change to some degree through time. This is called ecological succession. Important cases of ecological succession are primary succession and secondary succession. Answer: ecological succession", "output": [ "The numbers and types of species in most ecosystems change to some degree through time and this is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e6e9a808bda2481180b192c5c9b3c4b1", "input": "Passage: Natural Methods of Asexual Reproduction Natural methods of asexual reproduction include strategies that plants have developed to self-propagate. Many plants—like ginger, onion, gladioli, and dahlia—continue to grow from buds that are present on the surface of the stem. In some plants, such as the sweet potato, adventitious roots or runners can give rise to new plants Figure 32.25. In Bryophyllum and kalanchoe, the leaves have small buds on their margins. When these are detached from the plant, they grow into independent plants; or, they may start growing into independent plants if the leaf touches the soil. Some plants can be propagated through cuttings alone. Answer: self-propagation", "output": [ "Natural methods of asexual reproduction, such as cuttings or budding, include strategies that plants have developed to perform what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-57bef6980cde44acaf954453fda793ca", "input": "Passage: Skeletal system problems include osteoporosis, bone fractures, and ligament sprains. A diet rick in calcium and vitamin D may reduce the risk of osteoporosis and related bone fractures. Following safe practices may also reduce the risk of fractures as well as sprains. Answer: vitamin d", "output": [ "A diet rich in calcium and what vitamin may reduce the risk of osteoporosis and related bone fractures?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3fd1891603ce4e8297d666b75f3e453f", "input": "Passage: One of the most effective ways to cut metal is with an oxy-acetylene torch. Very high temperatures are obtained when acetylene burns in oxygen. Mixed 1:1 with oxygen, a temperature of over 3000°C can be achieved. The amount of energy released is high – the net heat of combustion is 1300 kJ/mole. Safety precautions need to be observed since the gas is very explosive. For welding and cutting, the oxy-acetylene torch is one of the best ways to go. Answer: metal", "output": [ "An oxy-acetylene torch is an effective way to cut what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9f29f1b3532449429463cf47713d1cb7", "input": "Passage: The melting point is the temperature at which a solid changes into a liquid. Answer: the melting point", "output": [ "What is the term for the temperature at which a solid changes into a liquid?" ] }, { "id": "task594-96c906582b9d4067bc22ade839fa4ae2", "input": "Passage: Group 1 of the periodic table consists of hydrogen and the alkali metals. Hydrogen is a very reactive nonmetal. The alkali metals are the most reactive metals. Answer: group 1", "output": [ "Which group of the periodic table consists of hydrogen and the alkali metals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9045d1365428408cbe63e578c4172425", "input": "Passage: Farsightedness is also known as hyperopia . It affects about one fourth of people. People with hyperopia can see distant objects clearly, but nearby objects appear blurry. In hyperopia, the eye is too short. This results in images being focused in back of the retina ( Figure above ). Hyperopia is corrected with a convex lens, which curves outward like the outside of a bowl. The lens changes the focus so that images fall on the retina as they should. Answer: hyperopia", "output": [ "What do doctors call farsightedness or the inability to see close objects clearly?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f2ea090363ce44f38a7c1d92e2f53fed", "input": "Passage: Wings of bats and birds serve the same function. Look closely at the bones inside the wings. The differences show they developed from different ancestors. Answer: bones inside wings", "output": [ "Wings of bats and birds serve the same function. which body part should you study to understand ancestral differences?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d5804cd2cb244ee4b3c8a9fe183adcaf", "input": "Passage: Chordates include vertebrates and invertebrates that have a notochord. Chordates also have a post-anal tail, dorsal hollow nerve cord, and pharyngeal slits. Vertebrate chordates have a backbone, while invertebrate chordates do not. Invertebrate chordates include tunicates and lancelets; both are primitive marine organisms. Answer: backbone", "output": [ "What do vertebrate chordates possess that invertebrate chordates do not?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3eb638e4f14c4f63948c6cee3031fe06", "input": "Passage: Fluoride ion is widely used in water supplies to help prevent tooth decay. Chloride is an important component in ion balance in blood. Iodide ion is needed by the thyroid gland to make the hormone thyroxine. Answer: tooth decay", "output": [ "Fluoride ion is widely used in water supplies to help prevent what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-44b7ec0bba77445a8f2e597304ef61cc", "input": "Passage: In deductive reasoning, I make a specific prediction based on a general principle. One general principle is that acids turn blue litmus paper red. If I have a bottle of liquid labeled “acid,” I expect the litmus paper to turn red when I immerse it in the liquid. Answer: deductive reasoning", "output": [ "Making a specific prediction based on a general principle is known as what type of reasoning?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ee5f4a2c2f8542f297275da56dded8d7", "input": "Passage: Some bacteria also have tail-like structures called flagella ( Figure below ). Flagella help bacteria move. As the flagella rotate, they spin the bacteria and propel them forward. Though some eukaryotic cells do have a flagella, a flagella in eukaryotes is rare. Answer: flagella", "output": [ "Some bacteria also have tail-like structures called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-85f322f897654473b71b09b16cafc003", "input": "Passage: When the number of electrons and the number of protons are equal, the object is neutral. Answer: neutral", "output": [ "When the number of electrons and the number of protons are equal, the object is what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-51fd1ac071fd482f8c95df178be0dc18", "input": "Passage: Figure 18.19 The shape of the male reproductive organ varies among male damselfly species, and is only compatible with the female of that species. Reproductive organ incompatibility keeps the species reproductively isolated. Answer: reproductive organ incompatibility", "output": [ "What keeps various species from mating and reproducing outside their own species?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2a40553e206941e48cac596d4a44da33", "input": "Passage: Under a microscope, salt crystals are cubes. Answer: cubes", "output": [ "Under a microscope, salt crystals are what shape?" ] }, { "id": "task594-386542c18613436bab10ebe3a09f83c1", "input": "Passage: Both temperature and pressure have an effect on the phase in which a given substance exists. A plot of temperature vs. pressure that indicates the states of matter present at each point is known as a phase diagram . Figure below shows the phase diagram for water. Answer: pressure", "output": [ "A phase diagram plots temperature and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-60f24315479c411cbddb72aedcc4c8a5", "input": "Passage: Sodium chloride crystals are cubic in shape. Other ionic compounds may have crystals with different shapes. Answer: cubic", "output": [ "What type of shape does sodium chloride have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c9314d69c835406d871bee15501df5ce", "input": "Passage: Chemical symbols are useful to concisely represent the elements present in a substance. The letters usually come from the name of the element. Answer: element", "output": [ "Chemical symbols are useful to concisely represent the elements present in a substance. the letters usually come from the name of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a6103595abb3412997a555eb2ec4e1e4", "input": "Passage: Methanoic acid and ethanoic acid are also called formic acid and acetic acid, respectively. Formic acid is the compound that makes certain ant bites sting, while acetic acid is the active substance in vinegar. How acidic are carboxylic acids? It turns out that they are not very acidic. No carboxylic acid is on the list of strong acids (Table 12.2 \"Strong Acids and Bases\"). (For more information about strong acids, see Chapter 12 \"Acids and Bases\", Section 12.4 \"Strong and Weak Acids and Bases and Their Salts\". ) This means that all carboxylic acids are weak acids. A 1 M solution of formic acid is only about 1.3% dissociated into H+ ions and formate ions, while a similar solution of acetic acid is ionized by about only 0.4%. Some carboxylic acids are stronger—for example, trichloroacetic acid is about 45% dissociated in aqueous solution. But no carboxylic acid approaches the 100% dissociation amount required by the definition of a strong acid. As their name suggests, however, carboxylic acids do act like acids in the presence of bases. The H atom in the carboxyl group comes off as the H+ ion, leaving acarboxylate anion:. Answer: acetic acid", "output": [ "What is the more common term for ethanoic acid, the active substance in vinegar?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6fd5f41724964449b055da46a1382a2b", "input": "Passage: Scientists are regular people who chose to study science. They are experts in done or more fields of science. Answer: scientists", "output": [ "What are people called that choose to study science?" ] }, { "id": "task594-911a4f8a91494927bf15c6ef0341a824", "input": "Passage: Roots have primary and secondary meristems for growth in length and width. As roots grow longer, they always grow down into the ground. Even if you turn a plant upside down, its roots will try to grow downward. How do roots “know” which way to grow? How can they tell down from up? Specialized cells in root caps are able to detect gravity. The cells direct meristem in the tips of roots to grow downward toward the center of Earth. This is generally adaptive for land plants. Can you explain why?. Answer: grow downward", "output": [ "As roots grow longer they will always do what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e9d6932447a14c6f9e1c5aa13b32a8cf", "input": "Passage: Matter is all the “stuff” that exists in the universe. Everything you can see and touch is made of matter, including you! The only things that aren’t matter are forms of energy, such as light and sound. In science, matter is defined as anything that has mass and volume. Mass and volume measure different aspects of matter. Answer: matter", "output": [ "In science, anything that has mass and volume is considered what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0bfac340cbb14620abe0c2d456fb8025", "input": "Passage: Plants and other autotrophs make food out of “thin air”—at least, they use carbon dioxide from the air to make food. Most food is made in the process of photosynthesis. This process provides more than 99% of the energy used by living things on Earth. Photosynthesis also supplies Earth’s atmosphere with oxygen. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "What process provides more than 99% of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0af4d6597083471e9bd0189a3648de94", "input": "Passage: Every split second that sunlight hits that leaf, photosynthesis is initiated, bringing energy into the ecosystem. It could be said that this is one of the most important - if not the absolutely most important - biochemical reactions. And it all starts with the leaf. Answer: sunlight", "output": [ "Photosynthesis is initiated by what hitting plants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-63c959c32787403797de8e23544ad60d", "input": "Passage: Thermal pollution raises the temperature of water. It is commonly caused by power plants and factories. The change in temperature can kill fish and other water organisms. Answer: thermal pollution", "output": [ "What type of pollution is generated by power plants and factories that can directly raise the temperature of water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-db6f870b5a3045e8b3a150c089e34397", "input": "Passage: An ovule is a female reproductive structure in seed plants. It contains a tiny female gametophyte. The gametophyte produces an egg cell. After the egg is fertilized by sperm, the ovule develops into a seed. Answer: seed", "output": [ "What does the ovule develop into after fertilization?" ] }, { "id": "task594-66aa7f2463484f4fae9952045566cf9c", "input": "Passage: Like animals, plants have organs that are specialized to carry out complex functions. An organ is a structure composed of more than one type of tissue. A tissue, in turn, is a group of cells of the same kind that do the same job. In this lesson, you will read about the tissues that do the important work of plants. The cells that make up plant tissues are described first. Answer: organ", "output": [ "What is the term for a structure composed of more than one type of tissue?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b8a6674f44e34cb0a52f5da6d7ac86ad", "input": "Passage: Giant elliptical galaxies contain over a trillion stars. Elliptical galaxies are red to yellow in color because they contain mostly old stars. Most contain very little gas and dust because the material has already formed into stars. Answer: giant elliptical galaxies", "output": [ "Which type of galaxies contain very little gas and dust, are red to yellow in color, contain over a trillion stars and have mostly old stars?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1dbe4ae5eb2a41c99d9bfc5136852f53", "input": "Passage: A lipid is an organic compound such as fat or oil. Organisms use lipids to store energy, but lipids have other important roles as well. Lipids consist of repeating units called fatty acids. Fatty acids are organic compounds that have the general formula CH 3 (CH 2 ) n COOH, where n usually ranges from 2 to 28 and is always an even number. There are two types of fatty acids: saturated fatty acids and unsaturated fatty acids. Answer: lipids", "output": [ "What do organisms use to store energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-23ae710977f44a9aadb8278542eeb1d9", "input": "Passage: Watch this video (http://openstaxcollege. org/l/symmetry2) to see a quick sketch of the different types of body symmetry. Layers of Tissues Most animal species undergo a layering of early tissues during embryonic development. These layers are called germ layers. Each layer develops into a specific set of tissues and organs. Animals develop either two or three embryonic germs layers (Figure 15.5). The animals that display radial symmetry develop two germ layers, an inner layer (endoderm) and an outer layer (ectoderm). These animals are called diploblasts. Animals with bilateral symmetry develop three germ layers: an inner layer (endoderm), an outer layer (ectoderm), and a middle layer (mesoderm). Animals with three germ layers are called triploblasts. Answer: triploblasts", "output": [ "What term is used to describe animals with three germ layers?" ] }, { "id": "task594-59844acc08c346f39d62be6fb4b26057", "input": "Passage: Rainfall in an area is important because it influences the rate of weathering. More rain means that more rainwater passes through the soil. The rainwater reacts chemically with the particles. The top layers of soil are in contact with the freshest water, so reactions are greatest there. High rainfall increases the amount of rock that experiences chemical reactions. High rainfall may also carry material away. This means that new surfaces are exposed. This increases the rate of weathering. Answer: rainfall", "output": [ "What weather phenomenon increases the rate of weathering in rock and soil?" ] }, { "id": "task594-09be29f333d1454394f26a82aa80ee6a", "input": "Passage: You don’t have to suffer through an infection to gain immunity to some diseases. Immunity can also come about by vaccination. Vaccination is the process of exposing a person to pathogens on purpose so the person will develop immunity to them. In vaccination, the pathogens are usually injected under the skin. Only part of the pathogens are injected, or else weakened or dead pathogens are used. This causes an immune response without causing the disease. Diseases you are likely to have been vaccinated against include measles, mumps, and chicken pox. Answer: immunity", "output": [ "Vaccination is the process of exposing a person to pathogens on purpose so the person will develop what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-58c79f72abac4e0598019bfc04a79bb9", "input": "Passage: The deBroglie wave equations allows calculation of the wavelength of any moving object. Answer: debroglie wave", "output": [ "What type of equations allows calculation of the wavelength of any moving object?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cb1558bc8a154098b7d73372e24c6933", "input": "Passage: All carbon atoms have six protons. Most also have six neutrons, but some have seven or eight neutrons. What is the mass number of a carbon isotope that has seven neutrons?. Answer: six", "output": [ "All carbon atoms have how many protons?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2e076efa73f24c788362f10d4e9e8644", "input": "Passage: Frog eggs are fertilized externally, and like other amphibians, frogs generally lay their eggs in moist environments. A moist environment is required as eggs lack a shell and thus dehydrate quickly in dry environments. Frogs demonstrate a great diversity of parental behaviors, with some species laying many eggs and exhibiting little parental care, to species that carry eggs and tadpoles on their hind legs or backs. The life cycle of frogs, as other amphibians, consists of two distinct stages: the larval stage followed by metamorphosis to an adult stage. The larval stage of a frog, the tadpole, is often a filter-feeding herbivore. Tadpoles usually have gills, a lateral line system, long-finned tails, and lack limbs. At the end of the tadpole stage, frogs undergo metamorphosis into the adult form (Figure 29.18). During this stage, the gills, tail, and lateral line system disappear, and four limbs develop. The jaws become larger and are suited for carnivorous feeding, and the digestive system transforms into the typical short gut of a predator. An eardrum and air-breathing lungs also develop. These changes during metamorphosis allow the larvae to move onto land in the adult stage. Answer: shells", "output": [ "Like other amphibians, frogs generally lay their eggs in moist environments, which are required since the eggs lack what feature?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b6de13eb59a644dea7a4e68f264b53c9", "input": "Passage: CHAPTER SUMMARY 21.1 Viral Evolution, Morphology, and Classification Viruses are tiny, acellular entities that can usually only be seen with an electron microscope. Their genomes contain either DNA or RNA—never both—and they replicate using the replication proteins of a host cell. Viruses are diverse, infecting archaea, bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals. Viruses consist of a nucleic acid core surrounded by a protein capsid with or without an outer lipid envelope. The capsid shape, presence of an envelope, and core composition dictate some elements of the classification of viruses. The most commonly used classification method, the Baltimore classification, categorizes viruses based on how they produce their mRNA. Answer: viruses", "output": [ "Categorized based on how they produce their mrna using the baltimore classification method, what consist of a nucleic acid core surrounded by a protein capsid with or without an outer lipid envelope?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6c9df0c9fcd84426b8ce73d23e87e408", "input": "Passage: The rate at which a solute dissolves depends upon the size of the solute particles. Dissolving is a surface phenomenon since it depends on solvent molecules colliding with the outer surface of the solute. A given quantity of solute dissolves faster when it is ground into small particles than if it is in the form of a large chunk because more surface area is exposed. The packet of granulated sugar exposes far more surface area to the solvent and dissolves more quickly than the sugar cube. Answer: dissolving", "output": [ "The size of the solute particles determines the rate of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d09cf8dbc0d4485dafde1b9d018f6e4f", "input": "Passage: Circadian rhythms are regular changes in biology or behavior that occur in a 24-hour cycle. In humans, for example, blood pressure and body temperature change in a regular way throughout each 24-hour day. Animals may eat and drink at certain times of day as well. Humans have daily cycles of behavior, too. Most people start to get sleepy after dark and have a hard time sleeping when it is light outside. In many species, including humans, circadian rhythms are controlled by a tiny structure called the biological clock . This structure is located in a gland at the base of the brain. The biological clock sends signals to the body. The signals cause regular changes in behavior and body processes. The amount of light entering the eyes helps control the biological clock. The clock causes changes that repeat every 24 hours. Answer: circadian rhythms", "output": [ "What do you call the regular changes in biology or behavior that occur in a 24-hour cycle?" ] }, { "id": "task594-70a7948fb4d34af3aaf235b36fc5f198", "input": "Passage: Did you ever watch a relay race? After the first runner races, he or she passes the baton to the next runner, who takes over. Neurons are a little like relay runners. Instead of a baton, they pass neurotransmitters to the next neuron. Examples of neurotransmitters are chemicals such as serotonin, dopamine, and adrenaline. Answer: neurotransmitters", "output": [ "What do neurons pass to the next neuron?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4623d6b4b50b41c2bafe58ef612962d2", "input": "Passage: Not all atoms of an element must have precisely the same mass. Atoms of one element can be transformed into another through nuclear reactions. The compositions of many solid compounds are somewhat variable. Under certain circumstances, some atoms can be divided (split into smaller particles). These modifications illustrate the effectiveness of the scientific method; later experiments and observations were used to refine Dalton’s original theory. Answer: nuclear reactions", "output": [ "Atoms of one element can be transformed into another through which process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ddf9feb9a7b945c39b2e45bb87897eec", "input": "Passage: The structures of both trifluoramine and hydroxylamine are similar to that of ammonia. Answer: ammonia", "output": [ "The structures of both trifluoramine and hydroxylamine are similar to that of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cd255b2fb1f34313a295e51f9422af84", "input": "Passage: Electromagnetic waves vary in their wavelengths, frequencies, and energy levels. The full range of electromagnetic waves makes up the electromagnetic spectrum. Answer: electromagnetic spectrum", "output": [ "What do we call the full range of electromagnetic waves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3c9e1dd078414bf29c5d3f7289e45351", "input": "Passage: Flatworms have no true body cavity, but they do have bilateral symmetry. Due to the lack of a body cavity,flatworms are known as acoelomates. Answer: acoelomates", "output": [ "What term is given to flatworms because they lack a body cavity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4d55819b759f485186459e1a9f4f68f6", "input": "Passage: Note: Atomic mass is given to three decimal places, if known. Now that we understand that atoms have mass, it is easy to extend the concept to the mass of molecules. The molecular mass is the sum of the masses of the atoms in a molecule. This may seem like a trivial extension of the concept, but it is important to count the number of each type of atom in the molecular formula. Also, although each atom in a molecule is a particular isotope, we use the weighted average, or atomic mass, for each atom in the molecule. For example, if we were to determine the molecular mass of dinitrogen trioxide, N2O3, we would need to add the atomic mass of nitrogen two times with the atomic mass of oxygen three times:. Answer: molecular mass", "output": [ "What is the sum of the masses of the atoms in a molecule?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dd21d7fcae5740a199fe970eb434ddeb", "input": "Passage: Below the topsoil is the “B“ horizon. This is also called the subsoil . Soluble minerals and clays accumulate in the subsoil. Because it has less organic material, this layer is lighter brown in color than topsoil. It also holds more water due to the presence of iron and clay. There is less organic material in this layer. Answer: longshore drift", "output": [ "Most waves strike the shore at an angle. this causes what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8abd01b117594635887b1f3168ae18ce", "input": "Passage: One path of blood in the heart is through the right atrium and right ventricle. The right atrium receives oxygen-poor blood from the body. It pumps the blood into the right ventricle. Then the right ventricle pumps the blood out of the heart to the lungs. This path through the heart is part of the pulmonary circulation. Answer: right atrium", "output": [ "What structure of the heart receives oxygen-poor blood from the body, then pumps the blood into the right ventricle?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e85a2a805fc8453791aed1096f9e48c8", "input": "Passage: Marine Biomes The ocean is the largest marine biome. It is a continuous body of salt water that is relatively uniform in chemical composition; it is a weak solution of mineral salts and decayed biological matter. Within the ocean, coral reefs are a second kind of marine biome. Estuaries, coastal areas where salt water and fresh water mix, form a third unique marine biome. Ocean The physical diversity of the ocean is a significant influence on plants, animals, and other organisms. The ocean is categorized into different zones based on how far light reaches into the water. Each zone has a distinct group of species adapted to the biotic and abiotic conditions particular to that zone. The intertidal zone, which is the zone between high and low tide, is the oceanic region that is closest to land (Figure 44.21). Generally, most people think of this portion of the ocean as a sandy beach. In some cases, the intertidal zone is indeed a sandy beach, but it can also be rocky or muddy. The intertidal zone is an extremely variable environment because of tides. Organisms are exposed to air and sunlight at low tide and are underwater most of the time, especially during high tide. Therefore, living things that thrive in the intertidal zone are adapted to being dry for long periods of time. The shore of the intertidal zone is also repeatedly struck by waves, and the organisms found there are adapted to withstand damage from the pounding action of the waves (Figure 44.22). The exoskeletons of shoreline crustaceans (such as the shore crab, Carcinus maenas) are tough and protect them from desiccation (drying out) and wave damage. Another consequence of the pounding waves is that few algae and plants establish themselves in the constantly moving rocks, sand, or mud. Answer: biological matter", "output": [ "The ocean is the largest marine biome. it is a continuous body of salt water that is relatively uniform in chemical composition; it is a weak solution of mineral salts and decayed what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7f9b5ab858b84b2389af233fde60c2ea", "input": "Passage: Figure 16.8 Pituitary Tumor The pituitary gland is located in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone within the cranial floor, placing it immediately inferior to the optic chiasm. If the pituitary gland develops a tumor, it can press against the fibers crossing in the chiasm. Those fibers are conveying peripheral visual information to the opposite side of the brain, so the patient will experience “tunnel vision”—meaning that only the central visual field will be perceived. Answer: pituitary gland", "output": [ "Which gland is located in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone within the cranial floor?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d4c7933aa9fd4aeb95514455b7f1c6bd", "input": "Passage: The organs that make up the cardiovascular system are the heart and a network of blood vessels that run throughout the body. The blood in the cardiovascular system is a liquid connective tissue. Figure below shows the heart and major vessels through which blood flows in the system. The heart is basically a pump that keeps blood moving through the blood vessels. Answer: cardiovascular system", "output": [ "The heart and a network of blood vessels that run throughout the body make up what organ system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6c0c5aa5bc334453a12f3cd49174c16a", "input": "Passage: Cells in our bodies have an intricate mechanism for the manufacture of proteins. Humans have to use other techniques in order to synthesize the same proteins in a lab. The chemistry of peptide synthesis is complicated. Both active groups on an amino acid can react and the amino acid sequence must be a specific one in order for the protein to function. Robert Merrifield developed the first synthetic approach for making proteins in the lab, a manual approach which was lengthy and tedious (and, he won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1984 for his work). Today however, automated systems can crank out a peptide in a very short period of time. Answer: proteins", "output": [ "Robert merrifield developed the first synthetic approach for making what essential cell substances in the lab?" ] }, { "id": "task594-65709b19e29b499e9fcd8d7a153d3a31", "input": "Passage: Plasma is a state of matter that resembles a gas but has certain properties that gases do not have. Like a gas, plasma consists of particles of matter than can pull apart and spread out, so it lacks a fixed volume and a fixed shape. Unlike a gas, plasma can conduct electricity and respond to a magnetic field. That’s because plasma consists of electrically charged particles called ions, instead of uncharged particles such as atoms or molecules. This gives plasma other interesting properties as well. For example, plasma glows with colored light when electricity passes through it. You can learn more about plasma at this URL: http://www. youtube. com/watch?v=VkeSI_B5Ljc. Answer: plasma", "output": [ "What is the state of matter that resembles a gas, but is made of ions, giving it different properties than a typical gas?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e2daadbb7fb14243ae016fa437e36c17", "input": "Passage: An individual is an organism, or single living thing. Answer: individual", "output": [ "What is the term for an organism, or single living thing?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4f4ef1ec2a544287ac264dfc206a6931", "input": "Passage: Imagine trying to slice a tomato with a fork or spoon instead of a knife, like the one in Figure below . The knife makes the job a lot easier because of the wedge shape of the blade. A wedge is a simple machine that consists of two inclined planes. But unlike one inclined plane, a wedge works only when it moves. It has a thin end and thick end, and the thin end is forced into an object to cut or split it. The chisel in Figure below is another example of a wedge. Answer: wedge", "output": [ "What is the name for a simple machine that consists of two inclined planes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d875eca10001414e9960ee921f70f3a7", "input": "Passage: Blood flows through the heart in two separate loops. You can think of them as a “left side loop” and a “right side loop. ” The right side of the heart collects oxygen-poor blood from the body and pumps it into the lungs, where it releases carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen. The left side carries the oxygen-rich blood back from the lungs into the left side of the heart, which then pumps the oxygen-rich blood to the rest of the body. The blood delivers oxygen to the cells of the body and returns to the heart oxygen-poor. Answer: oxygen-poor", "output": [ "The right side of the heart collects what type of blood from the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6b61971bbc9545a5870b91a6b165161d", "input": "Passage: Because of human activities, there is more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere today than in the past hundreds of thousands of years. Burning fossil fuels and has released great quantities of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Cutting forests and clearing land has also increased carbon dioxide into the atmosphere because these activities reduce the number of autotrophic organisms that use up carbon dioxide in photosynthesis. In addition, clearing often involves burning, which releases carbon dioxide that was previously stored in autotrophs. Answer: carbon dioxide", "output": [ "Cutting forests and clearing land has also increased the amount of what in the atmosphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-846107bf8336486ba03a680dbf632fe2", "input": "Passage: Earthquakes are used to identify plate boundaries ( Figure below ). When earthquake locations are put on a map, they outline the plates . The movements of the plates are called plate tectonics. Answer: plate tectonics", "output": [ "What is the movement of plates called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5bbcfcc4fd1a4744a31ab53fe43a1254", "input": "Passage: There are 44 autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes in the human genome, for a total of 46 chromosomes (23 pairs). Sex chromosomes specify an organism's genetic sex. Humans can have two different sex chromosomes, one called X and the other Y. Normal females possess two X chromosomes and normal males one X and one Y. An autosome is any chromosome other than a sex chromosome. The Figure below shows a representation of the 24 different human chromosomes. Figure below shows a karyotype of the human genome. A karyotype depicts, usually in a photograph, the chromosomal complement of an individual, including the number of chromosomes and any large chromosomal abnormalities. Karyotypes use chromosomes from the metaphase stage of mitosis. Answer: temperature", "output": [ "Ectotherms undergo a variety of changes at the cellular level to acclimatize to shifts in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7ce3472f534e4e66b484859ad1e08bdc", "input": "Passage: In all biomes, ecosystems need a constant input of energy. Matter, on the other hand, is constantly recycled in ecosystems. Answer: energy", "output": [ "While matter is recycled, ecosystems need a constant input of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ce536b29b8e5471eaf6c878762a6f059", "input": "Passage: Pressure is defined as the force per unit area on a surface. Answer: surface", "output": [ "Pressure is defined as the force per unit area on?" ] }, { "id": "task594-499b5ce9e8e8498eb2240c73110fdd3c", "input": "Passage: As stated, the atmosphere is a major reservoir of carbon in the form of carbon dioxide that is essential to the process of photosynthesis. The level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is greatly influenced by the reservoir of carbon in the oceans. The exchange of carbon between the atmosphere and water reservoirs influences how much carbon is found in each, and each one affects the other reciprocally. Carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere dissolves in water and, unlike oxygen and nitrogen gas, reacts with water molecules to form ionic compounds. Some of these ions combine with calcium ions in the seawater to form calcium carbonate (CaCO3), a major component of the shells of marine organisms. These organisms eventually form sediments on the ocean floor. Over geologic time, the calcium carbonate forms limestone, which comprises the largest carbon reservoir on Earth. On land, carbon is stored in soil as organic carbon as a result of the decomposition of living organisms or from weathering of terrestrial rock and minerals. Deeper under the ground, at land and at sea, are fossil fuels, the anaerobically decomposed remains of plants that take millions of years to form. Fossil fuels are considered a non-renewable resource because their use far exceeds their rate of formation. A non-renewable resource is either regenerated very slowly or not at all. Another way for carbon to enter the atmosphere is from land (including land beneath the surface of the ocean) by the eruption of volcanoes and other geothermal systems. Carbon sediments from the ocean floor are taken deep within Earth by the process of subduction: the movement of one tectonic plate beneath another. Carbon is released as carbon dioxide when a volcano erupts or from volcanic hydrothermal vents. Carbon dioxide is also added to the atmosphere by the animal husbandry practices of humans. The large number of land animals raised to feed Earth’s growing human population results in increased carbon-dioxide levels in the atmosphere caused by their respiration. This is another example of how human activity indirectly affects biogeochemical cycles in a significant way. Although much of the debate about the future effects of increasing atmospheric carbon on climate change focuses on fossils fuels, scientists take natural processes, such as volcanoes, plant growth, soil carbon levels, and respiration, into account as they model and predict the future impact of this increase. Answer: in the oceans", "output": [ "The level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is greatly influenced by the reservoir of carbon where?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d3e667361b604f10ac7a579a8525e1cf", "input": "Passage: At least by our current understanding, a given atom can be defined by its atomic number and its mass number. The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus. All atoms with a given atomic number are the same element, because the chemical properties of an atom are primarily determined by the number of positive charges in its nucleus (and therefore the number of negatively charged electrons needed to make it neutral). The mass number of an atom is equal to the number of protons plus the number of neutrons. Since these particles both have a mass of approximately 1 amu and electrons are much smaller, the mass number is approximately equal to the mass of the atom in units of amu. Answer: atomic number", "output": [ "What is the number of protons in the nucleus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-54e5cb9c178b433dae54837357bce462", "input": "Passage: Bacterial contamination in our food often makes the news. There are many bacteria present on raw food, especially raw meat. Campylobacter (pictured above), salmonella, and other microorganisms can be found, even after cooking if the meat has not been sufficiently exposed to the heat. Ionizing radiation can be used to disrupt the DNA-RNA-protein synthesis cycle that allows the bacteria to reproduce. Cobalt-60 is a common radiation source, as is cesium-137. But, just to be safe, order that burger well-done. Answer: ionizing", "output": [ "What kind of radiation can be used to disrupt the dna-rna protein synthesis cycle that allows bacteria to reproduce?" ] }, { "id": "task594-010c5897daf54230bf5565f30ea9d793", "input": "Passage: outermost layer of the sun, made up of a plasma that extends millions of kilometers into space. Answer: plasma", "output": [ "What is the outer layer of the sun made up of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8d2993e32b8e45f19f9c9c44025d3fc1", "input": "Passage: Viruses were first described by Dmitri Ivanovsky in 1892. He described a \"non-bacterial pathogen\" infecting tobacco plants. This was soon followed by the identification of the tobacco mosaic virus by Martinus Beijerinck in 1898. Since then, about 5,000 viruses have been described in detail, although it is believed that there are millions of different types. Viruses are found in almost every ecosystem on Earth, and are the most abundant type of biological entity. Viruses can be classified with a taxonomic structure from order to species. No kingdom classification exists. Viruses, not being made of cells, do not fall into any of the six prokaryotic or eukaryotic kingdoms. Answer: viruses", "output": [ "What is the most abundant type of biological entity on the earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a40df92557b04f1199d40b3504eb0c4e", "input": "Passage: Genes play an important part in determining our adult height. However, factors such as poor nutrition can prevent us from achieving our full genetic potential. Answer: nutrition", "output": [ "What factor other than genes is important in determining adult height?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fa7ba42122754ed68ccd1c60cfc255bf", "input": "Passage: Halide minerals are salts. They form when salt water evaporates. This mineral class includes more than just table salt. Halide minerals may contain the elements fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine. Some halide minerals combine with metal elements. Common table salt is a halide mineral that contains the elements chlorine and sodium. Fluorite is a type of halide that contains fluorine and calcium. Fluorite can be found in many colors. If you shine an ultraviolet light on fluorite, it will glow!. Answer: halide", "output": [ "What type of minerals form when salt water evaporates?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ac48206dd0b54314825fe0c46f22676a", "input": "Passage: The notochord lies between the dorsal nerve cord and the digestive tract. It provides stiffness to counterbalance the pull of muscles. Answer: notochord", "output": [ "What rod provides stiffness to counterbalance the pull of muscles?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a061c230cb6e420c891a8491cb92bbf4", "input": "Passage: Fungi are a kingdom in the domain Eukarya that includes molds, mushrooms, and yeasts. Most fungi are multicellular. They are unique in having cell walls made of chitin. Answer: chitin", "output": [ "Fungi are unique in having cell walls made of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1f1c3e48a7d9422b9967b7c656a2022d", "input": "Passage: reproductive structure produced by a seed plant that contains an embryo and food supply enclosed within a hull. Answer: hull", "output": [ "Where is the food supply and embryo stored in a seed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d6c9fa51cced4fb1ac3d5708c7b9ae43", "input": "Passage: Additionally, the yellow marrow, which is found in the central cavity of long bones along with red marrow, serves as a storage site for fat. 42 Structurally, the femur is a long bone, meaning its length is greater than its width, while the patella, a sesamoid bone, is small and round. Functionally, the femur acts as a lever, while the patella protects the patellar tendon from compressive forces. 44 The densely packed concentric rings of matrix in compact bone are ideal for resisting compressive forces, which is the function of compact bone. The open spaces of the trabeculated network of spongy bone allow spongy bone to support shifts in weight distribution, which is the function of spongy bone. 46 A single primary ossification center is present, during endochondral ossification, deep in the periosteal collar. Like the primary ossification center, secondary ossification centers are present during endochondral ossification, but they form later, and there are two of them, one in each epiphysis. 48 The internal callus is produced by cells in the endosteum and is composed of a fibrocartilaginous matrix. The external callus is produced by cells in the periosteum and consists of hyaline cartilage and bone. 50 Astronauts floating in space were not exerting significant pressure on their bones; they were “weightless. ” Without the force of gravity exerting pressure on the bones, bone mass was lost. To alleviate this condition, astronauts now do resistive exercise designed to apply forces to the bones and thus help keep them healthy. 52 Under “normal” conditions, receptors in the parathyroid glands bind blood calcium. When the receptors are full, the parathyroid gland stops secreting PTH. In the condition described, the parathyroid glands are not responding to the signal that there is sufficient calcium in the blood and they keep releasing PTH, which causes the bone to release more calcium into the blood. Ultimately, the bones become fragile and hypercalcemia can result. Answer: resistive", "output": [ "When it was found that, without the force of gravity exerting pressure on the bones, bone mass was lost in astronauts, what kind of exercise provided an antidote?" ] }, { "id": "task594-27e2fbba9c8c49ce9c8424e9bf92c9f2", "input": "Passage: In seedless vascular plants such as ferns, the sporophyte releases spores from the undersides of leaves. Answer: leaves", "output": [ "In seedless vascular plants such as ferns, the sporophyte releases spores from the undersides of what basic plant structures?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a57062a2ba954e2da656108486fa42e4", "input": "Passage: Summary Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes material substances undergo. It is essential for understanding much of the natural world and central to many other scientific disciplines, including astronomy, geology, paleontology, biology, and medicine. Answer: chemistry", "output": [ "What is the name of the science that studies matter and the changes material substances undergo?" ] }, { "id": "task594-44445ffbeb8c489dafbae5fb635bf455", "input": "Passage: Local winds are winds that blow over a limited area. Local winds blow between small low and high pressure systems. They are influenced by local geography. Nearness to an ocean, lake, or mountain range can affect local winds. Some examples are found below. Local winds can affect the weather and climate of a region. Answer: local winds", "output": [ "What are winds that blow over a limited area called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dd50ea6bfc224f659d2a39623e026518", "input": "Passage: As you learned in Chapter 1 \"Introduction to Chemistry\", the mass number is the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom. The mass number is an integer that is approximately equal to the numerical value of the atomic mass. Although the mass number is unitless, it is assigned units called atomic mass. Answer: mass number", "output": [ "What number is the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eae1f27ab1af4524a26bb7af3da85e87", "input": "Passage: The organ systems of the body work together to carry out life processes and maintain homeostasis. The body is in homeostasis when its internal environment is kept more-or-less constant. For example, levels of sugar, carbon dioxide, and water in the blood must be kept within narrow ranges. This requires continuous adjustments. For example:. Answer: homeostasis", "output": [ "What state is achieved when the body's internal environment is kept more-or-less constant?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5e281ce182424260b2b792d3174062bd", "input": "Passage: Hemoglobin of the Fetus The fetus has its own circulation with its own erythrocytes; however, it is dependent on the mother for oxygen. Blood is supplied to the fetus by way of the umbilical cord, which is connected to the placenta and separated from maternal blood by the chorion. The mechanism of gas exchange at the chorion is similar to gas exchange at the respiratory membrane. However, the partial pressure of oxygen is lower in the maternal blood in the placenta, at about 35 to 50 mm Hg, than it is in maternal arterial blood. The difference in partial pressures between maternal and fetal blood is not large, as the partial pressure of oxygen in fetal blood at the placenta is about 20 mm Hg. Therefore, there is not as much diffusion of oxygen into the fetal blood supply. The fetus’ hemoglobin overcomes this problem by having a greater affinity for oxygen than maternal hemoglobin (Figure 22.27). Both fetal and adult hemoglobin have four subunits, but two of the subunits of fetal hemoglobin have a different structure that causes fetal hemoglobin to have a greater affinity for oxygen than does adult hemoglobin. Answer: umbilical cord", "output": [ "How is blood supplied from the mother to the fetus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3f53c0a84c43465cb4b16b52f00b2123", "input": "Passage: The effects of extracellular signals can also be amplified by enzymatic cascades. At the initiation of the signal, a single ligand binds to a single receptor. However, activation of a receptor-linked enzyme can activate many copies of a component of the signaling cascade, which amplifies the signal. Answer: enzymatic cascades", "output": [ "What helps amplify the effects of extracellular signals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-de0994fb136b402ba016d57bca9cea44", "input": "Passage: The number of moles of carbon dioxide gas is first calculated by stoichiometry. Then the ideal gas law is used to calculate the volume of CO 2 produced. Answer: stoichiometry", "output": [ "How are the number of moles of carbon dioxide gas calculated?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8475fc4d724f43239ee7b48d30c4e4d3", "input": "Passage: Crests and troughs are the high and low points of a transverse wave. Answer: transverse wave", "output": [ "Crests and troughs are the high and low points of a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9434608733034d7ebba4038689fd4427", "input": "Passage: The velocity of an object can be found from a position vs time graph. On a position vs time graph, the displacement is the vertical separation between two points and the time interval is the horizontal separation. The ratio of displacement to time interval is the average velocity. This ratio is also the slope of the line. Therefore, the slope of the straight line is the average velocity. For the motion pictured above,. Answer: velocity", "output": [ "The ratio of displacement to time interval is the average what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2afcfec554e544289f717810875f752c", "input": "Passage: A storm is an episode of severe weather caused by a major disturbance in the atmosphere. Storms can vary a lot in the time they last and in how severe they are. A storm may last for less than an hour or for more than a week. It may affect just a few square kilometers or thousands. Some storms are harmless and some are disastrous. The size and strength of a storm depends on the amount of energy in the atmosphere. Greater differences in temperature and air pressure produce stronger storms. Types of storms include thunderstorms, tornadoes, hurricanes, and winter storms such as blizzards. Answer: blizzard", "output": [ "A winter storm is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-938bf24055c84b85b69fe75e89c3fd45", "input": "Passage: Renewable resources are natural resources that can be replaced in a relatively short period of time or are virtually limitless in supply. Renewable energy resources include sunlight, moving water, wind, biomass, and geothermal energy. Each of these energy resources is described in Table below . Resources such as sunlight and wind are limitless in supply, so they will never run out. Besides their availability, renewable energy resources also have the advantage of producing little if any pollution and not contributing to global warming. The technology needed to gather energy from renewable resources is currently expensive to install, but most of the resources themselves are free for the taking. Answer: renewable resources", "output": [ "What are natural resources which can be replaced in a relatively short period called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f56396c7268e425ea8c10eae3a8c009a", "input": "Passage: Other types of flatworms are parasitic. That means they live inside another organism, called a host, in order to get the food and energy they need. For example, tapeworms have a head-like area with tiny hooks and suckers (known as the scolex ) that help the worm attach to the intestines of an animal host ( Figure below ). There are over 11,000 species of parasitic flatworms. Answer: lives in host", "output": [ "What does parasitic mean?" ] }, { "id": "task594-702864f89632415391cf85f6af1d8b61", "input": "Passage: Fertilization is the union of a sperm and egg, resulting in the formation of a zygote. Answer: a zygote", "output": [ "Fertilization is the union of a sperm and egg, resulting in the formation of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-37919d57dd684736acaba80fb5d61f82", "input": "Passage: The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. Answer: the endocrine system", "output": [ "What system consists of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream?" ] }, { "id": "task594-70d03f5d20a14473b3daf80e72a62024", "input": "Passage: Most protist diseases in humans are caused by protozoa. Protozoa make humans sick when they become human parasites. Answer: protozoa", "output": [ "What are most protist diseases in humans caused by?" ] }, { "id": "task594-446e33d8d0a74151b507d23b4aa03247", "input": "Passage: Cell division is how organisms grow and repair themselves. It is also how they produce offspring. Many single-celled organisms reproduce by binary fission. The parent cell simply divides to form two daughter cells that are identical to the parent. In many other organisms, two parents are involved, and the offspring are not identical to the parents. In fact, each offspring is unique. Look at the family in Figure below . The children resemble their parents, but they are not identical to them. Instead, each has a unique combination of characteristics inherited from both parents. In this lesson, you will learn how this happens. Answer: cell division", "output": [ "What do organisms use to grow and repair themselves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-df78980448344715bbed2b8fb68aaab9", "input": "Passage: One way mucous membranes protect the body is by producing mucus. Mucus is a sticky, moist secretion that covers mucous membranes. The mucus traps pathogens and particles so they can’t enter the body. Answer: mucus", "output": [ "A sticky, moist secretion that covers mucous membranes is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6ab186bda4eb439eb8a527145513d956", "input": "Passage: Endocrine system disorders usually involve the secretion of too much or not enough hormone. For example, a tumor of the adrenal gland may lead to excessive secretion of growth hormone, which causes gigantism. In Type 1 diabetes, the pancreas does not secrete enough insulin, which causes high levels of glucose in the blood. Answer: type 1", "output": [ "Which type of diabetes involves the pancreas not secreting enough insulin, which causes high levels of glucose in the blood?" ] }, { "id": "task594-22b0527419eb45f0abf6c76c7e254127", "input": "Passage: The Nose and its Adjacent Structures The major entrance and exit for the respiratory system is through the nose. When discussing the nose, it is helpful to divide it into two major sections: the external nose, and the nasal cavity or internal nose. The external nose consists of the surface and skeletal structures that result in the outward appearance of the nose and contribute to its numerous functions (Figure 22.3). The root is the region of the nose located between the eyebrows. The bridge is the part of the nose that connects the root to the rest of the nose. The dorsum nasi is the length of the nose. The apex is the tip of the nose. On either side of the apex, the nostrils are formed by the alae (singular = ala). An ala is a cartilaginous structure that forms the lateral side of each naris (plural = nares), or nostril opening. The philtrum is the concave surface that connects the apex of the nose to the upper lip. Answer: nose", "output": [ "The major entrance and exit for the respiratory system is which facial orifice?" ] }, { "id": "task594-adc52f2af9d94cb9a28b98b1860e73ca", "input": "Passage: A variable is a factor that can change over the course of an experiment. Independent variables are factors whose values are controlled by the experimenter to determine its relationship to an observed phenomenon (the dependent variable). Dependent variables change in response to the independent variable. Answer: independent variables", "output": [ "The values of which factors are controlled by the experimenter over the course of an experiment?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3d2d4c4b116e47039fb353997ea9a8da", "input": "Passage: footprints, similar to those of modern humans, were found in Laetoli, Tanzania and dated to 3.6 million years ago. They showed that hominins at the time of Australopithecus were walking upright. There were a number of Australopithecus species, which are often referred to as australopiths. Australopithecus anamensis lived about 4.2 million years ago. More is known about another early species, Australopithecus afarensis, which lived between 3.9 and 2.9 million years ago. This species demonstrates a trend in human evolution: the reduction of the dentition and jaw in size. afarensis (Figure 29.42) had smaller canines and molars compared to apes, but these were larger than those of modern humans. Its brain size was 380–450 cubic centimeters, approximately the size of a modern chimpanzee brain. It also had prognathic jaws, which is a relatively longer jaw than that of modern humans. In the mid-1970s, the fossil of an adult female A. afarensis was found in the Afar region of Ethiopia and dated to 3.24 million years ago (Figure 29.43). The fossil, which is informally called “Lucy,” is significant because it was the most complete australopith fossil found, with 40 percent of the skeleton recovered. Answer: lucy", "output": [ "What was the informal female name given to the adult fossil found in ethiopia and thought to be over 3 million years old?" ] }, { "id": "task594-212926638fb842f9b0126674e44e98c9", "input": "Passage: The cells of all protists have a nucleus. They also have other membrane-bound organelles. For example, all of them have mitochondria, and some of them have chloroplasts. Answer: nucleus", "output": [ "The cells of all protists have a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2d65dabf39fb4661ac9f08eed2c89294", "input": "Passage: Plants provide many products for human use. They include timber, medicines, dyes, oils, and rubber. Answer: plants", "output": [ "Timber, medicines, dyes, oils, and rubber are just some of the useful products humans derive from what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-daaaaca028fa4cc08be4f3a375f003a4", "input": "Passage: Carbohydrates include sugars, starches, and fiber. Sugars and starches are used by the body for energy. One gram of carbohydrates provides 4 Calories of energy. Fiber, which is found in plant foods, cannot be digested but is needed for good health. Simple carbohydrates are small carbohydrates found in foods such as fruits and milk. These carbohydrates include lactose, fructose and glucose. Complex carbohydrates are much larger molecules. Starch, which is a complex carbohydrate found in vegetables and grains, is made of thousands of glucose units bonded together. Answer: carbohydrates", "output": [ "What category of food includes sugars, starches and fibers?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e338c6bf6e1149f794e4e78e253e0109", "input": "Passage: Flowers are the reproductive organs of plants. Each pea plant flower has both male and female parts. The anther is part of the stamen, the male structure that produces male gametes (pollen). The stigma is part of the pistil, the female structure that produces female gametes and guides the pollen grains to them. The stigma receives the pollen grains and passes them to the ovary, which contains female gametes. Answer: stigma", "output": [ "What female flower structure, which is part of the pistil, receives the pollen grains and passes them to the ovary?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ad9ca618dc0d48478dcddf63ad73217a", "input": "Passage: Coal is a solid hydrocarbon. Coal is useful as a fuel, especially for generating electricity. Coal is relatively inexpensive and abundant. Developing nations, like China, rely heavily on coal. Around the world, coal is the largest source of energy for electricity. Answer: solid", "output": [ "What type of hydrocarbon is coal?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b6302102db424d0e8edab5f072969025", "input": "Passage: The duodenum is the first and shortest part of the small intestine. Most chemical digestion takes place here, and many digestive enzymes are active in the duodenum (see Table below ). Some are produced by the duodenum itself. Others are produced by the pancreas and secreted into the duodenum. Answer: small intestine", "output": [ "The duodenum is a part of which part of the gi tract?" ] }, { "id": "task594-46eb3490a1e44fc9b63a1714f53e0a33", "input": "Passage: Carbonated beverages contain carbon dioxide gas that is dissolved in solution. Do you think a carbonated beverage is a mixture or a pure substance? Explain. Answer: carbon dioxide", "output": [ "What gas, that is dissolved in solution, is used in carbonated beverages?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e980ea6f49714304be908a69a9ce0d59", "input": "Passage: perpendicular to the surface at the point where the ray strikes the surface. Answer: less water", "output": [ "Desert plants have evolved processes to conserve water and deal with harsh conditions. a more efficient use of co2 allows plants to adapt to living with what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bc19d1c5b58145ebb33a0bbe74d0bad2", "input": "Passage: Life on Earth is very diverse. The diversity of living things is called biodiversity . A measure of Earth’s biodiversity is the number of different species of organisms that live on Earth. At least 10 million different species live on Earth today. They are commonly grouped into six different kingdoms. Examples of organisms within each kingdom are shown in Figure below . Answer: biodiversity", "output": [ "What is the diversity of living things called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6f7ae2688a9a4302b7c633021c3fe327", "input": "Passage: Defense Responses against Herbivores and Pathogens Plants face two types of enemies: herbivores and pathogens. Herbivores both large and small use plants as food, and actively chew them. Pathogens are agents of disease. These infectious microorganisms, such as fungi, bacteria, and nematodes, live off of the plant and damage its tissues. Plants have developed a variety of strategies to discourage or kill attackers. The first line of defense in plants is an intact and impenetrable barrier. Bark and the waxy cuticle can protect against predators. Other adaptations against herbivory include thorns, which are modified branches, and spines, which are modified leaves. They discourage animals by causing physical damage and inducing rashes and allergic reactions. A plant’s exterior protection can be compromised by mechanical damage, which may provide an entry point for pathogens. If the first line of defense is breached, the plant must resort to a different set of defense mechanisms, such as toxins and enzymes. Secondary metabolites are compounds that are not directly derived from photosynthesis and are not necessary for respiration or plant growth and development. Many metabolites are toxic, and can even be lethal to animals that ingest them. Some metabolites are alkaloids, which discourage predators with noxious odors (such as the volatile oils of mint and sage) or repellent tastes (like the bitterness of quinine). Other alkaloids affect herbivores by causing either excessive stimulation. Answer: pathogens", "output": [ "Plants face two types of enemies: herbivores and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4d6e19436bf64b31a3204f509efd4bf1", "input": "Passage: Halkieria, or scale worms, are an example of a fossil life from the Cambrian. Answer: halkieria", "output": [ "What is another term for scale worms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-80bede4242d2494ca4be501ac0348178", "input": "Passage: Not all hydrocarbons are straight chains. Many hydrocarbons have branches of C atoms attached to a chain. These branched alkanes are isomers of straight-chain alkanes having the same number of C atoms. However, they are different compounds with different physical and chemical properties. As such, they need different names. How do we name branched hydrocarbons? There are a series of rules for naming branched alkanes (and, ultimately, for all organic compounds). These rules make up the system of nomenclature for naming organic molecules. Worldwide, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) has developed the system of nomenclature for organic compounds. So these rules are sometimes called the IUPAC rules of nomenclature. By learning and applying these rules, you can name any organic compound when given its structure or determine the unique structure of a molecule from its name. You have already learned the basics of nomenclature—the names of the first 10 normal hydrocarbons. Here, we will add some steps to the procedure so you can name branched hydrocarbons. First, given the structure of an alkane, identify the longest continuous chain of C atoms. Note that the longest chain may not be drawn in a straight line. The longest chain determines the parent name of the hydrocarbon. For example, in the molecule. Answer: organic molecules", "output": [ "There are a series of rules for naming branched alkanes (and, ultimately, for all organic compounds). these rules make up the system of nomenclature for naming what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b7e6da46f6cc40aabcd4d1a1f07df7b1", "input": "Passage: Ocean water is most polluted along coasts. That’s because pollution usually enters the water from land. Oil spills also pollute ocean water. Answer: coastline", "output": [ "Where would you find most pollution of ocean water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a4c354b9661d44c1b1ecdb3b632a3691", "input": "Passage: The protist kingdom is sometimes called the “trash can” kingdom. It includes all eukaryotes that don’t fit in one of the other three eukaryote kingdoms: Animalia, Plantae, or Fungi. There are thought to be between 60,000 and 200,000 protist species. Many have yet to be identified. The protist kingdom is very diverse, as shown in Figure below . Answer: trash can kingdom", "output": [ "What is the protist kingdom sometimes called as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-56c539337e2343c7933b0d10122c5b05", "input": "Passage: A chemical reaction is a process that changes some chemical substances into others. It involves breaking and forming chemical bonds. Types of chemical reactions include synthesis reactions and decomposition reactions. Answer: chemical reaction", "output": [ "What is the name of the process that changes some chemical substances into others?" ] }, { "id": "task594-869883c92d36436ba2e9e959ac685109", "input": "Passage: Group 14 is called the carbon group. This group contains two metalloids: silicon and germanium. Carbon is a nonmetal, and the remaining elements in this group are metals. Answer: silicon and germanium", "output": [ "What is the name of the two metalloids in the carbon group called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3c3812efc9f74318a6a652ad88d0fca8", "input": "Passage: Cyclones can be the most intense storms on Earth. A cyclone is a system of winds that rotate around a low pressure center. The swirling air rises and cools. This creates clouds and precipitation. Answer: cyclone", "output": [ "What type of intense storm is a system of winds that rotate around a low pressure center, resulting in swirling air that rises and cools to create clouds and precipitation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c397ceb3b9d243419b768a39c4679eb2", "input": "Passage: Leaves, Sporophylls, and Strobili A third innovation marks the seedless vascular plants. Accompanying the prominence of the sporophyte and the development of vascular tissue, the appearance of true leaves improved their photosynthetic efficiency. Leaves capture more sunlight with their increased surface area by employing more chloroplasts to trap light energy and convert it to chemical energy, which is then used to fix atmospheric carbon dioxide into carbohydrates. The carbohydrates are exported to the rest of the plant by the conductive cells of phloem tissue. The existence of two types of morphology suggests that leaves evolved independently in several groups of plants. The first type of leaf is the microphyll, or “little leaf,” which can be dated to 350 million years ago in the late Silurian. A microphyll is small and has a simple vascular system. A single unbranched vein—a bundle of vascular tissue made of xylem and phloem—runs through the center of the leaf. Microphylls may have originated from the flattening of lateral branches, or from sporangia that lost their reproductive capabilities. Microphylls are present in the club mosses and probably preceded the development of megaphylls, or “big leaves”, which are larger leaves with a pattern of branching veins. Megaphylls most likely appeared independently several times during the course of evolution. Their complex networks of veins suggest that several branches may have combined into a flattened organ, with the gaps between the branches being filled with photosynthetic tissue. In addition to photosynthesis, leaves play another role in the life of the plants. Pine cones, mature fronds of ferns, and flowers are all sporophylls—leaves that were modified structurally to bear sporangia. Strobili are cone-like structures that contain sporangia. They are prominent in conifers and are commonly known as pine cones. Answer: strobili", "output": [ "What are the cone-like structures that contain sporangia called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-717842511042405680e3e042958a489c", "input": "Passage: fibers, films, plastics, semisolid resins, and rubbers are also polymers. More than half the compounds produced by the chemical industry are synthetic polymers. Some common addition polymers are listed in http://catalog. flatworldknowledge. com/bookhub/reader/2547 - gob-ch13_s05_t01. Note that all the monomers have carbon-to-carbon double bonds. Many polymers are mundane (e. , plastic bags, food wrap, toys, and tableware), but there are also polymers that conduct electricity, have amazing adhesive properties, or are stronger than steel but much lighter in weight. Table 13.2 Some Addition Polymers. Answer: synthetic polymers", "output": [ "More than half the compounds produced by the chemical industry are what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-86277a45b7e64a228a5703836f83688e", "input": "Passage: Charging an object by touching it with another charged object is called charging by conduction. By bringing a charged object into contact with an uncharged object, some electrons will migrate to even out the charge on both objects. Charging by conduction gives the previously uncharged object a permanent charge. An uncharged object can also be charged using a method called charging by induction . This process allows a change in charge without actually touching the charged and uncharged objects to each other. Imagine a negatively charged rod held near the knob, but not touching. If we place a finger on the knob, some of the electrons will escape into our body, instead of down the stem and into the leaves. When both our finger and the negatively charged rod are removed, the previously uncharged electroscope now has a slight positive charge. It was charged by induction. Notice that charging by induction causes the newly charged object to have the opposite charge as the originally charged object, while charging by conduction gives them both the same charge. Answer: charging by conduction", "output": [ "What is the name for the process of charging an object by touching it with another charged object?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9c28baaeca8f4746a21ca79b09eb2e1e", "input": "Passage: The control rods play an important role in the modulation of the nuclear chain reaction (usually a collision of a neutron with uranium). Each collision produces more neutrons than were present initially. If left unsupervised, the reaction would soon get out of control. Rods are commonly made of boron or a number of metals and metal alloys. The purpose of the control rods is to absorb neutrons to regulate the rate of the chain reaction so that the water does not overheat and destroy the reactor. Answer: control rods", "output": [ "What play an important role in the modulation of the nuclear chain reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6ffa0bef4175462590c91f427c6d3df2", "input": "Passage: Noble gases are also used to fill the glass tubes of lighted signs like the one in the Figure below . Although noble gases are chemically nonreactive, their electrons can be energized by sending an electric current through them. When this happens, the electrons jump to a higher energy level. When the electrons return to their original energy level, they give off energy as light. Different noble gases give off light of different colors. Neon gives off reddish-orange light, like the word “Open” in the sign below. Krypton gives off violet light and xenon gives off blue light. Answer: noble", "output": [ "What type of gas is used to fill glass tubes of lighted signs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-56834fcd839a49f3b1756d6d1f58c08e", "input": "Passage: Hormonal Regulation of Growth Hormonal regulation is required for the growth and replication of most cells in the body. Growth hormone (GH), produced by the anterior portion of the pituitary gland, accelerates the rate of protein synthesis, particularly in skeletal muscle and bones. Growth hormone has direct and indirect mechanisms of action. The first direct action of GH is stimulation of triglyceride breakdown (lipolysis) and release into the blood by adipocytes. This results in a switch by most tissues from utilizing glucose as an energy source to utilizing fatty acids. This process is called a glucose-sparing effect. In another direct mechanism, GH stimulates glycogen breakdown in the liver; the glycogen is then released into the blood as glucose. Blood glucose levels increase as most tissues are utilizing fatty acids instead of glucose for their energy needs. The GH mediated increase in blood glucose levels is called a diabetogenic effect because it is similar to the high blood glucose levels seen in diabetes mellitus. The indirect mechanism of GH action is mediated by insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) or somatomedins, which are a family of growth-promoting proteins produced by the liver, which stimulates tissue growth. IGFs stimulate the uptake of amino acids from the blood, allowing the formation of new proteins, particularly in skeletal muscle cells, cartilage cells, and other target cells, as shown in Figure 37.13. This is especially important after a meal, when glucose and amino acid concentration levels are high in the blood. GH levels are regulated by two hormones produced by the hypothalamus. GH release is stimulated by growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) and is inhibited by growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH), also called somatostatin. Answer: stimulation of triglyceride breakdown", "output": [ "What is the first direct action of growth hormone?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4e42d70960544f95a5b7c5d448200362", "input": "Passage: The first plants probably evolved from aquatic green algae. They had male and female reproductive organs. However, they lacked true stems, roots, and leaves. Answer: aquatic green algae", "output": [ "The first plants probably evolved from what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f1b346e84627410ca997d995606ea328", "input": "Passage: Ground tissue forms the interior of the stem. The large central vacuoles of ground tissue cells fill with water to support the plant. The cells may also store food. Answer: food", "output": [ "Ground tissue forms the interior of the stem. the large central vacuoles of ground tissue cells fill with water to support the plant. the cells may also store what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a65d1ad3521c4dfb991043ed85510f0e", "input": "Passage: Thomas H Brown. Mudskippers are fish that are able to walk short distances . CC-BY 2.0. Answer: walk", "output": [ "What are mudskipper fish able to do in short distances?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7e3186720748483c86afb56c22feda0c", "input": "Passage: Figure 40.13 Cardiomyocytes are striated muscle cells found in cardiac tissue. (credit: modification of work by Dr. Girod, Anton Becker; scale-bar data from Matt Russell). Answer: in cardiac tissue", "output": [ "Cardiomyocytes are striated muscle cells found where?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6a60d7dd435748b6bc1bc51e5504854b", "input": "Passage: During crossing-over, segments of DNA are exchanged between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes. Notice how this can result in an allele (A) on one chromosome being moved to the other chromosome. The four chromatids compose the tetrad, with a chiasma at the point of exchange. Answer: during crossing-over", "output": [ "When does exchange of dna segments happen between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-32287dbb26cc4f889fd0ed521a1f135d", "input": "Passage: All modern classification systems have their roots in the Linnaean classification system. It was developed by Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus in the 1700s. He tried to classify all living things that were known at his time. He grouped together organisms that shared obvious physical traits, such as number of legs or shape of leaves. For his contribution, Linnaeus is known as the “father of taxonomy. ” You can learn more about Linnaeus and his system of classification by watching the video at this link: http://teachertube. com/viewVideo. php?video_id=169889 . Answer: linnaean system", "output": [ "What classification system was developed by a swedish botanist trying to classify all known living things?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1509d8714ef64079820723b5e79875bd", "input": "Passage: 29.5 Birds Birds are endothermic, meaning they produce their own body heat and regulate their internal temperature independently of the external temperature. Feathers not only act as insulation but also allow for flight, providing lift with secondary feathers and thrust with primary feathers. Pneumatic bones are bones that are hollow rather than filled with tissue, containing air spaces that are sometimes connected to air sacs. Airflow through bird lungs travels in one direction, creating a crosscurrent exchange with the blood. Birds are diapsids and belong to a group called the archosaurs. Birds are thought to have evolved from theropod dinosaurs. The oldest known fossil of a bird is that of Archaeopteryx, which is from the Jurassic period. Modern birds are now classified into two groups, Paleognathae and Neognathae. Answer: endothermic", "output": [ "What is the technical term for species that produce their own body heat and regulate their internal temperature independently of the outside temperature?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e1d0e0da675247c6aff6a9e20cc20090", "input": "Passage: The target cell then needs to be able to recognize the signal. Chemical signals are received by the target cell on receptor proteins. Most receptor proteins are found associated with the plasma membrane, but some are also found inside the cell. Receptor proteins are very specific for only one particular signal molecule, much like a lock that recognizes only one key. Therefore, a cell has lots of receptor proteins to recognize the large number of cell signal molecules. There are three stages to sending and receiving a cell \"message:\" reception, transduction, and response. Answer: receptor proteins", "output": [ "Chemical signals are received by the target cell on what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3913e7b2ca8c4eaf98c3a22b85666670", "input": "Passage: A magnet is an object that attracts certain materials such as iron. You’re probably familiar with common bar magnets, like the one shown in the Figure below . Like all magnets, this bar magnet has north and south magnetic poles . The red end of the magnet is the north pole and the blue end is the south pole. The poles are regions where the magnet is strongest. The poles are called north and south because they always line up with Earth’s north-south axis if the magnet is allowed to move freely. (Earth’s axis is the imaginary line around which the planet rotates. ). Answer: north and south", "output": [ "What are the earth's two poles called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-027d84a8e0d14a2ba8b2f34da7345553", "input": "Passage: Several common human diseases are caused by fungi. They include ringworm and athlete’s foot, both shown in Figure below . Ringworm isn’t caused by a worm. It’s a skin infection by a fungus that leads to a ring-shaped rash. The rash may occur on the head, neck, trunk, arms, or legs. Athlete’s foot is caused by the same fungus as ringworm. But in athlete’s foot, the fungus infects the skin between the toes. Athlete’s foot is the second most common skin disease in the U. S. Answer: fungi", "output": [ "Ringworm and athlete’s foot are common human diseases caused by types of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-89eddafcc159468d824297f8235ec2d7", "input": "Passage: Scientists find answers using tests : When scientists want to answer a question, they search for evidence using experiments. An experiment is a test to see if their explanation is right or wrong. Evidence is made up of the observations a scientist makes during an experiment. To study the cause of death in the chimpanzees, scientists may give the chimps nutrients in the form of nuts, berries, and vitamins to see if they are dying from a lack of food. This test is the experiment. If fewer chimps die, then the experiment shows that the chimps may have died from not having enough food. This is the evidence. Answer: experiment", "output": [ "What is the term for a test to see if a scientific explanation is right or wrong?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bdf161e29abd4e71a69203836ff5d70c", "input": "Passage: When a soluble compound dissolves, its constituent atoms, molecules, or ions disperse throughout the solvent. In contrast, the constituents of an insoluble compound remain associated with one another in the solid. A soluble compound is a strong electrolyte if it dissociates completely into ions, a weak electrolyte if it dissociates only slightly into ions, and a nonelectrolyte if it dissolves to produce only neutral molecules. Answer: solvent", "output": [ "When a soluble compound dissolves, its constituent atoms, molecules, or ions disperse throughout what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-10bfab2b5ade49d0bbddf94f7eba904f", "input": "Passage: Excretion is the process of removing wastes and excess water from the body. It is one of the major ways the body maintains homeostasis. Organs of excretion make up the excretory system. They include the kidneys, large intestine, liver, skin, and lungs. Answer: excretion", "output": [ "What is the process of removing wastes and excess water from the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ba10a4d9497940748602aed29c37b7bb", "input": "Passage: Weather occurs because of unequal heating of the atmosphere. The source of heat is the Sun. The general principles behind weather can be stated simply:. Answer: weather", "output": [ "What does unequal heating of the atmosphere cause?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1cb24558306b40de8c6235fdaed2aeec", "input": "Passage: The law of conservation of energy states that matter cannot be created or destroyed. Whether a chemical reaction absorbs or releases energy, there is no overall change in the amount of energy during the reaction. Answer: conservation of energy", "output": [ "What law states that matter cannot be created or destroyed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b9aff6291cc7450cb5f7cd2226598064", "input": "Passage: 11.6 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary To ensure that you understand the material in this chapter, you should review the meanings of the bold terms in the following summary and ask yourself how they relate to the topics in the chapter. Some atoms have unstable nuclei that emit particles and high-energy electromagnetic radiation to form new elements that are more stable. This emission of particles and electromagnetic radiation is called radioactivity. There are three main types of spontaneous radioactive emission: alpha particles, which are equivalent to helium nuclei; beta particles, which are electrons; and gamma radiation, which is highenergy electromagnetic radiation. Another type of radioactive process is spontaneous fission, in which large nuclei spontaneously break apart into smaller nuclei and, often, neutrons. In all forms of radioactivity, new elements are formed from the radioactive reactants. Radioactive isotopes decay at different rates. The rate of an isotope’s decay is expressed as a half-life, which is the amount of time required for half of the original material to decay. The length of its half-life is a characteristic of the particular isotope and can range from less than microseconds to billions of years. Amounts of radioactivity are measured in several different ways. A becquerel is equal to one radioactive decay per second. A curie represents 3.7 × 1010 decays per second. Other units describe the amount of energy absorbed by body tissues. One rad is equivalent to 0.01 joule of energy absorbed per gram of tissue. Different tissues react differently to different types of radioactivity. The rem unit takes into account not only the energy absorbed by the tissues, but also includes a numerical multiplication factor to Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: half-life", "output": [ "What term decribes the amount of time required for half of the original material to decay in an isotope?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d01e30fabe2e46ceab5446d7ffd69b98", "input": "Passage: Fertilizer in runoff leads to algal blooms and dead zones in bodies of water. This type of pollution is called nonpoint-source pollution. Point-source pollution includes waste water from factories and sewage treatment plants. Hot water discharge causes thermal pollution. Answer: excess of fertilizers and other nutrients", "output": [ "What causes eutrophication to occur?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fb0603c85b7e44bfbb1a7c0964e5bf28", "input": "Passage: Hormonal Control of Reproduction The human male and female reproductive cycles are controlled by the interaction of hormones from the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary with hormones from reproductive tissues and organs. In both sexes, the hypothalamus monitors and causes the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary gland. When the reproductive hormone is required, the hypothalamus sends a gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) to the anterior pituitary. This causes the release of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the anterior pituitary into the blood. Although these hormones are named after their functions in female reproduction, they are produced in both sexes and play important roles in controlling reproduction. Other hormones have specific functions in the male and female reproductive systems. Male Hormones At the onset of puberty, the hypothalamus causes the release of FSH and LH into the male system for the first time. FSH enters the testes and stimulates the Sertoli cells located in the walls of the seminiferous tubules to begin promoting spermatogenesis (Figure 18.16). LH also enters the testes and stimulates the interstitial cells of Leydig, located in between the walls of the seminiferous tubules, to make and release testosterone into the testes and the blood. Testosterone stimulates spermatogenesis. This hormone is also responsible for the secondary sexual characteristics that develop in the male during adolescence. The secondary sex characteristics in males include a deepening of the voice, the growth of facial, axillary, and pubic hair, an increase in muscle bulk, and the beginnings of the sex drive. Answer: anterior pituitary gland", "output": [ "The human male and female reproductive cycles are controlled by the interaction of hormones from the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary with hormones from reproductive tissues and organs. in both sexes, the hypothalamus monitors and causes the release of hormones from this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1b7d1e5769294523aa694966bcf407d9", "input": "Passage: 17.4 Doppler Effect and Sonic Booms The characteristic sound of a motorcycle buzzing by is an example of the Doppler effect. The high-pitch scream shifts dramatically to a lower-pitch roar as the motorcycle passes by a stationary observer. The closer the motorcycle brushes by, the more abrupt the shift. The faster the motorcycle moves, the greater the shift. We also hear this characteristic shift in frequency for passing race cars, airplanes, and trains. It is so familiar that it is used to imply motion and children often mimic it in play. The Doppler effect is an alteration in the observed frequency of a sound due to motion of either the source or the observer. Although less familiar, this effect is easily noticed for a stationary source and moving observer. For example, if you ride a train past a stationary warning bell, you will hear the bell’s frequency shift from high to low as you pass by. The actual change in frequency due to relative motion of source and observer is called a Doppler shift. The Doppler effect and Doppler shift are named for the Austrian physicist and mathematician Christian Johann Doppler (1803–1853), who did experiments with both moving sources and moving observers. Doppler, for example, had musicians play on a moving open train car and also play standing next to the train tracks as a train passed by. Their music was observed both on and off the train, and changes in frequency were measured. What causes the Doppler shift? Figure 17.14, Figure 17.15, and Figure 17.16 compare sound waves emitted by stationary and moving sources in a stationary air mass. Each disturbance spreads out spherically from the point where the sound was emitted. If the source is stationary, then all of the spheres representing the air compressions in the sound wave centered on the same. Answer: doppler effect", "output": [ "The characteristic sound of a motorcycle buzzing by is an example of which effect?" ] }, { "id": "task594-602c71cf3b4a401081c5d4f205a3f958", "input": "Passage: In eukaryotes, the new mRNA is not yet ready for translation. It must go through more processing before it leaves the nucleus. This may include splicing, editing, and polyadenylation. These processes modify the mRNA in various ways. Such modifications allow a single gene to be used to make more than one protein. Answer: nucleus", "output": [ "In eukaryotes, the new mrna is not yet ready for translation. it must go through more processing before it leaves where?" ] }, { "id": "task594-220fcf2ed4014b7785423987026f539b", "input": "Passage: Glycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration. It takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell. The world glycolysis means \"glucose splitting\". That's exactly what happens in this stage. Enzymes split a molecule of glucose into two smaller molecules called pyruvate. This results in a net gain of two molecules of ATP. Other energy-storing molecules are also produced. (Their energy will be used in stage 3 to make more ATP. ) Glycolysis does not require oxygen. Anything that doesn't need oxygen is described as anaerobic . Answer: glycolysis", "output": [ "What is the first stage of cellular respiration?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0f5853e3d4cc41629bec8839965b1d9b", "input": "Passage: Forms of radiation that cause cancer include ultraviolet (UV) radiation and radon ( Figure below ). UV radiation is part of sunlight. It is the leading cause of skin cancer. Radon is a natural radioactive gas that seeps into buildings from the ground. It can cause lung cancer. Answer: sunlight", "output": [ "What is the leading cause of skin cancer?" ] }, { "id": "task594-914db7011eab4596aec97e7f68085b13", "input": "Passage: Each type of rock weathers in its own way. Certain types of rock are very resistant to weathering. Igneous rocks tend to weather slowly because they are hard. Water cannot easily penetrate them. Granite is a very stable igneous rock. Other types of rock are easily weathered because they dissolve easily in weak acids. Limestone is a sedimentary rock that dissolves easily. When softer rocks wear away, the more resistant rocks form ridges or hills. Answer: weathering", "output": [ "Hard igneous rocks and easily dissolved sedimentary rocks respond very differently to what natural force?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f78bc1215dae4f65ae821ad55f3e7ebb", "input": "Passage: Field lines represent lines of force in the electric field around a charged particle. The lines bend when two particles interact. What would the lines of force look like around two negatively charged particles?. Answer: field lines", "output": [ "What are the lines of force in the electric field around a charged particle called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d09b79c4fd874d3da8fcbdcff26cf4ca", "input": "Passage: Many genetic disorders are caused by mutations in one or a few genes. Other genetic disorders are caused by abnormal numbers of chromosomes. Answer: genetic disorders", "output": [ "What type of disorders are caused by mutations in genes or abnormal numbers of chromosomes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2e88fd711b4341bfa064426bd01f190c", "input": "Passage: To harness water power, a stream must be dammed. Narrow valleys are the best for dams. While sitting in the reservoir behind the dam, the water has potential energy. Water is allowed to flow downhill into a large turbine. While flowing downhill, the water has kinetic energy. Kinetic energy makes the turbine spin. The turbine is connected to a generator, which makes electricity. Answer: kinetic energy", "output": [ "Water is allowed to flow downhill into a large turbine to harness power. what helps the turbine spin?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c13b922d7e7a44a7b80a8b3e54919309", "input": "Passage: Heat expansion is a result of the increase of kinetic energy of the molecules. As their movement increases, they bump into each other more and the material slightly expands as a result. Most materials expand with heat. Water is a particularly interesting substance in that it contracts as its temperature increases from to (and then expands from to ). Answer: kinetic energy", "output": [ "Heat expansion is a result of the increase of what type of energy, exhibited by molecules bumping together?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6c56989c85974237a0cbe9099c9e5c8f", "input": "Passage: To physically limit radiation doses, we use shielding, increase the distance from a source, and limit the time of exposure. Figure 32.10 illustrates how these are used to protect both the patient and the dental technician when an x-ray is taken. Shielding absorbs radiation and can be provided by any material, including sufficient air. The greater the distance from the source, the more the radiation spreads out. The less time a person is exposed to a given source, the smaller is the dose received by the person. Doses from most medical diagnostics have decreased in recent years due to faster films that require less exposure time. Answer: radiation", "output": [ "Shielding should be used when receiving x-rays to limit exposure to what potentially harmful form of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d5d48febc2ab46afaf7f7eb16f5bbfde", "input": "Passage: The largest-mass stars become black holes . These extremely large stars end their life in the same way as a medium-mass star in that they become a supernova. After the outer layers are blown away in the supernova, however, the core of the star shrinks down in volume but still has a huge mass. The density of this object is extremely high, even denser than neutron stars. This dense object will have a gravitational force so large that not even light can escape from the body. (A companion topic to this occurs in The General Theory of Relativity where we see than extremely strong gravitational attraction can even attract light. ) These objects appear black because light cannot leave them, that is, they pull all light back to their surface. Black holes capture everything nearby due to their massive gravity and so they grow in size. Black holes are a common topic for science fiction but keep in mind, they are simply a very dense ball of matter with intense gravitational attraction. Answer: black holes", "output": [ "Very large stars eventually become what extremely dense space regions, which are so dense that no light can escape from them?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a559cacf6c334dac88e1d9127c032181", "input": "Passage: Blood Supply The blood vessels serving the digestive system have two functions. They transport the protein and carbohydrate nutrients absorbed by mucosal cells after food is digested in the lumen. Lipids are absorbed via lacteals, tiny structures of the lymphatic system. The blood vessels’ second function is to supply the organs of the alimentary canal with the nutrients and oxygen needed to drive their cellular processes. Specifically, the more anterior parts of the alimentary canal are supplied with blood by arteries branching off the aortic arch and thoracic aorta. Below this point, the alimentary canal is supplied with blood by arteries branching from the abdominal aorta. The celiac trunk services the liver, stomach, and duodenum, whereas the superior and inferior mesenteric arteries supply blood to the remaining small and large intestines. The veins that collect nutrient-rich blood from the small intestine (where most absorption occurs) empty into the hepatic portal system. This venous network takes the blood into the liver where the nutrients are either processed or stored for later use. Only then does the blood drained from the alimentary canal viscera circulate back to the heart. To appreciate just how demanding the digestive process is on the cardiovascular system, consider that while you are “resting and digesting,” about one-fourth of the blood pumped with each heartbeat enters arteries serving the intestines. Answer: intestines", "output": [ "About one-fourth of the blood pumped with each heartbeat enters arteries serving what organs of digestion?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d9cc821c7b954e9eab462efaf57b2642", "input": "Passage: You could argue that oxygen is one of the most important, if not THE most important molecule necessary for life. However, oxygen is essentially just a waste product of the light reactions of photosynthesis. It is a \"leftover\" from a necessary part of the process. All the oxygen that is necessary to maintain most forms of life just happens to be released from the plant during this process. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "Oxygen is essentially just a waste product of the light reactions of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-34a8201cf0954ad594a4623c75f4a19b", "input": "Passage: Roots: Support for the Plant Roots are not well preserved in the fossil record; nevertheless, it seems that they did appear later in evolution than vascular tissue. The development of an extensive network of roots represented a significant new feature of vascular plants. Thin rhizoids attached the bryophytes to the substrate. Their rather flimsy filaments did not provide a strong anchor for the plant; neither did they absorb water and nutrients. In contrast, roots, with their prominent vascular tissue system, transfer water and minerals from the soil to the rest of the plant. The extensive network of roots that penetrates deep in the ground to reach sources of water also stabilizes trees by acting as ballast and an anchor. The majority of roots establish a symbiotic relationship with fungi, forming mycorrhizae. In the mycorrhizae, fungal hyphae grow around the root and within the root around the cells, and in some instances within the cells. This benefits the plant by greatly increasing the surface area for absorption. Leaves, Sporophylls, and Strobili A third adaptation marks seedless vascular plants. Accompanying the prominence of the sporophyte and the development of vascular tissue, the appearance of true leaves improved photosynthetic efficiency. Leaves capture more sunlight with their increased surface area. In addition to photosynthesis, leaves play another role in the life of the plants. Pinecones, mature fronds of ferns, and flowers are all sporophylls—leaves that were modified structurally to bear sporangia. Strobili are structures that contain the sporangia. They are prominent in conifers and are known commonly as cones: for example, the pine cones of pine trees. Answer: sunlight", "output": [ "The larger surface area of leaves allows them to capture more what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4b573b64ed654670ab3ae4c9352ecc74", "input": "Passage: Ionic bonding. Ionic bonds result from electrostatic attractions between positively and negatively charged side chains of amino acids. For example, the mutual attraction between an aspartic acid carboxylate ion and a lysine ammonium ion helps to maintain a particular folded area of a protein (part (a) of http://catalog. flatworldknowledge. com/bookhub/reader/2547 - gob-ch18_s04_s01_f05). Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: electrostatic", "output": [ "Ionic bonds are what kind of attraction between ions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-11118a12af834f3eabc5075f32d1082f", "input": "Passage: For a full description of weight, look at Forces: Mass versus Weight. In sum, weight is the result of the force of gravity being opposed by the normal force. As we just learned, objects in orbit are in freefall; they have nothing exerting a normal force against them and thus no weight. Answer: weight", "output": [ "What property is the result of the force of gravity being opposed by the normal force?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9286a7c3e7474dc6b6d82f7bb0548bcd", "input": "Passage: Biotic factors are the parts of the environment that are alive, or were alive and then died, such as plants, animals, and their remains. Biotic factors also include bacteria, fungi and protists. Answer: biotic factors", "output": [ "What factors consist of parts of the environment that are or were alive, and their remains?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9afccceb1bbd4c35b47347e2d1a9ab6c", "input": "Passage: Amines generally have rather pungent or noxious odors. Ammonia can be considered the simplest amine and has a very distinctive odor. Methylamine has an unpleasant odor associated with dead fish. Amines are often formed biologically during the breakdown of proteins in animal cells, and so many have the smell of death and decay. Putrescine and cadaverine are two such amines and are aptly named for their foul odors. The toxins which many animals use as a form of defense are frequently amines. Amines are used industrially as dyes and in many drugs. Answer: amines", "output": [ "What are often formed biologically during the breakdown of proteins in animal cells, having the smell of death and decay?." ] }, { "id": "task594-c4ba359abe3f469f85c5e53f01bfc2ea", "input": "Passage: Acceleration that does not change in time is called uniform or constant acceleration. The velocity at the beginning of the time interval is called initial velocity, , and the velocity at the end of the time interval is called final velocity, . In a velocity versus time graph for uniform acceleration, the slope of the line is the acceleration. The equation that describes the curve is . Answer: initial velocity", "output": [ "The velocity at the beginning of the time interval is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-89bcb176c91c46178d395cb77b75deb4", "input": "Passage: One of the two generations of a plant’s life cycle is typically dominant to the other generation. Whether it’s the sporophyte or gametophyte generation, individuals in the dominant generation live longer and grow larger. They are the green, photosynthetic structures that you would recognize as a fern, tree, or other plant (see Figure below ). Individuals in the nondominant generation, in contrast, may be very small and rarely seen. They may live in or on the dominant plant. Answer: dominant generation", "output": [ "Which generation of a plant is generally larger and longer-lived?" ] }, { "id": "task594-828f6651fc38441caa49e0a6d9fadcd7", "input": "Passage: One example of a gap gene is the Krüppel gene, which regulates the activity of a number of other genes. Krüppel literally means \"cripple\" in German, named for the crippled appearance of mutant larva. Gap genes are defined by the effect of a mutation in that gene, and Krüppel is one such effect. Other gap genes are known as tailless and knirps (a \"squirt or whippersnapper\"). Gap genes encode transcription factors which directly effect the expression of additional genes involved in embryo segmentation, called the pair-rule genes . Pair-rule genes are expressed in alternating segments within the developing embryo. Pair-rule genes have very creative names, such as even-skipped, hairy, odd-skipped, odd-paired, sloppy paired and fushi tarazu , which is Japanese for “few segments. ” See My favorite silly gene names at http://www. itsokaytobesmart. com/post/82318778810/funny-gene-names for a list of other interesting gene names. Answer: mutation", "output": [ "Gap genes are defined by the effect of what in that gene?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2dccfbc1fb7b4377bb6c3a4813acd76b", "input": "Passage: All chemical reactions, even exothermic reactions, need a certain amount of energy to get started. This energy is called activation energy . For example, activation energy is needed to start a car. Turning the key causes a spark that activates the burning of gasoline in the engine. The combustion of gas won’t occur without the spark of energy to begin the reaction. Answer: activation", "output": [ "The energy a chemical reaction needs to get started is called what kind of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cde363785a1b4ba0b9d766a827e24db6", "input": "Passage: Chemical digestion occurs when large food molecules are broken down into smaller nutrient molecules. This is a chemical process that begins in the mouth and stomach but occurs mainly in the small intestine. Answer: small intestine", "output": [ "Where does the majority of chemical digestion occur?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bdfd95e8ccb5424785903172c48fe74a", "input": "Passage: Figure 7.5 Lateral View of Skull The lateral skull shows the large rounded brain case, zygomatic arch, and the upper and lower jaws. The zygomatic arch is formed jointly by the zygomatic process of the temporal bone and the temporal process of the zygomatic bone. The shallow space above the zygomatic arch is the temporal fossa. The space inferior to the zygomatic arch and deep to the posterior mandible is the infratemporal fossa. Answer: temporal fossa", "output": [ "What is the term for the shallow space above the zygomatic arch in a skull?" ] }, { "id": "task594-43fa1396f5d744b8b5cbec05932e261e", "input": "Passage: Many people think of bones as being dead, dry, and brittle. These adjectives correctly describe the bones of a preserved skeleton, but the bones in a living human being are very much alive. As shown in Figure below , the basic structure of bones is bone matrix , which forms the underlying rigid framework of bones, formed of both compact and spongy bone. The bone matrix consists of tough protein fibers—mainly collagen—that become hard and rigid due to mineralization with calcium crystals. Bone matrix is crisscrossed by blood vessels and nerves and also contains specialized bone cells that are actively involved in metabolic processes. Answer: collagen", "output": [ "The bone matrix consists of tough protein fibers—mainly what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d92960815db34c649afbf6636263f81a", "input": "Passage: If evolution can take a very long time, how can we visualize how it happens? Charles Darwin came up with the idea of an evolutionary tree to represent the relationships between different species and their common ancestors ( Figure below ). The base of the tree represents the ancient ancestors of all life. The separation into large branches shows where these original species evolved into new species. Answer: charles darwin", "output": [ "Who created the idea of an evolutionary tree to represent the relationships between different species and their common ancestors?" ] }, { "id": "task594-42d383ff0f744c26ba5c7e82f9ed9453", "input": "Passage: Animals often have gonads , organs that produce eggs or sperm. The male gonads are the testes , and the female gonads are the ovaries . Testes produce sperm; ovaries produce eggs. Sperm and egg, the two sex cells, are known as gametes , and can combine two different ways, both of which combine the genetic material from the two parents. Gametes have half the amount of the genetic material of a regular body cell; they are haploid cells. In humans, gametes have one set of 23 chromosomes. Gametes are produced through a special type of cell division known as meiosis . Normal human cells have 46 chromosomes. They are diploid cells, with two sets of 23 chromosomes (23 pairs). Answer: ovaries", "output": [ "What are female gonads normally called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f344656df71f4fa094a21c1506eed229", "input": "Passage: Why is this picture of a cat so colorful? No cat looks like this to the human eye. The picture was taken with a special camera that senses infrared light. This is a form of energy given off by warm objects. Areas that appear yellow are the warmest, and areas that appear purple are the coolest. The picture shows that the cat’s eyes are the warmest part of its head. Why can’t people see images like this without a camera? The answer has to do with the wavelengths of infrared light. Its wavelengths are too long for the human eye to detect. In fact, the human eye can detect light only in a very narrow range of wavelengths, called visible light. You’ll learn more about infrared light, visible light, and other forms of electromagnetic radiation in this chapter. Answer: visible light", "output": [ "The entire range of light that can be seen by the human eye without aid is known as what kind of light?" ] }, { "id": "task594-53e5ba9c7ed14bb39acd405e124cb6c5", "input": "Passage: A common disorder of the ovaries is an ovarian cyst . A cyst is a sac filled with fluid or other material. An ovarian cyst is usually harmless, but it may cause pain. Most cysts slowly disappear and do not need treatment. Very large or painful cysts can be removed with surgery. Answer: cyst", "output": [ "What is the term for a sac filled with fluid or other material?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dc00f6e22651432db1390052ce9e4560", "input": "Passage: The core is the Sun's innermost layer. The core is plasma. It has a temperature of around 15 million degrees Celsius (°C). Nuclear fusion reactions create the immense temperature. In these reactions, hydrogen atoms fuse to form helium. This releases vast amounts of energy. The energy moves toward the outer layers of the Sun. Energy from the Sun's core powers most of the solar system. Answer: core", "output": [ "The innermost layer of the sun is known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a51e84e610ca412aa4f0adad5d68e74d", "input": "Passage: In ex vivo gene therapy, done outside the body, cells are removed from the patient and the proper gene is inserted using a virus as a vector. The modified cells are placed back into the patient. Answer: virus", "output": [ "What is used as a vector for gene insertion in ex vivo gene therapy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-49393c1cfb9b4079b6c5893530a324bf", "input": "Passage: Body waves travel through the Earth and arrive at seismograms before surface waves. Answer: surface waves", "output": [ "Body waves travel through the earth and arrive at seismograms before what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bfca0cc4b1ac4ccb9bbb3f5aa79f0bb2", "input": "Passage: Amphibians reproduce sexually. Fertilization may take place inside or outside the body. Eggs are laid in water. They hatch into larvae that live in the water until they undergo metamorphosis to the adult form. Answer: in water", "output": [ "Where do amphibians lay their eggs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4073fc8e3c2b42c8a889925a1f3edb0d", "input": "Passage: Aquatic arthropods use gills to exchange gases. These gills have a large surface area in contact with the water, so they can absorb more oxygen. Answer: gills", "output": [ "What do aquatic arthropods use to exchange gases?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fecbc2f94bcd4626aaa356a97ade6677", "input": "Passage: Figure 17.17 Adrenal Glands Both adrenal glands sit atop the kidneys and are composed of an outer cortex and an inner medulla, all surrounded by a connective tissue capsule. The cortex can be subdivided into additional zones, all of which produce different types of hormones. LM × 204. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012). Answer: adrenal", "output": [ "Which glands sit atop the kidneys and are composed of an outer cortex and an inner medulla, all surrounded by a connective tissue capsule?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b0f2020061d040a1bfdc3317aad3a021", "input": "Passage: A spiral galaxy is a rotating disk of stars and dust. In the center is a dense bulge of material. Several spiral arms come out from the center. Spiral galaxies have lots of gas and dust and many young stars. The image below ( Figure below ) shows a spiral galaxy from the side. You can see the disk and central bulge. Answer: spiral galaxy", "output": [ "What is the term for a galaxy that is a rotating disk of stars and dust?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4a4713b0f2c94a40abe10e1cf5316921", "input": "Passage: Structures of the Nonmetals The structures of the nonmetals differ dramatically from those of metals. Metals crystallize in closely packed arrays that do not contain molecules or covalent bonds. Nonmetal structures contain covalent bonds, and many nonmetals consist of individual molecules. The electrons in nonmetals are localized in covalent bonds, whereas in a metal, there is delocalization of the electrons throughout the solid. The noble gases are all monatomic, whereas the other nonmetal gases—hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, and chlorine—normally exist as the diatomic molecules H2, N2, O2, F2, and Cl2. The other halogens are also diatomic; Br2 is a liquid and I2 exists as a solid under normal conditions. The changes in state as one moves down the halogen family offer excellent examples of the increasing strength of intermolecular London forces with increasing molecular mass and increasing polarizability. Oxygen has two allotropes: O2, dioxygen, and O3, ozone. Phosphorus has three common allotropes, commonly referred to by their colors: white, red, and black. Sulfur has several allotropes. There are also many carbon allotropes. Most people know of diamond, graphite, and charcoal, but fewer people know of the recent discovery of fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, and graphene. Descriptions of the physical properties of three nonmetals that are characteristic of molecular solids follow. Answer: covalent", "output": [ "Nonmetal structures contain what type of bonds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5a81257230964d17a0fabdc4074bd808", "input": "Passage: The atmosphere is a mixture of gases that surrounds the planet. We also call it air. The gases in the atmosphere include nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. Along with water vapor, the atmosphere allows life to survive. Without it, Earth would be a harsh, barren world. Answer: air", "output": [ "The mixture of gases that surrounds the planet and makes up the atmosphere is known as ________." ] }, { "id": "task594-a9ca902cf1d447a382fb94d983aefcc0", "input": "Passage: Fungi cannot make their own food like plants can, since they do not have chloroplasts and cannot carry out photosynthesis. Fungi are more like animals because they are heterotrophs, as opposed to autotrophs, like plants, that make their own food. Fungi have to obtain their food, nutrients and glucose, from outside sources. Answer: no chloroplasts", "output": [ "Why can't fungi make their own food like plants do?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9afe30597cf24a4189b122524a571355", "input": "Passage: Body waves travel through the body of a planet. Surface waves travel along the surface. Answer: body waves", "output": [ "What type of waves travel through the body of a planet?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8460e7d8bb2e478ebc6df21d7c4307b9", "input": "Passage: Electrons are one of three main types of particles that make up the atom. They are extremely small and have an electric charge of -1. All atoms have the same number of electrons as protons. Answer: electrons and protons", "output": [ "All atoms have equal numbers of what two particles?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6af42357d93649bd8607d7ecb6e97247", "input": "Passage: The knee includes three articulations. The femoropatellar joint is between the patella and distal femur. The patella, a sesamoid bone incorporated into the tendon of the quadriceps femoris muscle of the anterior thigh, serves to protect this tendon from rubbing against the distal femur during knee movements. The medial and lateral tibiofemoral joints, between the condyles of the femur and condyles of the tibia, are modified hinge joints that allow for knee extension and flexion. During these movements, the condyles of the femur both roll and glide over the surface of the tibia. As the knee comes into full extension, a slight medial rotation of the femur serves to “lock” the knee into its most stable, weight-bearing position. The reverse motion, a small lateral rotation of the femur, is required to initiate knee flexion. When the knee is flexed, some rotation of the leg is available. Two extrinsic ligaments, the tibial collateral ligament on the medial side and the fibular collateral ligament on the lateral side, serve to resist hyperextension or rotation of the extended knee joint. Two intracapsular ligaments, the anterior cruciate ligament and posterior cruciate ligament, span between the tibia and the inner aspects of the femoral condyles. The anterior cruciate ligament resists hyperextension of the knee, while the posterior cruciate ligament prevents anterior sliding of the femur, thus supporting the knee when it is flexed and weight bearing. The medial and lateral menisci, located between the femoral and tibial condyles, are articular discs that provide padding and improve the fit between the bones. The talocrural joint forms the ankle. It consists of the articulation between the talus bone and the medial malleolus of the tibia, the distal end of the tibia, and the lateral malleolus of the fibula. This is a uniaxial hinge joint that allows only dorsiflexion and plantar flexion of the foot. Gliding motions at the subtalar and intertarsal joints of the foot allow for inversion/eversion of the foot. The ankle joint is supported on the medial side by the deltoid ligament, which prevents sideto-side motions of the talus at the talocrural joint and resists excessive eversion of the foot. The lateral ankle is supported by the anterior and posterior talofibular ligaments and the calcaneofibular ligament. These support the ankle joint and also resist excess inversion of the foot. An inversion ankle sprain, a common injury, will result in injury to one or more of these lateral ankle ligaments. Answer: knee", "output": [ "What body part boasts three articulations and includes the patella?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1348add09d0e46e2b5eb4ee5bd3c0a27", "input": "Passage: The oxygen enters the bloodstream from the alveoli , tiny sacs in the lungs where gas exchange takes place ( Figure below ). The transfer of oxygen into the blood is through simple diffusion. Answer: simple diffusion", "output": [ "How is oxygen transferred into the bloodstream?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cebbc0c72c1a42d6a6ff1971e289854c", "input": "Passage: Myopia and hyperopia can be corrected with lenses. Answer: lenses", "output": [ "Myopia and hyperopia are defects that can be corrected with devices?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a0987fbdcaa341b3a112ad191d1536c3", "input": "Passage: Skeletons made of cartilage rather than bone. Cartilage is supportive tissue that does not have as much calcium as bones, which makes bones rigid. Cartilage is softer and more flexible than bone. Answer: calcium", "output": [ "What does cartilage lack compared to bones, making it softer and less rigid?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0e6c0b8832f746e58620250e63e14544", "input": "Passage: Most fossils form when a dead organism is buried in sediment. Layers of sediment slowly build up. The sediment is buried and turns into sedimentary rock. The remains inside the rock also turn to rock. The remains are replaced by minerals. The remains literally turn to stone. Fossilization is illustrated in Figure below . Answer: sediment", "output": [ "Most fossils form when a dead organism is buried in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3fc1753be83d4b49a943f865fb58d730", "input": "Passage: The unique sequence for every protein is ultimately determined by the gene encoding the protein. A change in nucleotide sequence of the gene’s coding region may lead to a different amino acid being added to the growing polypeptide chain, causing a change in protein structure and function. In sickle cell anemia, the hemoglobin β chain (a small portion of which is shown in Figure 3.26) has a single amino acid substitution, causing a change in protein structure and function. Specifically, the amino acid glutamic acid is substituted by valine in the β chain. What is most remarkable to consider is that a hemoglobin molecule is made up of two alpha chains and two beta chains that each consist of about 150 amino acids. The molecule, therefore, has about 600 amino acids. The structural difference between a normal hemoglobin molecule and a sickle cell molecule—which dramatically decreases life expectancy—is a single amino acid of the 600. What is even more remarkable is that those 600 amino acids are encoded by three nucleotides each, and the mutation is caused by a single base change (point mutation), 1 in 1800 bases. Answer: gene encoding", "output": [ "What determines the unique sequence for every protein?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1e25473f438349a3ae648b2404767443", "input": "Passage: Many pathogens spread by droplets in the air. Droplets are released when a person coughs or sneezes, as you can see in Figure below . The droplets may be loaded with pathogens. Other people may get sick if they breathe in the pathogens on the droplets. Viruses that cause colds and flu can spread this way. Answer: coughs or sneezes", "output": [ "Many pathogens spread by droplets in the air. droplets are released when a person does what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-94d16896b9934ac0a6448287b77ac98a", "input": "Passage: Each human somatic cell (a body cell, or every cell other than a gamete) normally has two sets of chromosomes, one set inherited from each parent. These cells are said to have a diploid number of chromosomes. Each set contains 23 chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes. Each chromosome differs in size, from about 250 million nucleotide pairs on the largest chromosome (chromosome #1) to less than 50 million nucleotide pairs on chromosome #22. Each chromosome contains a specific set of genes, as well as regulatory elements and other nucleotide sequences, making each chromosome essential to survival. Answer: two", "output": [ "How many sets of chromosomes does each somatic cell have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2dbf08a2e96a4e5492c20e1cca1b3ba7", "input": "Passage: Adolescence is the period of life between the start of puberty and the beginning of adulthood. Adolescence includes the physical changes of puberty. It also includes many other changes, including significant mental, emotional, and social changes. During adolescence:. Answer: adolescence", "output": [ "The period of life between the start of puberty and the beginning of adulthood is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-44fc913e7ad64c73981882eec5154261", "input": "Passage: Alpha and beta decay occur when a nucleus has too many protons or an unstable ratio of protons to neutrons. When the nucleus emits a particle, it gains or loses one or two protons, so the atom becomes a different element. Gamma decay, in contrast, occurs when a nucleus is in an excited state and has too much energy to be stable. This often happens after alpha or beta decay has occurred. Because only energy is emitted during gamma decay, the number of protons remains the same. Therefore, an atom does not become a different element during this type of decay. Answer: protons to neutrons", "output": [ "Alpha and beta decay occur when a nucleus has too many protons or an unstable ratio of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8f4e3af95dee4fbcb70f6da770761fce", "input": "Passage: Excretion is the process of removing wastes and excess water from the body. It is one of the major ways the body maintains homeostasis. Although the kidneys are the main organs of excretion, several other organs also excrete wastes. They include the large intestine, liver, skin, and lungs. All of these organs of excretion, along with the kidneys, make up the excretory system . The roles of the excretory organs other than the kidney are summarized below:. Answer: excretion", "output": [ "What is the process of removing wastes and excess water from the body called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-350cb153e02c4130931b0e6161b26050", "input": "Passage: So far, we have discussed elements and compounds that are electrically neutral. They have the same number of electrons as protons, so the negative charges of the electrons is balanced by the positive charges of the protons. However, this is not always the case. Electrons can move from one atom to another; when they do, species with overall electric charges are formed. Such species are called ions. Species with overall positive charges are termed cations, while species with overall negative charges are called anions. Remember that ions are formed only when electrons move from one atom to another; a proton never moves from one atom to another. Compounds formed from positive and negative ions are called ionic compounds. Individual atoms can gain or lose electrons. When they do, they become monatomicions. When atoms gain or lose electrons, they usually gain or lose a characteristic number of electrons and so take on a characteristic overall charge. Table 3.6 \"Monatomic Ions of Various Charges\" lists some common ions in terms of how many electrons they lose (making cations) or gain (making anions). There are several things to notice about the ions in Table 3.6 \"Monatomic Ions of Various Charges\". First, each element that forms cations is a metal, except for one (hydrogen), while each element that forms anions is a nonmetal. This is actually one of the chemical properties of metals and nonmetals: metals tend to form cations, while nonmetals tend to form anions. Second, most atoms form ions of a single characteristic charge. When sodium atoms form ions, they always form a 1+ charge, never a 2+ or 3+ or even 1− charge. Thus, if you commit the information in Table 3.6 \"Monatomic Ions of Various Charges\"to memory, you will always know what charges most atoms form. (In Chapter 9 \"Chemical Bonds\", we will discuss why atoms form the charges they do. ) Table 3.6 Monatomic Ions of Various Charges H+ Na+ K+ Ions formed by losing a single electron. Answer: ions", "output": [ "Electrons can move from one atom to another; when they do, specimens called what, with overall electric charges, are formed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-199db8fd552d45c0a5a0c6096e92547f", "input": "Passage: Fish typically have a stream-lined body. This reduces water resistance. Answer: decrease", "output": [ "Does the stream-lined body featured on most fish increase or decrease water resistance?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a304f80712ee4e22b394afb5a51380f6", "input": "Passage: Floods are a natural part of the water cycle, but they can cause a lot of damage. Farms and homes may be lost, and people may die. In 1939, millions of people died in a flood in China. Although freshwater is needed to grow crops and just to live, too much freshwater in the same place at once can be deadly. Answer: floods", "output": [ "What natural part of the water cycle can cause damage and death?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0ea066ad8c3444b5a128d2516ebd38bf", "input": "Passage: Mendel’s observation of pea plants also included many crosses that involved multiple traits, which prompted him to formulate the principle of independent assortment. The law states that the members of one pair of genes (alleles) from a parent will sort independently from other pairs of genes during the formation of gametes. Applied to pea plants, that means that the alleles associated with the different traits of the plant, such as color, height, or seed type, will sort independently of one another. This holds true except when two alleles happen to be located close to one other on the same chromosome. Independent assortment provides for a great degree of diversity in offspring. Mendelian genetics represent the fundamentals of inheritance, but there are two important qualifiers to consider when applying Mendel’s findings to inheritance studies in humans. First, as we’ve already noted, not all genes are inherited in a dominant–recessive pattern. Although all diploid individuals have two alleles for every gene, allele pairs may interact to create several types of inheritance patterns, including incomplete dominance and codominance. Secondly, Mendel performed his studies using thousands of pea plants. He was able to identify a 3:1 phenotypic ratio in second-generation offspring because his large sample size overcame the influence of variability resulting from chance. In contrast, no human couple has ever had thousands of children. If we know that a man and woman are both heterozygous for a recessive genetic disorder, we would predict that one in every four of their children would be affected by the disease. In real life, however, the influence of chance could change that ratio significantly. For example, if a man and a woman are both heterozygous for cystic fibrosis, a recessive genetic disorder that is expressed only when the individual has two defective alleles, we would expect one in four of their children to have cystic fibrosis. However, it is entirely possible for them to have seven children, none of whom is affected, or for them to have two children, both of whom are affected. For each individual child, the presence or absence of a single gene disorder depends on which alleles that child inherits from his or her parents. Answer: independent assortment", "output": [ "Mendel’s observation of pea plants also included many crosses that involved multiple traits, which prompted him to formulate the principle of this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7fcee332c3bd4a21bb4287756b1c82d5", "input": "Passage: Zones in the oceans include the intertidal, pelagic, and benthic zones. The types of organisms found in these ocean zones are also determined by such factors as depth of water and distance from shore, among other factors. Answer: intertidal, pelagic, benthic", "output": [ "Name the 3 ocean zones." ] }, { "id": "task594-1249980bab3c465e8201cd0850882a77", "input": "Passage: Men and women share most of the same organs. We all have skin, a heart, and lungs. Men and women differ only in their reproductive organs. Answer: reproductive organs", "output": [ "What organ system is different in men and women?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b1ce25771f904618a0db113e7b8f7adc", "input": "Passage: Motor vehicles account for almost half of fossil fuel use. Most vehicles run on gasoline, which comes from petroleum. Answer: fossil fuel", "output": [ "Motor vehicles account for almost half of the consumption of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-467b3853522f43cb90fd313f7196845d", "input": "Passage: Plant Responses to Gravity Whether or not they germinate in the light or in total darkness, shoots usually sprout up from the ground, and roots grow downward into the ground. A plant laid on its side in the dark will send shoots upward when given enough time. Gravitropism ensures that roots grow into the soil and that shoots grow toward sunlight. Growth of the shoot apical tip upward is called negative gravitropism, whereas growth of the roots downward is called positive gravitropism. Amyloplasts (also known as statoliths) are specialized plastids that contain starch granules and settle downward in response to gravity. Amyloplasts are found in shoots and in specialized cells of the root cap. When a plant is tilted, the statoliths drop to the new bottom cell wall. A few hours later, the shoot or root will show growth in the new vertical direction. The mechanism that mediates gravitropism is reasonably well understood. When amyloplasts settle to the bottom of the gravity-sensing cells in the root or shoot, they physically contact the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), causing the release of calcium ions from inside the ER. This calcium signaling in the cells causes polar transport of the plant hormone IAA to. Answer: sunlight", "output": [ "Gravitropism ensures that roots grow into the soil and that shoots grow toward what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5034241d97c944959015a8c8fe71054b", "input": "Passage: Active transport pumps can also work together with other active or passive transport systems to move substances across the membrane. For example, the sodium-potassium pump maintains a high concentration of sodium ions outside of the cell. Therefore, if the cell needs sodium ions, all it has to do is open a passive sodium channel, as the concentration gradient of the sodium ions will drive them to diffuse into the cell. In this way, the action of an active transport pump (the sodiumpotassium pump) powers the passive transport of sodium ions by creating a concentration gradient. When active transport powers the transport of another substance in this way, it is called secondary active transport. Symporters are secondary active transporters that move two substances in the same direction. For example, the sodiumglucose symporter uses sodium ions to “pull” glucose molecules into the cell. Because cells store glucose for energy, glucose is typically at a higher concentration inside of the cell than outside. However, due to the action of the sodiumpotassium pump, sodium ions will easily diffuse into the cell when the symporter is opened. The flood of sodium ions through the symporter provides the energy that allows glucose to move through the symporter and into the cell, against its concentration gradient. Answer: glucose", "output": [ "The flood of sodium ions through the symporter provides the energy that allows what to move through the symporter and into the cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5ef8a3317818433ead5da7f00841bebe", "input": "Passage: Prokaryotes and the Nitrogen Cycle Nitrogen is a very important element for life because it is part of proteins and nucleic acids. It is a macronutrient, and in nature, it is recycled from organic compounds to ammonia, ammonium ions, nitrate, nitrite, and nitrogen gas by myriad processes, many of which are carried out only by prokaryotes. As illustrated in Figure 22.19, prokaryotes are key to the nitrogen cycle. The largest pool of nitrogen available in the terrestrial ecosystem is gaseous nitrogen from the air, but this nitrogen is not usable by plants, which are primary producers. Gaseous nitrogen is transformed, or “fixed” into more readily available forms such as ammonia through the process of nitrogen fixation. Ammonia can be used by plants or converted to other forms. Another source of ammonia is ammonification, the process by which ammonia is released during the decomposition of nitrogen-containing organic compounds. Ammonia released to the atmosphere, however, represents only 15 percent of the total nitrogen released; the rest is as N2 and N2O. Ammonia is catabolized anaerobically by some prokaryotes, yielding N2 as the final product. Nitrification is the conversion of ammonium to nitrite and nitrate. Nitrification in soils is carried out by bacteria belonging to the genera Nitrosomas, Nitrobacter, and Nitrospira. The bacteria performs the reverse process, the reduction of nitrate from the soils to gaseous compounds such as N2O, NO, and N2, a process called denitrification. Answer: nucleic acids", "output": [ "Prokaryotes and the nitrogen cycle nitrogen is a very important element for life because it is part of proteins and this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d1233db613164dd0b8dc75b32f8bea6c", "input": "Passage: Complexing agents that tie up metal ions are also used as drugs. British Anti-Lewisite (BAL), HSCH2CH(SH)CH2OH, is a drug developed during World War I as an antidote for the arsenic-based war gas Lewisite. BAL is now used to treat poisoning by heavy metals, such as arsenic, mercury, thallium, and chromium. The drug is a ligand and functions by making a water-soluble chelate of the metal; the kidneys eliminate this metal chelate (Figure 19.31). Another polydentate ligand, enterobactin, which is isolated from certain bacteria, is used to form complexes of iron and thereby to control the severe iron buildup found in patients suffering from blood diseases such as Cooley’s anemia, who require frequent transfusions. As the transfused blood breaks down, the usual metabolic processes that remove iron are overloaded, and excess iron can build up to fatal levels. Enterobactin forms a watersoluble complex with excess iron, and the body can safely eliminate this complex. Answer: eliminates excess iron", "output": [ "How does consuming enterobactin help our body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5cea7f5160b74dde8b48a312344727f2", "input": "Passage: There are many examples in the chemical world of changes in entropy. Phase transitions are one obvious example. When a substance makes a transition from the liquid state to the gaseous state, the particles have many more possible arrangements, because they are no longer confined to a specified volume in which they are close to each other; gas particles can move freely throughout their container. Vaporization represents an increase in entropy. In the opposite direction, a liquid loses entropy when it freezes to a solid. Because solids have very ordered structures, there are fewer possible arrangements of particles that would result in the properties associated with a solid. Answer: entropoy", "output": [ "The phase transition of a substance changing from a liquid state to a gaseous state is an example of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c956bd85ec5445a78b7d26a789a9ffae", "input": "Passage: A storm is an episode of severe weather. It is caused by a major disturbance in the atmosphere. Types of storms include thunderstorms, tornadoes, and hurricanes. Answer: the atmosphere", "output": [ "A major disturbance in what results in an episode of severe weather called a storm?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f95d2c4c47494eb782582990841568e7", "input": "Passage: The term evolution describes the changes that occur in populations of living organisms over time. Describing these changes does not address the origin of life. The two are commonly and mistakenly confused. Biological evolution likewise says nothing about cosmology, the Big Bang, or where the universe, galaxy, solar system, or Earth came from. Answer: evolution", "output": [ "What process refers to the changes that occur in populations of living organisms over time?" ] }, { "id": "task594-70ee1556683947f8b463dd62b85fb482", "input": "Passage: Before the atmosphere became oxygenated, the planet was subjected to strong radiation; thus, the first organisms would have flourished where they were more protected, such as in ocean depths or beneath the surface of Earth. At this time, too, strong volcanic activity was common on Earth, so it is likely that these first organisms—the first prokaryotes—were adapted to very high temperatures. These are not the typical temperate environments in which most life flourishes today; thus, we can conclude that the first organisms that appeared on Earth likely were able to withstand harsh conditions. Microbial mats may represent the earliest forms of life on Earth, and there is fossil evidence of their presence, starting about 3.5 billion years ago. A microbial mat is a large biofilm, a multi-layered sheet of prokaryotes (Figure 13.3a), including mostly bacteria, but also archaea. Microbial mats are a few centimeters thick, and they typically grow on moist surfaces. Their various types of prokaryotes carry out different metabolic pathways, and for this reason, they reflect various colors. Prokaryotes in a microbial mat are held together by a gummy-like substance that they secrete. The first microbial mats likely obtained their energy from hydrothermal vents. A hydrothermal vent is a fissure in Earth’s surface that releases geothermally heated water. With the evolution of photosynthesis about 3 billion years ago, some prokaryotes in microbial mats came to use a more widely available energy source—sunlight—whereas others were still dependent on chemicals from hydrothermal vents for food. Answer: radiation", "output": [ "Before the atmosphere became oxygenated, the planet was subjected to what harmful energy source, meaning the first organisms would have flourished where they were more protected?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3d12be9d0d4345cc832413f725f0f8a3", "input": "Passage: Sensory organs such as the eyes and ears are part of the nervous system. The nervous system controls all other body systems. However, the nervous system doesn’t work alone. The endocrine system also helps to regulate the body and its functions. Answer: nervous", "output": [ "The various sensory organs are part of what organ system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-994eb4e53f1d4f1e8b77d4ccd3bb1177", "input": "Passage: will inevitably make it more difficult and costly to grow food. The world’s growing human population faces significant challenges in the increasing costs and other difficulties associated with producing food. Wild Food Sources In addition to growing crops and raising food animals, humans obtain food resources from wild populations, primarily wild fish populations. For about one billion people, aquatic resources provide the main source of animal protein. But since 1990, production from global fisheries has declined. Despite considerable effort, few fisheries on Earth are managed sustainability. Fishery extinctions rarely lead to complete extinction of the harvested species, but rather to a radical restructuring of the marine ecosystem in which a dominant species is so over-harvested that it becomes a minor player, ecologically. In addition to humans losing the food source, these alterations affect many other species in ways that are difficult or impossible to predict. The collapse of fisheries has dramatic and long-lasting effects on local human populations that work in the fishery. In addition, the loss of an inexpensive protein source to populations that cannot afford to replace it will increase the cost of living and limit societies in other ways. In general, the fish taken from fisheries have shifted to smaller species and the larger species are overfished. The ultimate outcome could clearly be the loss of aquatic systems as food sources. Answer: extinction", "output": [ "Some fish will be over-fished to the point that their species ceases to exist, which is also known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-72b2a639e0b14aaab128218da94e536b", "input": "Passage: Bacteria that stain purple are called gram-positive bacteria. They have a thick cell wall without an outer membrane. Answer: gram-positive bacteria", "output": [ "What are bacteria that stain purple are called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8a661eb557474a738ca7c5b0d26ed16d", "input": "Passage: Pollination by Bats In the tropics and deserts, bats are often the pollinators of nocturnal flowers such as agave, guava, and morning glory. The flowers are usually large and white or pale-colored; thus, they can be distinguished from the dark surroundings at night. The flowers have a strong, fruity, or musky fragrance and produce large amounts of nectar. They are naturally large and wide-mouthed to accommodate the head of the bat. As the bats seek the nectar, their faces and heads become covered with pollen, which is then transferred to the next flower. Answer: bat", "output": [ "What mammal is often a pollinator of nocturnal flowers?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8a98ff7ec20d45908c17d1dd7110bda1", "input": "Passage: Most allergies can be treated with medicines. Medicines used to treat allergies include antihistamines and corticosteroids. These medicines help control the immune system when it attacks an allergen. Sometimes, allergies cause severe symptoms, a condition known as anaphylaxis‎. For example, they may cause the throat to swell so it is hard to breathe. Severe allergies may be life threatening. They require emergency medical care. Answer: immune system", "output": [ "Prescribed to treat allergies, antihistamines and corticosteroids help control what system that attacks allergens?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f4d34633390f400fbfbf0b0844c13db7", "input": "Passage: Saturated hydrocarbons contain only single bonds between carbon atoms. They are the simplest hydrocarbons. They are called saturated because each carbon atom is bonded to as many hydrogen atoms as possible. In other words, the carbon atoms are saturated with hydrogen. You can see an example of a saturated hydrocarbon in Figure below . Each carbon atom is bonded to three hydrogen atoms in this compound, which is named ethane. Answer: saturated hydrocarbons", "output": [ "What are the simplest hydrocarbons?" ] }, { "id": "task594-47977f0bd8b74fcd88e9cf3b9e3b4381", "input": "Passage: Again, substances in all states of matter commonly participate in decomposition reactions. For example, hydrogen peroxide will decompose over time to produce water and oxygen gas according to the following equation:. Answer: water and oxygen", "output": [ "Hydrogen peroxide will decompose over time to produce _______ gas." ] }, { "id": "task594-12599492c7344d3881a13a91dbdf7e5c", "input": "Passage: Amphibians have permeable skin that easily absorbs substances from the environment. This may explain why they seem to be especially sensitive to pollution. Monitoring the health and survival of amphibians may help people detect pollution early, before other organisms are affected. Answer: amphibians", "output": [ "What group of animals has permeable skin that makes them vulnerable to pollution?" ] }, { "id": "task594-03c59b57d8144bf3a10fc17632c40682", "input": "Passage: Group 15 of the periodic table is also called the nitrogen group. The first element in the group is the nonmetal nitrogen (N), followed by phosphorus (P), another nonmetal. Arsenic (As) ( Figure below ) and antimony (Sb) are the metalloids in this group, and bismuth (Bi) is a metal. All group 15 elements have five valence electrons, but they vary in their reactivity. Nitrogen, for example, is not very reactive at all, whereas phosphorus is very reactive and found naturally only in combination with other substances. All group 15 elements are solids, except for nitrogen, which is a gas. Answer: nitrogen", "output": [ "Group 15 of the periodic table is also called which group?" ] }, { "id": "task594-15acb50033de4f21a957469fa3bf4f5e", "input": "Passage: The change of momentum of an object is equal to the impulse. Answer: impulse", "output": [ "Change in momentum in an object is equivalent to what other measurement?" ] }, { "id": "task594-29b3011bf8e647a984837e143a4bae62", "input": "Passage: Over much of Earth’s past, the climate was warmer than it is today. Picture in your mind dinosaurs roaming the land. They're probably doing it in a pretty warm climate! But ice ages also occurred many times in the past. An ice age is a period when temperatures are cooler than normal. This causes glaciers to spread to lower latitudes. Scientists think that ice ages occurred at least six times over the last billion years alone. How do scientists learn about Earth’s past climates?. Answer: ice age", "output": [ "What do you call a period when temperatures are cooler than normal, causing glaciers to spread?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d1ab016d602741df89ed42d56643d4c3", "input": "Passage: Figure 3.31 A nucleotide is made up of three components: a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and one or more phosphate groups. Carbon residues in the pentose are numbered 1′ through 5′ (the prime distinguishes these residues from those in the base, which are numbered without using a prime notation). The base is attached to the 1′ position of the ribose, and the phosphate is attached to the 5′ position. When a polynucleotide is formed, the 5′ phosphate of the incoming nucleotide attaches to the 3′ hydroxyl group at the end of the growing chain. Two types of pentose are found in nucleotides, deoxyribose (found in DNA) and ribose (found in RNA). Deoxyribose is similar in structure to ribose, but it has an H instead of an OH at the 2′ position. Bases can be divided into two categories: purines and pyrimidines. Purines have a double ring structure, and pyrimidines have a single ring. Answer: double ring structure", "output": [ "What kind of structure do purines have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c0544564325542e9a234e9ef07518a52", "input": "Passage: Gymnosperms have seeds, but they do not produce fruit. Instead, the seeds of gymnosperms are usually found in cones. Answer: in cones", "output": [ "Where are the seeds in gymnosperms found?" ] }, { "id": "task594-99c0d5e464504642a8d8648e90d5189d", "input": "Passage: The female reproductive system consists of structures that produce eggs and secrete female sex hormones. They also provide a site for fertilization and enable the development and birth of a fetus. They include the vagina, uterus, ovaries, and fallopian tubes. Answer: female reproductive system", "output": [ "What consists of structures that produce eggs and secrete female sex hormones?" ] }, { "id": "task594-30cc71b3c57a44389bd0f3e0df89d5cc", "input": "Passage: 2t = λ n / 2, 3λ n / 2, 5λ n / 2, … . To know whether interference is constructive or destructive, you must also determine if there is a phase change upon reflection. Thin film interference thus depends on film thickness, the wavelength of light, and the refractive indices. For white light incident on a film that varies in thickness, you will observe rainbow colors of constructive interference for various wavelengths as the thickness varies. Example 27.7 Soap Bubbles: More Than One Thickness can be Constructive (a) What are the three smallest thicknesses of a soap bubble that produce constructive interference for red light with a wavelength of 650 nm? The index of refraction of soap is taken to be the same as that of water. (b) What three smallest thicknesses will give destructive interference? Strategy and Concept Use Figure 27.33 to visualize the bubble. Note that water). There is a. Answer: constructive", "output": [ "Different types of interference include destructive and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4b7c71f2ada74e5cafd5954889b640b0", "input": "Passage: Having polar bonds may make a covalent compound polar. A polar compound is one in which there is a slight difference in charge between opposite ends of the molecule. All polar compounds contain polar bonds. But having polar bonds does not necessarily result in a polar compound. It depends on how the atoms are arranged. This is illustrated in Figure below . Both molecules in the figure contain polar bonds, but only formaldehyde is a polar compound. Why is carbon dioxide nonpolar?. Answer: polar", "output": [ "Having polar bonds may make a covalent compound what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c93c3606a31245ab91d906d2f18de62a", "input": "Passage: Changing the shape of an elastic material gives it potential energy. Answer: potential", "output": [ "Changing the shape of an elastic material gives it what type of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b50e088dff5d4f109c11c7fcea79f0b0", "input": "Passage: Chemical reactions vary widely in the speeds with which they occur. Some reactions occur very quickly. If a lighted match is brought in contact with lighter fluid or another flammable liquid, it erupts into flame instantly and burns fast. Other reactions occur very slowly. A container of milk in the refrigerator will be good to drink for weeks before it begins to turn sour. Millions of years were required for dead plants under Earth’s surface to accumulate and eventually turn into fossil fuels such as coal and oil. Answer: speed", "output": [ "Exemplified by a lit match bursting into flame or the process that forms fossil fuels, chemical reactions vary greatly in terms of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-31c06c586f524be09c14fe562d3a90ed", "input": "Passage: Reflected waves have the same speed and frequency as the original waves before they were reflected. However, the direction of the reflected waves is different. When waves strike an obstacle head on, the reflected waves bounce straight back in the direction they came from. When waves strike an obstacle at any other angle, they bounce back at the same angle but in a different direction. This is illustrated in the Figure below . In this diagram, waves strike a wall at an angle, called the angle of incidence. The waves are reflected at the same angle, called the angle of reflection, but in a different direction. Notice that both angles are measured relative to a line that is perpendicular to the wall. Answer: angle of reflection", "output": [ "When waves are reflected at the same angle, what is it called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-719126102e8b4e62ac94547fb43f068e", "input": "Passage: Macroevolution occurs over geologic time above the level of the species. The fossil record reflects this level of evolution. It results from microevolution taking place over many generations. Answer: macroevolution", "output": [ "Microevolution occuring and taking place over many generations results in?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e866c3236d8c4ad4ac81d835c00498db", "input": "Passage: Oil is a thick, dark brown or black liquid. It is found in rock layers of Earth's crust. Oil is currently the most commonly used source of energy in the world. Answer: oil", "output": [ "What is a thick, dark brown or black liquid found in rock layers of the earth's crust?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e7b8feb1f80c44b4b08f335e5b396b1a", "input": "Passage: Radioactivity is the ability of an atom to emit, or give off, charged particles and energy from the nucleus. The charged particles and energy are called by the general term radiation . Only unstable nuclei emit radiation. When they do, they gain or lose protons. Then the atoms become different elements. (Be careful not to confuse this radiation with electromagnetic radiation, which has to do with the light given off by atoms as they absorb and then emit energy. ). Answer: radioactivity", "output": [ "What is the ability of an atom to emit, or give off, charged particles and energy from the nucleus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-302d186038b24f3ea9cf000de55069bd", "input": "Passage: Visible light is one type of electromagnetic radiation , which is a form of energy that exhibits wavelike behavior as it moves through space. Other types of electromagnetic radiation include gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet light, infrared light, microwaves, and radio waves. The figure below shows the electromagnetic spectrum , which is all forms of electromagnetic radiation. Notice that visible light makes up only a very, very small portion of the entire electromagnetic spectrum. All electromagnetic radiation moves through a vacuum at a constant speed of 2.998 × 10 8 m/s. While the presence of air molecules slows the speed of light by a very small amount, we will use the value of 3.00 × 10 8 m/s as the speed of light in air. Answer: electromagnetic", "output": [ "Visible light is one type of this radiation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1e62bfaeafea477ebff636e431424435", "input": "Passage: Extensive properties vary according to the amount of matter present. Examples of extensive properties include mass, volume, and length. Answer: extensive properties", "output": [ "What are mass, volume, and length an example of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f9ea9a94ec5a4ecaa65c242287d0fae4", "input": "Passage: • Vascular shock occurs when arterioles lose their normal muscular tone and dilate dramatically. It may arise from a variety of causes, and treatments almost always involve fluid replacement and medications, called inotropic or pressor agents, which restore tone to the muscles of the vessels. In addition, eliminating or at least alleviating the underlying cause of the condition is required. This might include antibiotics and antihistamines, or select steroids, which may aid in the repair of nerve damage. A common cause is sepsis (or septicemia), also called “blood poisoning,” which is a widespread bacterial infection that results in an organismal-level inflammatory response known as septic shock. Neurogenic shock is a form of vascular shock that occurs with cranial or spinal injuries that damage the cardiovascular centers in the medulla oblongata or the nervous fibers originating from this region. Anaphylactic shock is a severe allergic response that causes the widespread release of histamines, triggering vasodilation throughout the body. • Obstructive shock, as the name would suggest, occurs when a significant portion of the vascular system is blocked. It is not always recognized as a distinct condition and may be grouped with cardiogenic shock, including pulmonary embolism and cardiac tamponade. Treatments depend upon the underlying cause and, in addition to administering fluids intravenously, often include the administration of anticoagulants, removal of fluid from the pericardial cavity, or air from the thoracic cavity, and surgery as required. The most common cause is a pulmonary embolism, a clot that lodges in the pulmonary vessels and interrupts blood flow. Other causes include stenosis of the aortic valve; cardiac tamponade, in which excess fluid in the pericardial cavity interferes with the ability of the heart to fully relax and fill with blood (resulting in decreased preload); and a pneumothorax, in which an excessive amount of air is present in the thoracic cavity, outside of the lungs, which interferes with venous return, pulmonary function, and delivery of oxygen to the tissues. Answer: vascular shock", "output": [ "What occurs when arterioles lose their normal muscular tone and dilate dramatically?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3b7a48c9e54e455bbd96c0e4c3849f37", "input": "Passage: Amines serve a wide variety of uses. Diphenylamine acts as a stabilizer for certain types of explosives. Amines are found as components in some lubricating materials, in developers, and are a part of waterproofing textiles. Some amines, such as novocaine, are used as anesthetics. Many pharmaceutical compounds contain amines, including 8 of the 10 most prescribed medications in 2012. Answer: explosives", "output": [ "Diphenylamine acts as a stabilizer for certain types of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b825ae52a0d34b3facd0f1147308267b", "input": "Passage: Humid subtropical climates are found on the eastern sides of continents between about 20° and 40° latitude. The southeastern U. S. has this type of climate. Summers are hot and humid, but winters are chilly. There is moderate rainfall throughout the year. Pine and oak forests grow in this climate ( Figure below ). Answer: between 20 and 40 degrees latitude", "output": [ "Where can you find humid subtropical climates?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e6bf734103cd46569803f363117e75cf", "input": "Passage: Summary 20.1 Hydrocarbons Strong, stable bonds between carbon atoms produce complex molecules containing chains, branches, and rings. The chemistry of these compounds is called organic chemistry. Hydrocarbons are organic compounds composed of only carbon and hydrogen. The alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons—that is, hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds. Alkenes contain one or more carbon-carbon double bonds. Alkynes contain one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds. Aromatic hydrocarbons contain ring structures with delocalized π electron systems. Answer: organic chemistry", "output": [ "Strong, stable bonds between carbon atoms produce complex molecules containing chains, branches, and rings; the chemistry of these compounds is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-292bfe35f117457395bcaefbadba4647", "input": "Passage: The flow of energy through living organisms begins with photosynthesis. This process stores energy from sunlight in the chemical bonds of glucose. By breaking the chemical bonds in glucose, cells release the stored energy and make the ATP they need. The process in which glucose is broken down and ATP is made is called cellular respiration . Answer: atp", "output": [ "In cellular respiration, glucose is broken down and what is made?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8c388905ae1b4fceb2390734aca73392", "input": "Passage: Chromoplasts make and store pigments that give petals and fruit their orange and yellow colors. Answer: chromoplasts", "output": [ "What makes and stores pigments that give petals and fruit their orange and yellow colors?" ] }, { "id": "task594-95e3807d335741c9bbe0a2fb9d6ee7e1", "input": "Passage: Surface Tension Cohesive forces between molecules cause the surface of a liquid to contract to the smallest possible surface area. This general effect is called surface tension. Molecules on the surface are pulled inward by cohesive forces, reducing the surface area. Molecules inside the liquid experience zero net force, since they have neighbors on all sides. Surface Tension Cohesive forces between molecules cause the surface of a liquid to contract to the smallest possible surface area. This general effect is called surface tension. Making Connections: Surface Tension Forces between atoms and molecules underlie the macroscopic effect called surface tension. These attractive forces pull the molecules closer together and tend to minimize the surface area. This is another example of a submicroscopic explanation for a macroscopic phenomenon. The model of a liquid surface acting like a stretched elastic sheet can effectively explain surface tension effects. For example, some insects can walk on water (as opposed to floating in it) as we would walk on a trampoline—they dent the surface as shown in Figure 11.28(a). Figure 11.28(b) shows another example, where a needle rests on a water surface. The iron needle cannot, and does not, float, because its density is greater than that of water. Rather, its weight is supported by forces in the stretched surface that try to make the surface smaller or flatter. If the needle were placed point down on the surface, its weight acting on a smaller area would break the surface, and it would sink. Answer: smallest surface area", "output": [ "Surface tension forces between moleculse cause the surface of liquid to contract to what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a355298fa4e14dcdbccfc20d6f496fc4", "input": "Passage: Carbon (atomic number 6) has six electrons. Four of them fill the 1s and 2s orbitals. The remaining two electrons occupy the 2p subshell. We now have a choice of filling one of the 2p orbitals and pairing the electrons or of leaving the electrons unpaired in two different, but degenerate, p orbitals. The orbitals are filled as described by Hund’s rule: the lowest-energy configuration for an atom with electrons within a set of degenerate orbitals is that having the maximum number of unpaired electrons. Thus, the two electrons in the carbon 2p orbitals have identical n, l, and ms quantum numbers and differ in their ml quantum number (in accord with the Pauli exclusion principle). The electron configuration and orbital diagram for carbon are:. Answer: orbitals", "output": [ "Subshells are subdivisions of what groupings of electrons that can be found surrounding atoms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7d17058477a34394a58bc32ffc79002b", "input": "Passage: 4.4 Newton’s Third Law of Motion: Symmetry in Forces There is a passage in the musical Man of la Mancha that relates to Newton’s third law of motion. Sancho, in describing a fight with his wife to Don Quixote, says, “Of course I hit her back, Your Grace, but she’s a lot harder than me and you know what they say, ‘Whether the stone hits the pitcher or the pitcher hits the stone, it’s going to be bad for the pitcher. ’” This is exactly what happens whenever one body exerts a force on another—the first also experiences a force (equal in magnitude and opposite in direction). Numerous common experiences, such as stubbing a toe or throwing a ball, confirm this. It is precisely stated in Newton’s third law of motion. Newton’s Third Law of Motion Whenever one body exerts a force on a second body, the first body experiences a force that is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force that it exerts. This law represents a certain symmetry in nature: Forces always occur in pairs, and one body cannot exert a force on another without experiencing a force itself. We sometimes refer to this law loosely as “action-reaction,” where the force exerted is the action and the force experienced as a consequence is the reaction. Newton’s third law has practical uses in analyzing the origin of forces and understanding which forces are external to a system. We can readily see Newton’s third law at work by taking a look at how people move about. Consider a swimmer pushing off from the side of a pool, as illustrated in Figure 4.9. She pushes against the pool wall with her feet and accelerates in the direction opposite to that of her push. The wall has exerted an equal and opposite force back on the swimmer. You might think that two equal and opposite forces would cancel, but they do not because they act on different systems. In this case, there are two systems that we could investigate: the swimmer or the wall. If we select the swimmer to be the system of interest, as in the figure, then F wall on feet is an external force on this system and affects its motion. The swimmer moves in the direction of. Answer: symmetry", "output": [ "Newton’s third law of motion describes what property of forces that means balance?" ] }, { "id": "task594-61f544fa94d6490c88faa8dc9af34a88", "input": "Passage: Alpha decay occurs when an unstable nucleus emits an alpha particle and energy. The diagram in Figure below represents alpha decay. An alpha particle contains two protons and two neutrons, giving it a charge of +2. A helium nucleus has two protons and two neutrons, so an alpha particle is represented in nuclear equations by the symbol . The superscript 4 is the mass number (2 protons + 2 neutrons). The subscript 2 is the charge of the particle as well as the number of protons. Answer: alpha decay", "output": [ "What occurs when an unstable nucleus emits an alpha particle and energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-33a8daf4842f4dd8b2f24123a6b1422a", "input": "Passage: An ecosystem consists of all the living things and nonliving things interacting in the same area. Answer: ecosystem", "output": [ "What consists of all the living things and nonliving things interacting in the same area?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5d4fa11cebb144a0ba8240b8498c89e8", "input": "Passage: The ice ages were very recent as Earth history goes. The animals are familiar, but they're still very different from modern ones. For one thing, most of them were huge. A small surface area-to-volume ratio is better for keeping warm (less surface to lose heat from). Although the dominant animals were mammals, the Pleistocene Earth still does not look quite modern. Answer: water", "output": [ "The mars rover collected round clumps of crystals that, on earth, usually form in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ff1e673668ac4336909d1538d76e4684", "input": "Passage: Longshore drift carries particles of sand and rock down a coastline. Answer: rock", "output": [ "Particles of sand and what other substance are carried by longshore drift?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c3cd26dc5c9e48478bed389e5e92daad", "input": "Passage: Gamma rays are the most dangerous type of radiation. They can travel farther and penetrate materials more deeply than can the charged particles emitted during alpha and beta decay. Gamma rays can be stopped only by several centimeters of lead or several meters of concrete. It’s no surprise that they can penetrate and damage cells deep inside the body. You can learn more about the effects of gamma radiation on people at this URL: http://library. thinkquest. org/3471/radiation_effects_body. html . Answer: gamma rays", "output": [ "What is the most dangerous type of radiation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e28ba372602e4ce7b02aed1347eb5a8d", "input": "Passage: Storage. Bones store calcium. They contain more calcium than any other organ. Calcium is released by the bones when blood levels of calcium drop too low. The mineral, phosphorus is also stored in bones. Answer: bones", "output": [ "What contains more calcium than any other organ?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6f3bf9a0491b4cef9129a0e6eebedbe5", "input": "Passage: Since then, the distinction between organic and inorganic compounds and reactions has blurred. Currently, the field of organic chemistry studies the structure and reactivity of nearly all carbon-containing compounds. Over twenty million organic compounds are known, ranging from very simple molecules to complex proteins. Answer: carbon", "output": [ "The field of organic chemistry studies the structure and reactivity of compounds containing what element?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8f8935cd35774f96bd16eee825ac0884", "input": "Passage: A gated channel protein is a transport protein that opens a \"gate,\" allowing a molecule to pass through the membrane. Gated channels have a binding site that is specific for a given molecule or ion. A stimulus causes the \"gate\" to open or shut. The stimulus may be chemical or electrical signals, temperature, or mechanical force, depending on the type of gated channel. For example, the sodium gated channels of a nerve cell are stimulated by a chemical signal which causes them to open and allow sodium ions into the cell. Glucose molecules are too big to diffuse through the plasma membrane easily, so they are moved across the membrane through gated channels. In this way glucose diffuses very quickly across a cell membrane, which is important because many cells depend on glucose for energy. Answer: energy", "output": [ "What do many cells depend on glucose for?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a51ea818240a421fb15b32830df8884b", "input": "Passage: larger cities and economic growth therein leads to the construction of dams, the consequent flooding of ecosystems, and increased emissions of pollutants. Other threats to tropical forests come from poachers, who log trees for their precious wood. Ebony and Brazilian rosewood, both on the endangered list, are examples of tree species driven almost to extinction by indiscriminate logging. The number of plant species becoming extinct is increasing at an alarming rate. Because ecosystems are in a delicate balance, and seed plants maintain close symbiotic relationships with animals—whether predators or pollinators—the disappearance of a single plant can lead to the extinction of connected animal species. A real and pressing issue is that many plant species have not yet been catalogued, and so their place in the ecosystem is unknown. These unknown species are threatened by logging, habitat destruction, and loss of pollinators. They may become extinct before we have the chance to begin to understand the possible impacts from their disappearance. Efforts to preserve biodiversity take several lines of action, from preserving heirloom seeds to barcoding species. Heirloom seeds come from plants that were traditionally grown in human populations, as opposed to the seeds used for large-scale agricultural production. Barcoding is a technique in which one or more short gene sequences, taken from a well-characterized portion of the genome, are used to identify a species through DNA analysis. Answer: heirloom seeds", "output": [ "What type of seeds come from plants that were traditionally grown in human populations, as opposed to the seeds used for large-scale agricultural production?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a6090ec365ac49ffad0f453339ffac23", "input": "Passage: Lahars are mixtures of ash and water that travel down river valleys. On Mount St. Helens, the eruption melted glaciers. The water mixed with ash from the eruption and created tremendous lahars. The lahars raced down valleys and knocked out many bridges. Answer: lahars", "output": [ "What do you call mixtures of ash and water that travel down river valleys?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6ee24425f8894988bf73e209e3a60339", "input": "Passage: Resistance is the property that determines the amount of current flow through a particular material. Answer: resistance", "output": [ "What is the property that determines the amount of current flow through a particular material?" ] }, { "id": "task594-be58758e971940d6ae2d506fe68c3431", "input": "Passage: Fungi used to be classified as plants. Now, they are known to have unique traits that set them apart from plants. For example, their cell walls contain chitin, not cellulose, and fungi absorb food rather than make their own. Below the level of the kingdom, fungi classification is controversial. Answer: cell walls", "output": [ "Once classified as plants, fungi have chitin rather than cellulose in what cell structures?" ] }, { "id": "task594-041f4c108dce46f88843425ddbccd9c6", "input": "Passage: In any chemical reaction, there is no overall change in the amount of energy. Energy cannot be created or destroyed. This is the law of conservation of energy. Answer: conservation of energy", "output": [ "What law states that energy cannot be created or destroyed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8be750dbbf954c1da0945592cbeec1ad", "input": "Passage: Mutations , changes in the DNA or RNA sequence, can have significant phenotypic effects or they can have no effects. What are possible outcomes of some of those mutations. Some can produce genetic disorder . A genetic disorder is a condition caused by abnormalities, such as mutations, in your genes or chromosomes. Genetic disorders are usually present from conception. These disorders include chromosomal abnormalities, in which the individual has too few or too many chromosomes or chromosomes with large alterations, or diseases due to a mutation in a specific gene. These defective genes are usually inherited from the parents, hence the term hereditary disease or genetic disorder. Genetic disorders can be inherited in a dominant or recessive manner ( Figure below and Figure below ). Recessive disorders require the inheritance of a defective gene from each parent. The parents are usually unaffected and are healthy carriers of the defective gene. Answer: genetic disorder", "output": [ "What is the medical term for a condition caused by abnormalities, such as mutations, in your genes or chromosomes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6bfb3994690d42629d06333575b4cf87", "input": "Passage: Physical science is the study of matter and energy. It includes chemistry and physics. Answer: physical science", "output": [ "What type of science is the study of matter and energy and includes chemistry and physics?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1b9e194f84d4424ca0f9a13cd3d03975", "input": "Passage: The instantaneous velocity of an object is the velocity of the object at a given moment. If the object is moving with constant velocity, then the instantaneous velocity at every moment, the average velocity, and the constant velocity are all the same. Answer: instantaneous velocity", "output": [ "What is defined as the velocity of the object at a given moment?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2b7e1ef2928140b0824d749a89b411fa", "input": "Passage: When an insect egg hatches, a larva emerges. The larva eats and grows and then enters the pupa stage. The pupa is immobile and may be encased in a cocoon . During the pupa stage, the insect goes through metamorphosis . Tissues and appendages of the larva break down and reorganize into the adult form. How did such an incredible transformation evolve? Metamorphosis is actually very advantageous. It allows functions to be divided between life stages. Each stage can evolve adaptations to suit it for its specific functions without affecting the adaptations of the other stage. Answer: larva", "output": [ "What emerges from an insect egg?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a6a83920e88f48a79c288ac543e66fa3", "input": "Passage: At transform plate boundaries, two plates move in opposite direction. Answer: opposite", "output": [ "At transform plate boundaries, two plates move in which directions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1a9987f14a0e46f18b33fb465945e959", "input": "Passage: The retina is a membrane lining the back of the eye. The retina has nerve cells called rods and cones that change images to electrical signals. Rods are good at sensing dim light but can’t distinguish different colors of light. Cones can sense colors but not dim light. There are three different types of cones. Each type senses one of the three primary colors of light (red, green, or blue). Answer: retina", "output": [ "What do you call the membrane lining the back of the eye?" ] }, { "id": "task594-62bf5f7c6ddf40fb99e2f011595ff463", "input": "Passage: Genetic drift is a random change in allele frequencies that occurs in a small population. When a small number of parents produce just a few offspring, allele frequencies in the offspring may differ, by chance, from allele frequencies in the parents. Answer: genetic drift", "output": [ "What is the term for a random change in allele frequencies that occurs in a small population?" ] }, { "id": "task594-adfa887cad344d6e8725fb01bb853c03", "input": "Passage: Droughts also depend on what is normal for a region. A region that gets significantly less precipitation than normal for an extended period of time is in drought. The Southern United States is experiencing an ongoing and prolonged drought. Answer: drought", "output": [ "What term is used to describe a region getting significantly less precipitation than normal for an extended period of time?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9e383693b91b461bb08f98ed30218e28", "input": "Passage: The study of rock strata is called stratigraphy . The laws of stratigraphy can help scientists understand Earth’s past. The laws of stratigraphy are usually credited to a geologist from Denmark named Nicolas Steno. He lived in the 1600s. The laws are illustrated in the Figure below ; refer to the figure as you read about Steno's laws below. Answer: stratigraphy", "output": [ "What is the study of rock strata called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-77e5a7fef2b94670902192bdd1589cb0", "input": "Passage: treat genetic disorders. For example, copies of a normal gene might be inserted into a patient with a defective gene. This is called gene therapy . Ideally, it can cure a genetic disorder. Answer: gene therapy", "output": [ "Inserting copies of normal genes into a patient with defective genes is known as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9ca42d5ce10a45daaeb64e32969335f7", "input": "Passage: Amino acid units in a protein are connected by peptide bonds. What is another name for the functional group linking the amino acids?. Answer: peptide", "output": [ "Amino acid units in a protein are connected by what bonds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-92f10a6fd9db44cb81494923d9357e20", "input": "Passage: Cardiologist Heart disease is the leading cause of death in the United States. This is primarily due to our sedentary lifestyle and our high trans-fat diets. Heart failure is just one of many disabling heart conditions. Heart failure does not mean that the heart has stopped working. Rather, it means that the heart can’t pump with sufficient force to transport oxygenated blood to all the vital organs. Left untreated, heart failure can lead to kidney failure and failure of other organs. The wall of the heart is composed of cardiac muscle tissue. Heart failure occurs when the endoplasmic reticula of cardiac muscle cells do not function properly. As a result, an insufficient number of calcium ions are available to trigger a sufficient contractile force. Cardiologists (cardi- = “heart”; -ologist = “one who studies”) are doctors who specialize in treating heart diseases, including heart failure. Cardiologists can make a diagnosis of heart failure via physical examination, results from an electrocardiogram (ECG, a test that measures the electrical activity of the heart), a chest X-ray to see whether the heart is enlarged, and other tests. If heart failure is diagnosed, the cardiologist will typically prescribe appropriate medications and recommend a reduction in table salt intake and a supervised exercise program. Answer: heart disease", "output": [ "What is the leading cause of death in the united states?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9a30aa97e316487da6b3034d6505e732", "input": "Passage: The other idea is that evolution occurs by natural selection. Natural selection is the process in which living things with beneficial traits produce more offspring. As a result, their traits increase in the population over time. Answer: natural selection", "output": [ "Under which process do living things with beneficial traits produce more offspring?" ] }, { "id": "task594-34b0d41e95734c8b887929fd00a8ad5a", "input": "Passage: Plant Parasites and Pathogens The production of enough good-quality crops is essential to our existence. Plant diseases have ruined crops, bringing widespread famine. Most plant pathogens are fungi that cause tissue decay and eventual death of the host (Figure 13.25). In addition to destroying plant tissue directly, some plant pathogens spoil crops by producing potent toxins. Fungi are also responsible for food spoilage and the rotting of stored crops. For example, the fungus Claviceps purpurea causes ergot, a disease of cereal crops (especially of rye). Although the fungus reduces the yield of cereals, the effects of the ergot’s alkaloid toxins on humans and animals are of much greater significance: In animals, the disease is referred to as ergotism. The most common signs and symptoms are convulsions, hallucination, gangrene, and loss of milk in cattle. The active ingredient of ergot is lysergic acid, which is a precursor of the drug LSD. Smuts, rusts, and powdery or downy mildew are other examples of common fungal pathogens that affect crops. Answer: fungus", "output": [ "A type of what organism causes ergot, a disease that impacts crops directly and has more devastating effects on animals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7fe7daf8a9b44c6985269691410a6d2d", "input": "Passage: Types of Biodiversity Scientists generally accept that the term biodiversity describes the number and kinds of species in a location or on the planet. Species can be difficult to define, but most biologists still feel comfortable with the concept and are able to identify and count eukaryotic species in most contexts. Biologists have also identified alternate measures of biodiversity, some of which are important for planning how to preserve biodiversity. Genetic diversity is one of those alternate concepts. Genetic diversity or variation is the raw material for adaptation in a species. A species’ future potential for adaptation depends on the genetic diversity held in the genomes of the individuals in populations that make up the species. The same is true for higher taxonomic categories. A genus with very different types of species will have more genetic diversity than a genus with species that look alike and have similar ecologies. If there were a choice between one of these genera of species being preserved, the one with the greatest potential for subsequent. Answer: biodiversity", "output": [ "What term describes the number and kinds of species in a location or on the planet?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b5821b591cda4dd0bbfbdfc987c375c0", "input": "Passage: Chromatography involves solvent separation on a solid medium. Answer: chromatography", "output": [ "Which process involves solvent separation on a solid medium?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6d4b21e372824777a8b2749def3e49f0", "input": "Passage: Acclimatization Especially in situations where the ascent occurs too quickly, traveling to areas of high altitude can cause AMS. Acclimatization is the process of adjustment that the respiratory system makes due to chronic exposure to a high altitude. Over a period of time, the body adjusts to accommodate the lower partial pressure of oxygen. The low partial pressure of oxygen at high altitudes results in a lower oxygen saturation level of hemoglobin in the blood. In turn, the tissue levels of oxygen are also lower. As a result, the kidneys are stimulated to produce the hormone erythropoietin (EPO), which stimulates the production of erythrocytes, resulting in a greater number of circulating erythrocytes in an individual at a high altitude over a long period. With more red blood cells, there is more hemoglobin to help transport the available oxygen. Even though there is low saturation of each hemoglobin molecule, there will be more hemoglobin present, and therefore more oxygen in the blood. Over time, this allows the person to partake in physical exertion without developing AMS. Answer: hemoglobin", "output": [ "At high altitudes, acclimatization increases red blood cells, so there is more what to help transport the available oxygen?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d263d20b894040a69765a9af3ff3f9e6", "input": "Passage: A solute generally lowers the freezing point of a solvent, which is called freezing point depression. For example, spreading salt on an icy road melts the ice. Answer: lowers it", "output": [ "A solute generally does what to the freezing point of a solvent?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ad0813d3961e451e9ec8a5472879a2f3", "input": "Passage: In endothermic reactions, the temperature of the products is typically lower than the temperature of the reactants. The drop in temperature may be great enough to cause liquids to freeze. That’s what happens in the endothermic reaction at this URL: http://www. bbc. co. uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_aqa_pre_2011/chemreac/energychangesrev1. shtml . Answer: endothermic", "output": [ "The temperature of the products is typically lower than the temperature of the reactants in what type of reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-605324cedd67476a9786275ef7365891", "input": "Passage: 29.6 Mammals Mammals in general are vertebrates that possess hair and mammary glands. The mammalian integument includes various secretory glands, including sebaceous glands, eccrine glands, apocrine glands, and mammary glands. Mammals are synapsids, meaning that they have a single opening in the skull. A key characteristic of synapsids is endothermy rather than the ectothermy seen in other vertebrates. Mammals probably evolved from therapsids in the late Triassic period, as the earliest known mammal fossils are from the early Jurassic period. There are three groups of mammals living today: monotremes, marsupials, and eutherians. Monotremes are unique among mammals as they lay eggs, rather than giving birth to young. Eutherian mammals are sometimes called placental mammals, because all species possess a complex placenta that connects a fetus to the mother, allowing for gas, fluid, and nutrient exchange. Answer: they lay eggs", "output": [ "What makes monotremes different than other mammals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e958c2956e3f4a1eb9526409fc4a6fe3", "input": "Passage: Food allergies are like other allergies. They occur when the immune system reacts to harmless substances as though they were harmful. Almost ten percent of children have food allergies. Some of the foods most likely to cause allergies are shown below ( Figure below ). Answer: immune system", "output": [ "The reaction of which body system causes food allergies?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cf56aca7419a4f57b8479418b7fa23c4", "input": "Passage: Microbial Genomics: Metagenomics Traditionally, microbiology has been taught with the view that microorganisms are best studied under pure culture conditions, which involves isolating a single type of cell and culturing it in the laboratory. Because microorganisms can go through several generations in a matter of hours, their gene expression profiles adapt to the new laboratory environment very quickly. In addition, the vast majority of bacterial species resist being cultured in isolation. Most microorganisms do not live as isolated entities, but in microbial communities known as biofilms. For all of these reasons, pure culture is not always the best way to study microorganisms. Metagenomics is the study of the collective genomes of multiple species. Answer: isolation", "output": [ "Because microorganisms can go through several generations in a matter of hours, their gene expression profiles adapt to the new laboratory environment very quickly. in addition, the vast majority of bacterial species resist being cultured in this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-369619dedffc4a6693666e111d455fd1", "input": "Passage: Introduction The individual sexually reproducing organism—including humans—begins life as a fertilized egg, or zygote. Trillions of cell divisions subsequently occur in a controlled manner to produce a complex, multicellular human. In other words, that original single cell was the ancestor of every other cell in the body. Once a human individual is fully grown, cell reproduction is still necessary to repair or regenerate tissues. For example, new blood and skin cells are constantly being produced. All multicellular organisms use cell division for growth, and in most cases, the maintenance and repair of cells and tissues. Single-celled organisms use cell division as their method of reproduction. Answer: zygote", "output": [ "The fertilized egg that sexually reproducing organisms begin life as is known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c72b07caa739472ab1689ea0f302d4b2", "input": "Passage: Biomass is another renewable source of energy. Biomass includes wood, grains, and other plant materials or waste materials. People can burn wood directly for energy in the form of heat. Biomass can also be processed to make biofuel. Biofuel is a fairly new type of energy that is becoming more popular. Biomass is useful because it can be made liquid. This means that they can be used in cars and trucks. Some car engines can be powered by pure vegetable oil or even recycled vegetable oil. Sometimes the exhaust from these cars smells like French fries!. Answer: biofuel", "output": [ "Biomass can also be processed to make what kind of fuel?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4cf5dd5bc5964038bba74c2e9ca40dfc", "input": "Passage: Systemic circulation is the part of the cardiovascular system that carries oxygen-rich blood away from the heart, to the body, and returns oxygen-poor blood back to the heart. Oxygen-rich blood leaves the left ventricle through the aorta. Then it travels to the body's organs and tissues. The tissues and organs absorb the oxygen through the capillaries. Oxygen-poor blood is collected from the tissues and organs by tiny veins, which then flow into bigger veins, and, eventually, into the inferior vena cava and superior vena cava. This completes systemic circulation. The blood releases carbon dioxide and gets more oxygen in pulmonary circulation before returning to systemic circulation. The inferior vena cava returns blood from the body. The superior vena cava returns blood from the head. Answer: systemic circulation", "output": [ "What is the part of the cardiovascular system that carries oxygen-rich blood away from the heart, to the body, and returns oxygen-poor blood back to the heart?" ] }, { "id": "task594-deeb7ba6cfec4703969242ad29b8f9a8", "input": "Passage: Figure 29.11 Hammerhead sharks tend to school during the day and hunt prey at night. (credit: Masashi Sugawara). Answer: at night", "output": [ "When do hammerhead sharks usually hunt?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5c73e40b9e7f46e7a77c9dd43b309726", "input": "Passage: Scientists think that protists are the oldest eukaryotes. Answer: protists", "output": [ "What do scientists think are the oldest eukaryotes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-da092d77975f4a4eaad6a14679615bcf", "input": "Passage: Radioactive Decay Series The naturally occurring radioactive isotopes of the heaviest elements fall into chains of successive disintegrations, or decays, and all the species in one chain constitute a radioactive family, or radioactive decay series. Three of these series include most of the naturally radioactive elements of the periodic table. They are the uranium series, the actinide series, and the thorium series. The neptunium series is a fourth series, which is no longer significant on the earth because of the short half-lives of the species involved. Each series is characterized by a parent (first member) that has a long half-life and a series of daughter nuclides that ultimately lead to a stable end-product—that is, a nuclide on the band of stability (Figure 21.9). In all three series, the end-product is a stable isotope of lead. The neptunium series, previously thought to terminate with bismuth-209, terminates with thallium-205. Answer: radioactive decay family", "output": [ "The uranium series is a chain constituting one what, which encompass naturally occurring isotopes of the heaviest elements?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e847be2425674a96ae58f5cad5c32e89", "input": "Passage: Collision theory states that chemical reactions occur when atoms, ions, or molecules collide. In other words, these species need to make contact with one another in order for a reaction to take place. Based on this concept, along with a couple of other key points, collision theory helps to explain why certain factors will influence the rate of a chemical reaction. Answer: collision theory", "output": [ "What states that chemical reactions occur when atoms, ions, or molecules collide?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e3cd6f9a13d8482c968c47cd46b35e7d", "input": "Passage: Antibodies – These proteins recognize and combine with harmful materials, including both toxic chemicals and invasive microorganisms (such as bacteria and viruses). When an antibody binds to its target, it is tagged for destruction. This tag is recognized by white blood cells, which complete the process. Some antibodies also partially or completely deactivate their targets while waiting for further help from white blood cells. Answer: antibodies", "output": [ "Which proteins recognize and combine with harmful materials, including both toxic chemicals and invasive microorganisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1232aefcac534189951f1e75c7b9affe", "input": "Passage: Channel proteins provide an open channel or passageway through the cell membrane for molecules to move across. Many channel proteins allow the diffusion of ions. Ions are charged atoms. The charge makes it difficult to cross the cell membrane without assistance. Channel proteins are specific for the molecule they transport. For example a sodium ion crosses the membrane through a channel protein specific for sodium ions. Answer: atoms", "output": [ "Ions are charged what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-03f126aac2c34b199231ccc129315560", "input": "Passage: A machine is any device that makes work easier by changing a force. When you use a machine, you apply force to the machine. This force is called the input force. The machine, in turn, applies force to an object. This force is called the output force. Recall that work equals force multiplied by distance:. Answer: changing a force", "output": [ "A machine is any device that makes work easier by doing what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6efd3625d78c4acea30f2ae5d450c9d9", "input": "Passage: Summary By far the most abundant element in the universe is hydrogen. The fusion of hydrogen nuclei to form helium nuclei is the major process that fuels young stars such as the sun. Elements heavier than helium are formed from hydrogen and helium in the interiors of stars. Successive fusion reactions of helium nuclei at higher temperatures create elements with even numbers of protons and neutrons up to magnesium and then up to calcium. Eventually, the elements up to iron-56 and nickel-58 are formed by exchange processes at even higher temperatures. Heavier elements can only be made by a process that involves multiple neutron-capture events, which can occur only during the explosion of a supernova. Answer: hydrogen", "output": [ "What is the most abundant element in the universe?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5b6de542d82344c4b2cc11fc4d090f3c", "input": "Passage: Chemical energy that organisms need comes from food. The nearly universal food for life is the sugar glucose. Glucose is a simple carbohydrate with the chemical formula C 6 H 12 O 6 . The glucose molecule stores chemical energy in a concentrated, stable form. In your body, glucose is the form of energy that is carried in your blood and taken up by each of your trillions of cells. Answer: the blood", "output": [ "Where is glucose carried in the human body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fda57800f8d7443d8cc96a2b0eb260a1", "input": "Passage: Carpal Bones The wrist and base of the hand are formed by a series of eight small carpal bones (see Figure 8.7). The carpal bones are arranged in two rows, forming a proximal row of four carpal bones and a distal row of four carpal bones. The bones in the proximal row, running from the lateral (thumb) side to the medial side, are the scaphoid (“boat-shaped”), lunate (“moonshaped”), triquetrum (“three-cornered”), and pisiform (“pea-shaped”) bones. The small, rounded pisiform bone articulates with the anterior surface of the triquetrum bone. The pisiform thus projects anteriorly, where it forms the bony bump that can be felt at the medial base of your hand. The distal bones (lateral to medial) are the trapezium (“table”), trapezoid (“resembles a table”), capitate (“head-shaped”), and hamate (“hooked bone”) bones. The hamate bone is characterized by a prominent bony extension on its anterior side called the hook of the hamate bone. A helpful mnemonic for remembering the arrangement of the carpal bones is “So Long To Pinky, Here Comes The Thumb. ” This mnemonic starts on the lateral side and names the proximal bones from lateral to medial (scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform), then makes a U-turn to name the distal bones from medial to lateral (hamate, capitate, trapezoid, trapezium). Thus, it starts and finishes on the lateral side. Answer: carpal", "output": [ "The wrist and base of the hand are formed by what series of small bones arranged in distal and proximal rows?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9377fbc98e424719a63073e0bbcd9b37", "input": "Passage: Factors affecting biome type include latitude, humidity, and elevation. Answer: biome", "output": [ "Latitude, humidity, and elevation affect the type of what, a term for a large naturally occurring community?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bee01cd33f2a4ff4b8038135f56b6669", "input": "Passage: All scientific explanations and interpretations are based on facts. Answer: facts", "output": [ "What are all scientific explanations and interpretations based on?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fa08e7e9e8b84dcead34b802ef4c42d7", "input": "Passage: Mercury(II) oxide is a red solid. When it is heated to a temperature above 500°C, it easily decomposes into mercury and oxygen gas. The red color of the mercury oxide reactant becomes the silver color of mercury. The color change is the sign that the reaction is occurring. Answer: red", "output": [ "What is the color of mercury(ii) oxide?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0c40537bc1844fb6b664a80f85a816e8", "input": "Passage: Classification of Joints on the Basis of Function The functional classification divides joints into three categories: synarthroses, amphiarthroses, and diarthroses. A synarthrosis is a joint that is immovable. This includes sutures, gomphoses, and synchondroses. Amphiarthroses are joints that allow slight movement, including syndesmoses and symphyses. Diarthroses are joints that allow for free movement of the joint, as in synovial joints. Answer: synarthrosis", "output": [ "What category of joints is immovable?" ] }, { "id": "task594-46fcb931999743598fbe27d8f0355fe0", "input": "Passage: The protist wraps around its prey, which is usually bacteria. Answer: bacteria", "output": [ "What is usually the prey of a protist?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e04df484ca014a029794ede75d5f5a32", "input": "Passage: The mechanical advantage of a machine is the factor by which the machine changes the input force. It equals the ratio of the output force to the input force. A wheel and axle may either increase or decrease the input force, depending on whether the input force is applied to the axle or the wheel. Answer: mechanical advantage", "output": [ "What is indicated by the ratio of the output force to the input force in a machine?" ] }, { "id": "task594-40eee7f183c64792a1ae2c614b440d48", "input": "Passage: Microtubules , shown in Figure below (a) , are hollow cylinders and are the thickest of the cytoskeleton structures. They are most commonly made of filaments which are polymers of alpha and beta tubulin, and radiate outwards from an area near the nucleus called the centrosome. Tubulin is the protein that forms microtubules. Two forms of tubulin, alpha and beta, form dimers (pairs) which come together to form the hollow cylinders. The cylinders are twisted around each other to form the microtubules. Microtubules help the cell keep its shape. They hold organelles in place and allow them to move around the cell, and they form the mitotic spindle during cell division. Microtubules also make up parts of cilia and flagella, the organelles that help a cell move. Answer: microtubules", "output": [ "What are hollow cylinders and are the thickest of the cytoskeleton structures?" ] }, { "id": "task594-313049c24eef4f7b92c7aed6170ad7e3", "input": "Passage: Vertebrate Endoskeletons. The vertebrate endoskeleton includes a vertebral column, cranium, limbs, and limb girdles. Can you find these parts in each endoskeleton shown here?. Answer: limb girdles", "output": [ "The vertebrate endoskeleton includes a vertebral column, cranium, limbs, and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f21aab6bf4d94fe6bc51d542efc6c58d", "input": "Passage: Abnormally high activity of the parathyroid gland can cause hyperparathyroidism, a disorder caused by an overproduction of PTH that results in excessive calcium reabsorption from bone. Hyperparathyroidism can significantly decrease bone density, leading to spontaneous fractures or deformities. As blood calcium levels rise, cell membrane permeability to sodium is decreased, and the responsiveness of the nervous system is reduced. At the same time, calcium deposits may collect in the body’s tissues and organs, impairing their functioning. In contrast, abnormally low blood calcium levels may be caused by parathyroid hormone deficiency, called hypoparathyroidism, which may develop following injury or surgery involving the thyroid gland. Low blood calcium. Answer: calcium", "output": [ "Abnormally high activity or low activity of the parathyroid gland can cause disorders related to levels of what bone mineral?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a2d073bde1ea4673837539060e7256ab", "input": "Passage: Two DNA strands link together in an antiparallel direction and are twisted to form a double helix. The nitrogenous bases face the inside of the helix. Guanine is always opposite cytosine, and adenine is always opposite thymine. Answer: double helix", "output": [ "What is formed when two dna strands link together in an antiparallel direction and are twisted?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5ad8fc332856471d82f53ba111b40225", "input": "Passage: where k is a constant equal to Electric Potential. Answer: infrared", "output": [ "What radiation, generally produced by thermal motion and the vibration and rotation of atoms and molecules, literally means \"below red\"?" ] }, { "id": "task594-60aa009646cd43b2884a4e1da920fca3", "input": "Passage: Intraspecific competition occurs between members of the same species. For example, two male deer may compete for mates by clashing their antlers together. Answer: intraspecific", "output": [ "What type of competition occurs between members of the same species?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6341ad3a324344db8ede228d9948161b", "input": "Passage: conditions. Esters are neutral compounds that undergo hydrolysis, a reaction with water. Under acidic conditions, hydrolysis is essentially the reverse of esterification. When carried out under basic conditions, the process is called saponification. Inorganic acids also react with alcohols to form esters. Some of the most important esters in biochemistry are those formed from phosphoric acid. Amines are nitrogen-containing organic molecules derived from ammonia (NH3). A primary (1°) amine (RNH2) has one organic group bonded to the nitrogen atom, a secondary (2°) amine (R2NH) has two organic groups bonded to the nitrogen atom, and a tertiary (3°) amine (R3N) has three organic groups bonded to the nitrogen atom. Amines are basic compounds that react with strong acids to produce ammonium (NH4+) salts. A cyclic compound in which the ring contains one or more noncarbon atoms is called a heterocyclic compound. There are many heterocyclic amines, including many physiologically important ones. Alkaloids are heterocyclic amines found in many plants. Caffeine, nicotine, and cocaine are familiar alkaloids. Organic compounds containing a carbonyl group bonded to a nitrogen atom are amides, and the carbon-to-nitrogen bond is an amide linkage (or a peptide linkage). Most amides are colorless and odorless, and the lighter ones are soluble in water. Because they are polar molecules, amides have comparatively high boiling points and melting points. Amides are synthesized from carboxylic acids and NH3 or amines. Amides are neutral compounds. They resist hydrolysis in water, but acids, bases, and enzymes catalyze the reaction. Answer: hydrolysis", "output": [ "Esters are neutral compounds that undergo what process, which is a reaction with water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-14c83be51f6d4c469ad992dd3100b27f", "input": "Passage: Earthquakes, essentially sound waves in Earth’s crust, are an interesting example of how the speed of sound depends on the rigidity of the medium. Earthquakes have both longitudinal and transverse components, and these travel at different speeds. The bulk modulus of granite is greater than its shear modulus. For that reason, the speed of longitudinal or pressure waves (Pwaves) in earthquakes in granite is significantly higher than the speed of transverse or shear waves (S-waves). Both components of earthquakes travel slower in less rigid material, such as sediments. P-waves have speeds of 4 to 7 km/s, and S-waves correspondingly range in speed from 2 to 5 km/s, both being faster in more rigid material. The P-wave gets progressively farther ahead of the S-wave as they travel through Earth’s crust. The time between the P- and S-waves is routinely used to determine the distance to their source, the epicenter of the earthquake. The speed of sound is affected by temperature in a given medium. For air at sea level, the speed of sound is given by. Answer: different speeds", "output": [ "Earthquakes have both longitudinal and transverse components, and these travel at what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ba924eaf6dd745e098eeca43270c9ee6", "input": "Passage: A soil is a residual soil when it forms in place. Only about one third of the soils in the United States form this way. The material comes from the underlying bedrock. Residual soils form over many years since it takes a long time for solid rock to become soil. First, cracks break up the bedrock. This may happen due to ice wedging. Weathering breaks up the rock even more. Then plants, such as lichens or grasses, become established. They cause further weathering. As more time passes and more layers of material weather, the soil develops. Answer: residual soil", "output": [ "Soil that forms in place over a very long period is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6681e8642c5b486fa8d5ea6ae6d8a5b2", "input": "Passage: As has been noted in numerous Things Great and Small vignettes, this is not the first time the large has been explained by the small and vice versa. Newton realized that the nature of gravity on Earth that pulls an apple to the ground could explain the motion of the moon and planets so much farther away. Minute atoms and molecules explain the chemistry of substances on a much larger scale. Decays of tiny nuclei explain the hot interior of the Earth. Fusion of nuclei likewise explains the energy of stars. Today, the patterns in particle physics seem to be explaining the evolution and character of the universe. And the nature of the universe has implications for unexplored regions of particle physics. Cosmology is the study of the character and evolution of the universe. What are the major characteristics of the universe as we know them today? First, there are approximately 10 11 galaxies in the observable part of the universe. An average galaxy contains more than 10 11 stars, with our Milky Way galaxy being larger than average, both in its number of stars and its dimensions. Ours is a spiral-shaped galaxy with a diameter of about 100,000 light years and a thickness of about 2000 light years in the arms with a central bulge about 10,000 light years across. The Sun lies about 30,000 light years from the center near the galactic plane. There are significant clouds of gas, and there is a halo of less-dense regions of stars surrounding the main body. (See Figure 34.3. ) Evidence strongly suggests the existence of a large amount of additional matter in galaxies that does not produce light—the mysterious dark matter we shall later discuss. Answer: moon and planets", "output": [ "Newton realized that the nature of gravity on earth that pulls an apple to the ground could explain the motion of these?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1bfc86f3e69f452a85eca7e140f31278", "input": "Passage: When the wind deposits sand, it forms small hills. These hills are called sand dunes ( Figure below ). For sand dunes to form, there must be plenty of sand and wind. Sand dunes are found mainly in deserts and on beaches. Answer: sand dunes", "output": [ "When the wind deposits sand, it forms small hills, what are these hills called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9acbc205825245fda261f77e22fd0004", "input": "Passage: Chemical reactions that take place inside living things are called biochemical reactions . Living things depend on biochemical reactions for more than just energy. Every function and structure of a living organism depends on thousands of biochemical reactions taking place in each cell. Answer: biochemical reactions", "output": [ "What do you call chemical reactions that take place inside living things?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4b391f26bdfd45538aa4ced08e2644ba", "input": "Passage: Viruses are classified on the basis of several traits. For example, they may be classified by capsid shape, presence or absence of an envelope, and type of nucleic acid. Most systems of classifying viruses identify at least 20 virus families. Table below shows four examples of virus families and their traits. Have any of these viruses made you sick?. Answer: blood", "output": [ "Lampreys use their sucker to feed on what part of other fish species?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2a40213ed1bb482eb0a1b45a333c4598", "input": "Passage: Because electricity can be so dangerous, safety features are built into modern electric circuits and devices. They include three-prong plugs, circuit breakers, and GFCI outlets. You can read about these three safety features in the Figure below . You can learn more about electric safety features in the home by watching the video at this URL: http://www. dailymotion. com/video/x6fg5i_basics-of-your-home-s-electrical-sy_school . Answer: electricity", "output": [ "Three-prong plugs, circuit breakers, and gfci outlets are safety features that recognize the danger of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ac7443e707a7488e9d0a9feeba15e379", "input": "Passage: Periosteum is a tough, fibrous membrane that covers and protects the outer surfaces of bone. Answer: the periosteum", "output": [ "What is the name of a tough, fibrous membrane which protects the outer layer of bone?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2992ee2593bb4ea0b6acf5e55609eff5", "input": "Passage: There is a lot of water ice in the polar ice caps and under the surface of Mars. Answer: water", "output": [ "What is found in abundance in the polar ice caps and under the surface of mars?" ] }, { "id": "task594-01066cea01df40809a74a3ecda188fc5", "input": "Passage: Bacteria in food or water usually can be killed by heating it to a high temperature. Generally, this temperature is at least 71 °C (160 °F). Bacteria on surfaces such as countertops and floors can be killed with disinfectants, such as chlorine bleach. Bacterial infections in people can be treated with antibiotic drugs . These drugs kill bacteria and may quickly cure the disease. If you've ever had strep throat, you were probably prescribed an antibiotic to treat it. Answer: antibiotic drugs", "output": [ "What helps treat bacterial infections in people?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3df2aae6780b414da7931fbd80c66eef", "input": "Passage: Potential energy is present in objects that are ______________. Answer: elastic", "output": [ "Potential energy is present in objects that are what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c9037c08a2be477b9f9c98b327ab6b42", "input": "Passage: A natural resource is something supplied by nature that helps support life. When you think of natural resources, you may think of minerals and fossil fuels. However, ecosystems and the services they provide are also natural resources. Biodiversity is a natural resource as well. Answer: natural resource", "output": [ "Something supplied by nature that helps support life, including ecosystems as well as minerals and fossil fuels, is called a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c5aecc6249b547db837abf2c99125fce", "input": "Passage: Ears pop as air pressures inside and outside of the ear equalize. Answer: ear popping", "output": [ "As air pressures inside and outside of the ear equalize, what phenomenon is produced?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fb566461b52748469ed767ec8173b469", "input": "Passage: A chain of volcanoes forms as an oceanic plate moves over a hot spot. This is how it happens. A volcano forms over the hotspot. Since the plate is moving, the volcano moves off of the hotspot. When the hotspot erupts again, a new volcano forms over it. This volcano is in line with the first. Over time, there is a line of volcanoes. The youngest is directly above the hot spot. The oldest is the furthest away ( Figure below ). Answer: hot spot", "output": [ "Volcano chains form as an oceanic plate moves over what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-34abc5bd07aa42bdb750611bc3b2aac5", "input": "Passage: After hatching, most arthropods go through one or more larval stages before reaching adulthood. The larvae may look very different from the adults. They change into the adult form in a process called metamorphosis. During metamorphosis, the arthropod is called a pupa. It may or may not spend this stage inside a special container called a cocoon. A familiar example of arthropod metamorphosis is the transformation of a caterpillar (larva) into a butterfly (adult) (see Figure below ). Distinctive life stages and metamorphosis are highly adaptive. They allow functions to be divided among different life stages. Each life stage can evolve adaptations to suit it for its specific functions without affecting the adaptations of the other stages. Answer: metamorphosis", "output": [ "What is the process of larva becoming an adult called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-66bb77bb973a4efdbc9e2c5774a1c906", "input": "Passage: An internal skeleton. The internal skeleton supports the animal, protects internal organs, and allows for movement. Answer: internal", "output": [ "Which type of skeleton supports the animal, protects internal organs, and allows for movement?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c98ea42b02bc42d388d39a735085368f", "input": "Passage: Figure 23.12 The dinoflagellates exhibit great diversity in shape. Many are encased in cellulose armor and have two flagella that fit in grooves between the plates. Movement of these two perpendicular flagella causes a spinning motion. Answer: spinning motion", "output": [ "What is observed when two perpendicular flagella moves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1c0cb63c4a8840a7b363d7758c2070bc", "input": "Passage: Heat is the transfer of thermal energy between substances. Thermal energy is the kinetic energy of moving particles of matter, measured by their temperature. Answer: heat", "output": [ "What is the transfer of thermal energy between substances called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-76c36e263fd041f3bd7ed0b3e8a103a5", "input": "Passage: Plants are the primary producers in terrestrial biomes. They make food for themselves and other organisms by photosynthesis. The major plants in a given biome, in turn, help determine the types of animals and other organisms that can live there. Answer: plants", "output": [ "What are the primary producers in terrestrial biomes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b1c92c690b42457fb2d9d902ed75d417", "input": "Passage: In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, or rearranged. Answer: chemical reactions", "output": [ "Atoms are combined, separated, or rearranged during what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c9d5e0c1e5464d6f801923a74a0c8433", "input": "Passage: Cells divide repeatedly to produce an embryo. Previously the one-celled zygote (the first cell of a new organism) divided to make two cells (a). Each of the two cells divides to yield four cells (b), then the four cells divide to make eight cells (c), and so on. Through cell division, an entire embryo forms from one initial cell. Answer: zygote", "output": [ "What do you call the first cell of a new organism?" ] }, { "id": "task594-71f92af3575e4c60a74e3e7aeff65583", "input": "Passage: Buoyant force is an upward force that fluids exert on any object that is placed in them. The ability of fluids to exert this force is called buoyancy . What explains buoyant force? A fluid exerts pressure in all directions, but the pressure is greater at greater depth. Therefore, the fluid below an object, where the fluid is deeper, exerts greater pressure on the object than the fluid above it. You can see in the Figure below how this works. Buoyant force explains why the girl pictured above can float in water. Answer: buoyant force", "output": [ "What is an upward force that fluids exert on any object that is placed in them?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6d514d5969c04337a445968663510280", "input": "Passage: Ice caps are areas covered with thick ice year round. Ice caps are found only in Greenland and Antarctica. Temperatures and precipitation are both very low. What little snow falls usually stays on the ground. It doesn’t melt because it’s too cold. Answer: antarctica", "output": [ "Ice caps are found only in greenland and which other place?" ] }, { "id": "task594-937c98300a7b4286853cc8b735e106d6", "input": "Passage: Proteins are one of four classes of biochemical compounds. Proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur. Answer: biochemical", "output": [ "Proteins are one of four classes of what type of compounds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d6abe80e880a46dfb093a90f646a988d", "input": "Passage: An element is the simplest form of matter that has a unique set of properties. Answer: element", "output": [ "What is the simplest form of matter that has a unique set of properties?" ] }, { "id": "task594-57182439dde84deab3089b2bc8ed391d", "input": "Passage: Recall that terrestrial biomes are defined by their climate. That's because plants and animals are adapted for certain amounts of temperature and moisture. However, would aquatic biomes be classified in the same way? No, that wouldn't make much sense—all parts of an aquatic environment have plenty of water. Aquatic biomes can be generally classified based on the amount of salt in the water. Freshwater biomes have less than 1% salt and are typical of ponds and lakes, streams and rivers, and wetlands. Marine biomes have more salt and are characteristic of the oceans, coral reefs, and estuaries. Answer: amount of salt", "output": [ "How are aquatic biomes often classified?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fec52a8d099d48e8aeaea230c7b3dfe1", "input": "Passage: The force exerted by circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels is called blood pressure . Blood pressure is highest in arteries and lowest in veins. When you have your blood pressure checked, it is the blood pressure in arteries that is measured. High blood pressure, or hypertension , is a serious health risk but can often be controlled with lifestyle changes or medication. You can learn more about hypertension by watching the animation at this link: http://www. healthcentral. com/high-blood-pressure/introduction-47-115. html . Answer: blood pressure", "output": [ "What is the term for the force exerted by circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels?" ] }, { "id": "task594-07ef549b7da94c159b5736aa9f036589", "input": "Passage: Plates move apart at divergent plate boundaries. This can occur in the oceans or on land. Answer: divergent plate boundaries", "output": [ "Where do plates move apart in oceans and on land?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5f8ed526b0dd4a81b44ea39bf03f2a23", "input": "Passage: Farmers use greenhouses to extend the growing season. A greenhouse traps heat. Days that are too cool for a growing plant can be made to be just right. Similar to a greenhouse, greenhouse gases in the atmosphere keep Earth warm. Answer: to extend the growing season", "output": [ "What do farmers use greenhouses for?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f1a86f9580244882939ebe16d41ba07b", "input": "Passage: An electric generator is a device that changes kinetic energy to electrical energy through electromagnetic induction. Electromagnetic induction is the process of generating electric current with a magnetic field. It occurs when a magnetic field and an electric conductor, such as a coil of wire, move relative to one another. Answer: electric generator", "output": [ "What device changes kinetic energy to electrical energy through electromagnetic induction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b5de7376f9e54386a2d1e4142eeb9f40", "input": "Passage: The kidneys play many vital roles in homeostasis . They work with many other organ systems to do this. For example, they work with the circulatory system to filter blood, and with the urinary system to remove wastes. Answer: wastes", "output": [ "The kidneys work with the urinary system to remove what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-83ba1d75d59f415f809e6d37e26b2662", "input": "Passage: Acceleration is a measure of the change in velocity of a moving object. It shows how quickly velocity changes and whether the change is positive or negative. It may reflect a change in speed, a change in direction, or both. Answer: acceleration", "output": [ "What is a measure of the change in velocity of a moving object?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1c0b80ad010c4e4892b2b0c811151557", "input": "Passage: Vertebrates. From the smallest of fish to us. One of the main features we all have in common is our backbone. Vertebrates describes main biological features of fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Answer: backbone", "output": [ "Vertebrates. from the smallest of fish to us. one of the main features we all have in common is our what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4672e9c3d1ba47519362cd3e71e30bb0", "input": "Passage: If you are a girl and use tampons, be sure to change them every four to six hours. Leaving tampons in for too long can put you at risk of toxic shock syndrome . This is a serious condition. Signs and symptoms of toxic shock syndrome develop suddenly, and the disease can be fatal. The disease involves fever, shock, and problems with the function of several body organs. Answer: toxic shock", "output": [ "Leaving tampons in for too long can put you at risk of what syndrome?" ] }, { "id": "task594-05196bab31b34027a67007688ac7c1c6", "input": "Passage: Radioactive decay is the breakdown of unstable isotopes into stable elements. For example, carbon-14 is an unstable isotope of carbon that decays to the stable element nitrogen-14. The rate of decay of an isotope is measured in half-lives. A half-life is the time it takes for half a given amount of an isotope to decay. Answer: radioactive decay", "output": [ "What is the term for the breakdown of unstable isotopes into stable elements?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b0d6c34f296742feb1111a611f4645e9", "input": "Passage: Another major step in animal evolution was the evolution of a notochord. A notochord is a rigid rod that runs the length of the body. It supports the body and gives it shape (see Figure below ). It also provides a place for muscles to anchor, and counterbalances them when they contract. Animals with a notochord are called chordates. They also have a hollow nerve cord that runs along the top of the body. Gill slits and a tail are two other chordate features. Many modern chordates have some of these structures only as embryos. Answer: notochord", "output": [ "A major step in animal evolution was the evolution of what rigid rod that runs the length of the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bb91924beb724efab2d06817fded84f9", "input": "Passage: Yes. Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts, whereas cellular respiration occurs in the mitochondria. Photosynthesis makes glucose and oxygen, which are then used as the starting products for cellular respiration. Cellular respiration makes carbon dioxide and water (and ATP), which are the starting products (together with sunlight) for photosynthesis. Answer: mitochondria", "output": [ "Where does cellular respiration occur?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fef1b8136d704a7d8e1749339ae9aaf1", "input": "Passage: The atomic number defines the identity of an element. Answer: element", "output": [ "The atomic number defines the identity of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-73fdb6deb65a44638bb1a2773a48daca", "input": "Passage: Bacteria come in many different shapes. Some of the most common shapes are bacilli (rods), cocci (spheres), and spirilli (spirals). Bacteria can be identified and classified by their shape. Answer: shape", "output": [ "Spirals, spheres, and rods are examples of what distinguishing property of bacteria?" ] }, { "id": "task594-75f22c0606e44b8b965180a1d17ceb25", "input": "Passage: It was known that DNA is composed of nucleotides , each of which contains a nitrogen-containing base, a five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose), and a phosphate group. In these nucleotides, there is one of the four possible bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), or thymine (T) ( Figure below ). Adenine and guanine are purine bases, and cytosine and thymine are pyrimidine bases. Answer: nitrogen", "output": [ "What does the base of a nucleotide within dna consist of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-739efe572b604ff3a83cf6e507230579", "input": "Passage: Animals, like the bee in Figure below , pollinate flowering plants. Many crop plants depend on pollination by wild animals. Answer: pollenation", "output": [ "Bees and other wild animals perform what function on flowering plants, making them vital for crop reproduction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e8fd4b3172b043b19c9d2a20b1315d69", "input": "Passage: Mitosis in the Eukaryotic Cell Cycle. Mitosis is the multi-phase process in which the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell divides. Answer: mitosis", "output": [ "What is the multi-phase process in which the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell divides?" ] }, { "id": "task594-79aee95bdb014ab4b2f53de5a2947373", "input": "Passage: Corals form large colonies in shallow tropical water. They are confined to shallow water because they have a symbiotic relationship with algae that live inside of them. The algae need sunlight for photosynthesis, so they must stay relatively close to the surface of the water to get enough light. Corals exist only as polyps. They catch plankton with their tentacles. Answer: symbiotic", "output": [ "Coral and the algae living inside of them have what type of relationship, since the algae relies on the coral to stay close to the water's surface?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a59fd9445ef74566935df2faf5324cce", "input": "Passage: 38.1 Flowers, double fertilization, and fruits are unique features of the angiosperm life cycle. Answer: angiosperm", "output": [ "Flowers, double fertilization, and fruits are unique features of what life cycle?" ] }, { "id": "task594-183f3751b510435083d9f10a745c3f5f", "input": "Passage: Pressure is defined as the amount of force pushing against a given area. How much pressure a gas exerts depends on the amount of gas. The more gas particles there are, the greater the pressure. Answer: pressure", "output": [ "What is the amount of force pushing against a given area?" ] }, { "id": "task594-09d76b36ccb843558f88d65addc0372a", "input": "Passage: Symbiosis is a close relationship between organisms of different species in which at least one of the organisms benefits. The other organism may also benefit, or it may be unaffected or harmed by the relationship. Figure below shows an example of symbiosis. The birds in the picture are able to pick out food from the fur of the deer. The deer won't eat the birds. In fact, the deer knowingly lets the birds rest on it. What, if anything, do you think the deer gets out of the relationship?. Answer: symbiosis", "output": [ "What's the term for a relationship between two organisms where at least one benefits?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8d5fb983cd63489abe66818bc5b4dbc5", "input": "Passage: Some mollusks, such as oysters and scallops, are important food sources. Answer: mollusk", "output": [ "What type of creature is a scallop?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6267df09fb0240cd98c1c6a2d744c195", "input": "Passage: Nonpolar-nonpolar interactions occur when two nonpolar liquids are mixed. An example of this is the interaction between toluene and octane (see Figures above and below ). The interactions between a molecule of toluene and a molecule of octane are relatively weak, but so are the toluene-toluene and octane-octane interactions. Because no strong intermolecular forces (like those between water molecules) need to be broken for mixing to occur, no strong interactions need to be formed in order for mixing to be a favorable process. Toluene and octane will form a homogeneous mixture. The phrase \"like dissolves like\" applies to these mixtures as well. In this case, nonpolar dissolves nonpolar. Answer: nonpolar-nonpolar interactions", "output": [ "What occurs when two nonpolar liquids are mixed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0f6b9f01f98840bdbd3bffae3b044d9d", "input": "Passage: Clubmosses can resemble mosses; however, clubmosses have vascular tissue, while mosses do not. Answer: vascular tissue", "output": [ "What tissue do clubmosses have that mosses do not?" ] }, { "id": "task594-77f596ef89214c38888cc33e2bee440a", "input": "Passage: Since natural selection acts on the phenotype, if an allele causes death in a homozygous individual, aa , for example, it will not cause death in a heterozygous Aa individual. These heterozygous Aa individuals will then act as carriers of the a allele, meaning that the a allele could be passed down to offspring. People who are carriers do not express the recessive phenotype, as they have a dominant allele. This allele is said to be kept in the population's gene pool. The gene pool is the complete set of genes and alleles within a population. Answer: the gene pool", "output": [ "What is the term for the complete set of genes and alleles within a population?" ] }, { "id": "task594-206ca6958bd54b70ab750c7de717c6b2", "input": "Passage: These data can be qualitative (descriptive) or quantitative (consisting of numbers), and the raw data can be supplemented with drawings, pictures, photos, or videos. From many observations, the scientist can infer conclusions (inductions) based on evidence. Inductive reasoning involves formulating generalizations inferred from careful observation and the analysis of a large amount of data. Brain studies often work this way. Many brains are observed while people are doing a task. The part of the brain that lights up, indicating activity, is then demonstrated to be the part controlling the response to that task. Deductive reasoning or deduction is the type of logic used in hypothesis-based science. In deductive reasoning, the pattern of thinking moves in the opposite direction as compared to inductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that uses a general principle or law to forecast specific results. From those general principles, a scientist can extrapolate and predict the specific results that would be valid as long as the general principles are valid. For example, a prediction would be that if the climate is becoming warmer in a region, the distribution of plants and animals should change. Comparisons have been made between distributions in the past and the present, and the many changes that have been found are consistent with a warming climate. Finding the change in distribution is evidence that the climate change conclusion is a valid one. Both types of logical thinking are related to the two main pathways of scientific study: descriptive science and hypothesisbased science. Descriptive (or discovery) science aims to observe, explore, and discover, while hypothesis-based science begins with a specific question or problem and a potential answer or solution that can be tested. The boundary between these two forms of study is often blurred, because most scientific endeavors combine both approaches. Observations lead to questions, questions lead to forming a hypothesis as a possible answer to those questions, and then the hypothesis is tested. Thus, descriptive science and hypothesis-based science are in continuous dialogue. Answer: deductive", "output": [ "What kind of reasoning involves formulating generalizations inferred from careful observation and the analysis of a large amount of data?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7bacd357744d496c9a5b0303bede75ff", "input": "Passage: illness that occurs when harmful bacteria enter the digestive system in food; commonly called food poisoning. Answer: food poisoning", "output": [ "What do you call the illness that occurs when harmful bacteria enter the digestive system in food?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0f3921a3b58148d3ac49bfdbedcd7a52", "input": "Passage: Chloroplasts Like the mitochondria, chloroplasts have their own DNA and ribosomes, but chloroplasts have an entirely different function. Chloroplasts are plant cell organelles that carry out photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the series of reactions that use carbon dioxide, water, and light energy to make glucose and oxygen. This is a major difference between plants and animals; plants (autotrophs) are able to make their own food, like sugars, while animals (heterotrophs) must ingest their food. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts have outer and inner membranes, but within the space enclosed by a chloroplast’s inner membrane is a set of interconnected and stacked fluid-filled membrane sacs called thylakoids ( Figure 4.17). Each stack of thylakoids is called a granum (plural = grana). The fluid enclosed by the inner membrane that surrounds the grana is called the stroma. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "Like the mitochondria, chloroplasts have their own dna and ribosomes, but chloroplasts have an entirely different function. chloroplasts are plant cell organelles that carry out what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d09a296181024adb9337bd9c82d2966b", "input": "Passage: Facilitated Diffusion Across a Cell Membrane. Channel proteins and carrier proteins help substances diffuse across a cell membrane. In this diagram, the channel and carrier proteins are helping substances move into the cell (from the extracellular space to the intracellular space). Answer: cell membrane", "output": [ "Channel proteins and carrier proteins help substances diffuse across what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dd0c3dca0eff4f098b161b9c0d740f17", "input": "Passage: When two plates of continental crust collide, the material pushes upward. This forms a high mountain range. The remnants of subducted oceanic crust remain beneath the continental convergence zone. Answer: high mountain range", "output": [ "When two plates of continental crust collide, the material pushes upward and forms what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4421d46677b942f7968fbd9c85814d8e", "input": "Passage: When a solid substance is involved in a chemical reaction, only the matter at the surface of the solid is exposed to other reactants. If a solid has more surface area, more of it is exposed and able to react. Therefore, increasing the surface area of solid reactants increases the reaction rate. For example, crushing a solid into a powder exposes more of the substance to other reactants. This may greatly speed up the reaction. You can see another example in Figure below . Iron rusts when it combines with oxygen in the air. The iron hammer head and iron nails will both rust eventually. Which will rust faster?. Answer: the surface", "output": [ "When a solid substance is involved in a chemical reaction, only the matter from which part of the solid is exposed to other reactants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-93ed40bb0947462389648942982e04be", "input": "Passage: Arteries are muscular blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. They have thick walls that can withstand the pressure of blood pumped by the heart. Arteries generally carry oxygen-rich blood. The largest artery is the aorta, which receives blood directly from the heart. It branches to form smaller and smaller arteries throughout the body. The smallest arteries are called arterioles. Answer: arteries", "output": [ "What is the name of muscular blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2b4bcb12469c4a1a913f2f10d6e10abc", "input": "Passage: Power plants and factories account for more than a quarter of fossil fuel use. Power plants burn fossil fuels to generate electricity. Factories burn fossil fuels to power machines. Answer: fossil fuels", "output": [ "What do power plants burn to generate electricity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b3e7fc8317af4d2198980aa93d56b019", "input": "Passage: Sperm are tiny cells. In fact, they are the smallest of all human cells. They have a structure that suits them well to perform their function. Answer: sperm", "output": [ "What type of cells are the smallest of all human cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f6f19e94a5434d3484baa0ece5c9f5d5", "input": "Passage: Earth has a magnetic field ( Figure below ). The magnetic field has north and south poles. The field extends several thousand kilometers into space. Earth’s magnetic field is created by the movements of molten metal in the outer core. Answer: magnetic", "output": [ "What type of field does earth have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-24a07d9f0baf4f2cba8beea19708c10d", "input": "Passage: 20.8 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary To ensure that you understand the material in this chapter, you should review the meanings of the bold terms in the following summary and ask yourself how they relate to the topics in the chapter. Metabolism is the general term for all chemical reactions in living organisms. The two types of metabolism are catabolism—those reactions in which complex molecules (carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins) are broken down to simpler ones with the concomitant release of energy—and anabolism—those reactions that consume energy to build complex molecules. Metabolism is studied by looking at individual metabolic pathways, which are a series of biochemical reactions in which a given reactant is converted to a desired end product. The oxidation of fuel molecules (primarily carbohydrates and lipids), a process called respiration, is the source of energy used by cells. Catabolic reactions release energy from food molecules and use some of that energy for the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP); anabolic reactions use the energy in ATP to create new compounds. Catabolism can be divided into three stages. In stage I, carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins are broken down into their individual monomer units—simple sugars, fatty acids, and amino acids, respectively. In stage II, these monomer units are broken down by specific metabolic pathways to form a common end product acetyl-coenzyme A (CoA). In stage III, acetyl-CoA is completely oxidized to form carbon dioxide and water, and ATP is produced. Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: metabolism", "output": [ "Catabolism and anabolism are the two types of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ead1d777c673442a9ee6eae47b9f70a7", "input": "Passage: Although the idea that Earth is a magnet is centuries old, the discovery of why Earth is a magnet is a relatively new. In the early 1900s, scientists started using seismographic data to learn about Earth’s inner structure. A seismograph detects and measure earthquake waves. Evidence from earthquakes showed that Earth has a solid inner core and a liquid outer core (see the Figure below ). The outer core consists of molten metals, mainly iron and nickel. Scientists think that Earth’s magnetic field is generated by the movement of charged particles through these molten metals in the outer core. The particles move as Earth spins on its axis. The video at the URL below takes a closer look at how this occurs. Answer: seismograph", "output": [ "What device detects and measuresee earthquake waves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a412c962021a4789a3a9a70eaca99f1d", "input": "Passage: Mammals have four limbs and produce amniotic eggs. Answer: amniotic", "output": [ "Mammals have four limbs and produce what kind of eggs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-44a6ad6d4fb64ac4bc165a6a59b4a768", "input": "Passage: The single-celled prokaryotic organism otherwise known as bacteria. And all it takes is one to quickly grow, under just the right conditions, into millions and billions. Luckily, we know how to control bacteria when necessary. But bacteria do serve many important purposes. In fact, we could not survive without them. Answer: single-celled prokaryotic", "output": [ "What type of organism is a bacteria?" ] }, { "id": "task594-21b2324df56d4d34aaa6ded01611618e", "input": "Passage: transient males. Since these loyal males already bond and cooperate with females, it may well be a simple matter for them to bond and cooperate with each other. In a semi-counter intuitive manner, the ability to bond with males could be selected for based on its effect on reproductive success with females. On the other hand, a male that commits himself to a cooperative (loyal and exclusive) arrangement with a female necessarily limits his interactions One of the most robust and reliable findings in with other females. This implies that he will attempt to insure the scientific literature on interpersonal that the offspring he is raising are genetically related to him. attraction is the overwhelming role played by physical attractiveness in defining the ideal Of course, another possibility is that a loyal male may be romantic partner (Hatfield & Sprecher, 1986; attractive to multiple females, who in turn compete for his Jackson, 1992). Both men and women express attention and loyalty. Clearly the outcome of such interactions marked preference for an attractive partner in a is influenced by how many females can the male effectively non- committed short-term (casual, one night stand) relationship (Buss & Schmitt, 1993). protect (that is, improve their reproductive success). The situation quickly gets complex and many competing strategies are possible. Different species make different choices depending upon their evolutionary history and environmental constraints. As we noted above, secondary sexual characteristics, that is, traits that vary dramatically between the two sexes, serve to advertise various traits, including heath, loyalty, robustness, and fertility. The size and symmetry of a beetle’s or an elk’s antlers or a grasshopper’s song communicate rather clearly their state of health.192 The tail of the male peacock is a common example, a male either has large, colorful and symmetrical tail, all signs of a health or it does not – there is little room for ambiguity. These predictions have been confirmed experimentally in a number of systems; the robustness of offspring does correlate with the robustness of the male, a win for evolutionary logic.193 It is critical that both females and males correctly read and/or respond to various traits, and this ability is likely to be selected for. For example, males that can read the traits of other males can determine whether they are likely to win a fight with another male; not being able to make such an accurate determination could result in crippling injuries. A trickier question is how does a female or a male determine whether a possible mate will be loyal? As with advertisements of overall robustness, we might expect that traits that are difficult or expensive to generate will play a key role. So how. Answer: health", "output": [ "The size and symmetry of a beetle’s or an elk’s antlers or a grasshopper’s song communicate rather clearly their state of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f86608d5b2324fbabe5052488cf569c9", "input": "Passage: The amount of charge, , held by each plate is given by where again is the voltage difference between the plates and is the capacitance of the plate configuration. Capacitance can be thought of as the capacity a device has for storing charge . In the parallel plate case the capacitance is given by where is the area of the plates, is the distance between the plates, and is the permittivity of free space whose value is . Answer: capacitance", "output": [ "What can be thought of as the capacity a device has for storing charge?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8ccf8c98daa34d44acc836df3252d36b", "input": "Passage: Longshore drift can erode the sediment from a beach. To keep this from happening, people may build a series of groins. A groin is wall of rocks or concrete that juts out into the ocean perpendicular to the shore. It stops waves from moving right along the beach. This stops the sand on the upcurrent side and reduces beach erosion. You can see how groins work in Figure below . Answer: groin", "output": [ "A wall of rocks or concrete that juts out into the ocean perpendicular to the shore is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-88bc849a60a046fc9ca273637639b351", "input": "Passage: A N SW E R S 1. Molarity is moles per liter, whereas molality is moles per kilogram of solvent. Answer: molarity", "output": [ "What term indicates moles per liter, whereas molality is moles per kilogram of solvent?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2bf8ee77c5fd487d9eaf58cfffe3f1cc", "input": "Passage: Ionic bonds are electrostatic attractions between two oppositely charged ions. Ions can be formed and then bonded when metal atoms donate their valence electrons to nonmetal atoms. Answer: ions", "output": [ "Ionic bonds are electrostatic attractions between two oppositely charged what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7ff3ed1f20a3439990da3e7199d57c33", "input": "Passage: contain the carbonyl functional group (C=O; part (a) in Figure 24.14 \"The Oxidation State of Carbon in Oxygen- and Nitrogen-Containing Functional Groups\"). Alcohols are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary, depending on whether the –OH group is bonded to a primary, secondary, or tertiary carbon. For example, the compound 5-methyl-3-hexanol is a secondary alcohol. Answer: diffraction", "output": [ "The bending of a wave around the edges of an opening or an obstacle is called this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0e8118b7195a402f928e3b36741e7335", "input": "Passage: Waves may be transverse, longitudinal, or a combination of the two. (Water waves are actually a combination of transverse and longitudinal. The simplified water wave illustrated in Figure 16.30 shows no longitudinal motion of the bird. ) The waves on the strings of musical instruments are transverse—so are electromagnetic waves, such as visible light. Sound waves in air and water are longitudinal. Their disturbances are periodic variations in pressure that are transmitted in fluids. Fluids do not have appreciable shear strength, and thus the sound waves in them must be longitudinal or compressional. Sound in solids can be both longitudinal and transverse. Answer: longitudinal", "output": [ "The waves on the strings of musical instruments are transverse—so are electromagnetic waves, such as visible light. sound waves in air and water are this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0b6904669a8b4d66bba9e1ba50f96e7c", "input": "Passage: The energy of a photon is directly proportional to the frequency of the electromagnetic radiation. Answer: radiation", "output": [ "The energy of a photon is directly proportional to the frequency of the electromagnetic what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d468edfdeeb04c739adb784c959d1e62", "input": "Passage: Coal is our largest source of energy for producing electricity. Answer: coal", "output": [ "What is our largest source of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f582eba3e7d84214a56f93d82ab42d89", "input": "Passage: Some resources can’t be renewed. At least, they can’t be renewed fast enough to keep up with use. Fossil fuels are an example. It takes millions of years for them to form. We are using them up much more quickly. Elements that are used to produce nuclear power are also non-renewable resources. Uranium, for example, which is rare. Sooner or later, it will run out. Answer: nuclear", "output": [ "Uranium is an example of a non-renewable resource used to produce what type of power?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cfcf725826114e43a9c4dfdcf827fc4e", "input": "Passage: The third conservation law is conservation of angular momentum. This vector quantity is the product of rotational velocity and rotational inertia. In any closed system (including the universe) the quantity of angular momentum is fixed. Angular momentum can be transferred from one body to another, but cannot be lost or gained. If a system has its angular momentum changed from the outside it is caused by a torque. Torque is a force applied at a distance from the center of rotation. Answer: third conservation law", "output": [ "Which of newton's laws states that the quantity of angular momentum in a closed system is fixed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ce86ba8097a34a239f016275c16d8705", "input": "Passage: The first monotremes may have evolved about 150 million years ago. Early monotreme fossils have been found in Australia. An example is a genus called Steropodon , shown in Figure below . It may have been the ancestor of the platypus. Early monotremes retained some of the traits of their therapsid ancestors. For example, they laid eggs and had a cloaca. These traits are still found in modern monotremes. Answer: platypus", "output": [ "The steropodon may have been an ancestor of which animal?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3f6580c4704041b98f9955d94b389b3d", "input": "Passage: Figure below shows how phospholipid molecules are arranged in a cell membrane. One end (the head) of each phospholipid molecule is polar and attracts water. This end is called hydrophilic (\"water loving\"). The other end (the tail) is nonpolar and repels water. This end is called hydrophobic (\"water hating\"). The nonpolar tails are on the inside of the membrane. The polar heads are on the outside of the membrane. These differences in polarity allow some molecules to pass through the membrane while keeping others out. You can see how this works in the video at the URL below. Answer: hydrophilic", "output": [ "The end of the phospholipid molecule that is polar and attracts water is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cca85d07053149d48eef283e81895ac9", "input": "Passage: Chemical energy and nuclear energy are other forms of potential energy. Answer: potential energy", "output": [ "Chemical energy is another form of which energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-af01d7e06bbb43bc947a1df87a0bada9", "input": "Passage: The formation of scientific theories is generally guided by the law of parsimony. The word parsimony means “thriftiness. ” The law of parsimony states that, when choosing between competing theories, you should select the theory that makes the fewest assumptions. In other words, the simpler theory is more likely to be correct. For example, you probably know that Earth and the other planets of our solar system orbit around the sun. But several centuries ago, it was believed that Earth is at the center of the solar system and the other planets orbit around Earth. While it is possible to explain the movement of planets according to this theory, the explanation is unnecessarily complex. Answer: law of parsimony", "output": [ "What the scientific concept stating that when looking at two competing theories, the one with fewer assumptions should be chosen?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9d8d6ae9b16247879ef160db9c8b6c5b", "input": "Passage: A ketone involves a carbonyl in which the carbon atom makes single bonds with two other carbon atoms. Ketones undergo most of the same reactions as aldehydes, but they tend to be slightly less reactive. The simplest ketone is acetone, in which the carbonyl carbon is bonded to two CH 3 groups. This ketone is commonly used to remove fingernail polish and serves as an industrial solvent. Methyl ethyl ketone is used as a paint stripper and a solvent. Ketones are also used in the production of various polymers, either as a building block or as a solvent. Answer: ketone", "output": [ "Acetone is the simplest type of what organic compound that involves a carbonyl in which the carbon atom makes single bonds with two other carbon atoms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-175f12183a7540e5999c1c3a5ccb275e", "input": "Passage: Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun. The Red Planet is the first planet beyond Earth’s orbit. Answer: mars", "output": [ "Which is the fourth planet from the sun?" ] }, { "id": "task594-04c69798f8e34900808b06f685425afd", "input": "Passage: The metals of group 13 (Al, Ga, In, and Tl) are all reactive. However, passivation occurs as a tough, hard, thin film of the metal oxide forms upon exposure to air. Disruption of this film may counter the passivation, allowing the metal to react. One way to disrupt the film is to expose the passivated metal to mercury. Some of the metal dissolves in the mercury to form an amalgam, which sheds the protective oxide layer to expose the metal to further reaction. The formation of an amalgam allows the metal to react with air and water. Answer: air and water", "output": [ "The formation of an amalgam allows the metal to react with what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-45c58711d524494583e947b4c5293029", "input": "Passage: Oceans cover more than 70 percent of Earth's surface and hold 97 percent of its surface water. It’s no surprise that the oceans have a big influence on the planet. The oceans affect the atmosphere, climate, and living things. Answer: oceans", "output": [ "The earth's atmosphere, climate, and living things are effected by what feature that covers more than 70 percent of earth's surface?" ] }, { "id": "task594-78a15c588ca54883b641350a00839eea", "input": "Passage: Many viral diseases can be prevented by giving people vaccines (see Figure below ). A vaccine is a substance that contains pathogens such as viruses. The pathogens have been changed in some way so they no longer cause disease. However, they can still provoke a response from the host’s immune system. This results in immunity, or the ability to resist the pathogen. Vaccines have been produced for the viruses that cause measles, chicken pox, mumps, polio, and several other diseases. Answer: vaccines", "output": [ "Many viral diseases can be prevented by giving people what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ae84c276953842e0bd8dc8c936e64770", "input": "Passage: This phylogenetic tree is based on comparisons of ribosomal RNA base sequences among living organisms. The tree divides all organisms into three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Humans and other animals belong to the Eukarya domain. From this tree, organisms that make up the domain Eukarya appear to have shared a more recent common ancestor with Archaea than Bacteria. Answer: new hyphae", "output": [ "What will spores that eventually germinate develop into?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8df580da1e2b4e2aab69b7125f29fbf5", "input": "Passage: Surface currents are extremely important because they distribute heat around the planet. Surface currents also have a tremendous influence on climate around the globe. Answer: surface", "output": [ "Which currents distribute heat around the planet and have a large impact on climate?" ] }, { "id": "task594-88e1d9865e3a438bbca3d500ec77e6bc", "input": "Passage: Traits that are affected by more than one gene are called polygenic traits . The genes that affect a polygenic trait may be closely linked on a chromosome, unlinked on a chromosome, or on different chromosomes. Polygenic traits are often difficult for geneticists to track because the polygenic trait may have many alleles. Also, independent assortment ensures the genes combine differently in gametes. Therefore, many different intermediate phenotypes exist in offspring. Eye color ( Figure below ), and skin color are examples of polygenic traits in humans. Answer: polygenic traits", "output": [ "Traits that are affected by more than one gene are what type of traits?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f3b273ba228b4c9dbc810b2f2e1ee609", "input": "Passage: Sometimes ecological succession occurs in areas where life has already existed. These areas already have soil full of nutrients. Secondary succession is the type of succession that happens after something destroys the habitat, such as a flood or other natural disaster. Abandoning a field that was once used for agriculture can also lead to secondary succession ( Figure below ). In this case, the pioneer species would be the grasses that first appear. Lichen would not be necessary as there is already nutrient-rich soil. Slowly, the field would return to its natural state. Answer: secondary succession", "output": [ "What is the type of succession that happens after the destruction of a habitat?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f8b455972a5e4893930dc880581be55c", "input": "Passage: Viewed from Earth, Mars is red. This is due to large amounts of iron in the soil. The ancient Greeks and Romans named the planet Mars after the god of war because the planet's red color reminded them of blood. Mars has only a very thin atmosphere made up mostly of carbon dioxide. Answer: iron", "output": [ "Mars appears red because of large amounts of which element in the soil?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8390cb4c9c0f465598a6cb126b71cce0", "input": "Passage: Bones are the main organs of the skeletal system. The skeletal system also includes cartilage and ligaments. Answer: skeletal system", "output": [ "Bones are the main organs of what system, which also includes cartilage and ligaments?" ] }, { "id": "task594-24e0568dd2c844359aa939d59d1544ed", "input": "Passage: The development of modern lasers has opened many doors to both research and applications. A laser beam was used to measure the distance from the Earth to the moon. Lasers are important components of CD players. As the image above illustrates, lasers can provide precise focusing of beams to selectively destroy cancer cells in patients. The ability of a laser to focus precisely is due to high-quality crystals that help give rise to the laser beam. A variety of techniques are used to manufacture pure crystals for use in lasers. Answer: laser beam", "output": [ "What was used to measure the distance between the earth and the moon?" ] }, { "id": "task594-355c305fd9fb43bab2d42e8c9119ed5b", "input": "Passage: The two materials do have at least one thing in common. The atoms in the materials are held together by covalent bonds. These bonds consist of electrons shared between two or more atoms. Unlike ionic bonds, where electrons are either lost or gained by an atom to form charged ions, electrons in covalent compounds are shared between the two atoms, giving rise to properties that are quite different from those seen in ionic materials. Answer: ionic bonds", "output": [ "Electrons in covalent compounds are shared between the two atoms, unlike the case in what type of bonds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-069173da0f0a4fea8ff37a5577ae8408", "input": "Passage: Acidity is measured on a pH scale. Rain that is 5.0 or less on that scale is considered acid rain. Answer: ph scale", "output": [ "Acidity is measured on what kind of scale?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1cd729b10d86409ca88bb5da2e6206e8", "input": "Passage: Mass can be destroyed to release energy. • We do not ordinarily notice the increase or decrease in mass of an object because the change in mass is so small for a large increase in energy. • The relativistic work-energy theorem is W net = E − E 0 = γmc 2 − mc 2 = ⎛⎝γ − 1⎞⎠mc 2 . • Relativistically,. Answer: energy", "output": [ "Mass can be destroyed to release what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b3a97ea2dbbb4669b872a797de4c0e68", "input": "Passage: Sensory Nerves The olfactory, optic, and vestibulocochlear nerves (cranial nerves I, II, and VIII) are dedicated to four of the special senses: smell, vision, equilibrium, and hearing, respectively. Taste sensation is relayed to the brain stem through fibers of the facial and glossopharyngeal nerves. The trigeminal nerve is a mixed nerve that carries the general somatic senses from the head, similar to those coming through spinal nerves from the rest of the body. Testing smell is straightforward, as common smells are presented to one nostril at a time. The patient should be able to recognize the smell of coffee or mint, indicating the proper functioning of the olfactory system. Loss of the sense of smell is called anosmia and can be lost following blunt trauma to the head or through aging. The short axons of the first cranial nerve regenerate on a regular basis. The neurons in the olfactory epithelium have a limited life span, and new cells grow to replace the ones that die off. The axons from these neurons grow back into the CNS by following the existing axons—representing one of the few examples of such growth in the mature nervous system. If all of the fibers are sheared when the brain moves within the cranium, such as in a motor vehicle accident, then no axons can find their way back to the olfactory bulb to reestablish connections. If the nerve is not completely severed, the anosmia may be temporary as new neurons can eventually reconnect. Answer: sensory", "output": [ "Olfactory, optic, and vestibulocochlear nerves are related to what type of function?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0e60d6ef44d141b68ac6e9595424f916", "input": "Passage: You can follow the operation of an electricity-generating fission reactor in the image above. The reactor core is submerged in a pool of water. The heat from the fission reaction heats the water, which is pumped into a heat exchange container. There the heated water boils the water in the heat exchanger. The produced steam is forced through a turbine that spins a generator and produces electricity. After the water passes through the turbine, it is condensed back to liquid water and pumped back to the heat exchanger. Answer: electricity", "output": [ "A turbine that spins a generator will produce?" ] }, { "id": "task594-07fc350325074c2dad149be04a158951", "input": "Passage: In chemosynthesis, organisms break down chemicals to make food energy. Answer: chemosynthesis", "output": [ "What is the process by which organisms break down chemicals to make food energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-daaffd7f41894384a160050efdf82e5b", "input": "Passage: Some bacteria can contaminate food and cause food poisoning. Answer: food poisoning", "output": [ "Some bacteria can contaminate food and cause what illness?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e76ad8657d6a49a0a675314e18c90c5e", "input": "Passage: Trophic level 4 = tertiary consumers that eat secondary consumers. Answer: secondary consumers", "output": [ "Trophic level 4 = tertiary consumers that eat what kind of consumers?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dd5377a31cdb47b2abe4775b06677ca7", "input": "Passage: Gas Laws and Air Composition Gas molecules exert force on the surfaces with which they are in contact; this force is called pressure. In natural systems, gases are normally present as a mixture of different types of molecules. For example, the atmosphere consists of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and other gaseous molecules, and this gaseous mixture exerts a certain pressure referred to as atmospheric pressure (Table 22.2). Partial pressure (Px) is the pressure of a single type of gas in a mixture of gases. For example, in the atmosphere, oxygen exerts a partial pressure, and nitrogen exerts another partial pressure, independent of the partial pressure of oxygen (Figure 22.21). Total pressure is the sum of all the partial pressures of a gaseous mixture. Dalton’s law describes the behavior of nonreactive gases in a gaseous mixture and states that a specific gas type in a mixture exerts its own pressure; thus, the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of the partial pressures of the gases in the mixture. Answer: atmospheric pressure", "output": [ "The atmosphere consists of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, which exerts a certain pressure referred to as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-af8c0b03640346238d75f8e89b644514", "input": "Passage: Sweating regulates body temperature. The composition of the sweat determines whether body odor is a byproduct of sweating. Visit this link (http://openstaxcollege. org/l/sweating) to learn more about sweating and body odor. Answer: regulating body temperature", "output": [ "What is the beneficial function to the body of sweating?" ] }, { "id": "task594-424adf4ac4e54d2da78a0d7dfbd58300", "input": "Passage: rem = rad × factor where factor is a number greater than or equal to 1 that takes into account the type of radioactive emission and sometimes the type of tissue being exposed. For beta particles, the factor equals 1. For alpha particles striking most tissues, the factor is 10, but for eye tissue the factor is 30. Most radioactive emissions that people are exposed to are on the order of a few dozen millirems (mrem) or less; a medical X-ray is about 20 mrem. A sievert (Sv) is a related unit and is defined as 100 rem. What is a person’s annual exposure to radioactivity and radiation? Table 15.3 \"Average Annual Radiation Exposure (Approximate)\" lists the sources and annual amounts of radiation exposure. It may surprise you to learn that fully 82% of the radioactivity and radiation exposure we receive is from natural sources— sources we cannot avoid. Fully 10% of the exposure comes from our own bodies—largely from carbon-14 and potassium-40. Table 15.3 Average Annual Radiation Exposure (Approximate). Answer: millirems", "output": [ "Most radioactive emissions that people are exposed to are on the order of a few dozen what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-af89f10425e44d83802d25ac191b3f65", "input": "Passage: The sliding-and-shortening process occurs all along many myofibrils and in many muscle fibers. It causes the muscle fibers to shorten and the muscle to contract. Answer: myofibrils", "output": [ "What part of the muscle fibers cause shortening and contraction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8ea7ec9b2249423b8b14e0c617b12430", "input": "Passage: Air enters the respiratory system through the nose. As the air passes through the nasal cavity, mucus and hairs trap any particles in the air. The air is also warmed and moistened so it won’t harm delicate tissues of the lungs. Answer: mucus and hair", "output": [ "In the nasal cavity, what 2 things trap particles from incoming air?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d951d6243a91418e8586192768dd6574", "input": "Passage: A human sperm is a tiny cell with a tail. A human egg is much larger. Both cells are mature haploid gametes that are capable of fertilization. What process is shown in this photograph? Notice the sperm with the head piece containing the genetic material, a flagella tail that propels the sperm, and a midpiece of mostly mitochondria, supplying ATP. Answer: the \"head\"", "output": [ "What part of the sperm contains the genetic material?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a0538d5b88a949f3b6697d52d529b363", "input": "Passage: Transition metals include the elements that are placed below the periodic table. Those that follow lanthanum (La) are called lanthanides. They are all shiny, relatively reactive metals. Those that follow Actinium (Ac) are called actinides. They are all radioactive metals. This means they are unstable. They break down into different, more stable elements. You can read more about radioactive elements in the chapter Nuclear Chemistry . Many of the actinides do not occur in nature but are made in laboratories. Answer: transition metals", "output": [ "What do you call the metal elements listed below the periodic table?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c6afde2fa34047cea1f10c31925f7d7b", "input": "Passage: Light may be refracted by matter. The light is bent when it passes from one type of matter to another. Refraction of light is similar to refraction of sound waves. You can also read more about refraction of light in the lesson “Optics. ”. Answer: refraction", "output": [ "What occurs when light bends as it passes from one type of matter to another?" ] }, { "id": "task594-625177f3e20c4b1fa62abaf7892b796c", "input": "Passage: The water cycle plays an important role in weather. When liquid water evaporates, it causes humidity. When water vapor condenses, it forms clouds and precipitation. Humidity, clouds, and precipitation are all important weather factors. Answer: humidity happens", "output": [ "What happens when liquid water evaporates?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d1b168ea67044fe082c0ad74e0fa083b", "input": "Passage: The cut on your hand may become red, warm, and swollen. These are signs of an inflammatory response. This is the first reaction of the body to tissue damage or infection. As explained in Figure below , the response is triggered by chemicals called cytokines and histamines , which are released when tissue is injured or infected. The chemicals communicate with other cells and coordinate the inflammatory response. You can see an animation of the inflammatory response at this link: http://www. sumanasinc. com/webcontent/animations/content/inflammatory. html . Answer: inflammatory", "output": [ "The first reaction of the body to tissue damage or infection is called the what response?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5f8d790e894144a9a7a7efa978e57e63", "input": "Passage: • Point masses are structureless particles that cannot spin. Answer: point masses", "output": [ "What type of masses are structureless particles that cannot spin?" ] }, { "id": "task594-899cb193d13749caaea84d7f6cc412f6", "input": "Passage: Herbivory has been used by seed plants for their own benefit in a display of mutualistic relationships. The dispersal of fruit by animals is the most striking example. The plant offers to the herbivore a nutritious source of food in return for spreading the plant’s genetic material to a wider area. An extreme example of collaboration between an animal and a plant is the case of acacia trees and ants. The trees support the insects with shelter and food. In return, ants discourage herbivores, both invertebrates and vertebrates, by stinging and attacking leaf-eating insects. Answer: dispersal of seeds", "output": [ "How do seed plants benefit from herbivores?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3d28dfc7d254420c809bca5eba89629c", "input": "Passage: DNA encodes instructions for proteins. RNA copies the genetic code in DNA and carries it to a ribosome. There, amino acids are joined together in the correct sequence to make a protein. Answer: proteins", "output": [ "Dna encodes instructions for what kind of molecules?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ff32e215a2034b85a04969026a9b155e", "input": "Passage: A chemical property describes the ability of a substance to undergo a specific chemical change. A chemical property of iron is that it is capable of combining with oxygen to form iron oxide, the chemical name of rust. The more general term for rusting and other similar processes is corrosion. Other terms that are commonly used in descriptions of chemical changes are burn, rot, explode, decompose, and ferment. Chemical properties are very useful in identifying substances. However, unlike physical properties, chemical properties can only be observed as the substance is in the process of being changed into a different substance. Answer: chemical change", "output": [ "A chemical property describes the ability of a substance to undergo a specific what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-98ec5965cec2498f845c133def6ef8fc", "input": "Passage: The reaction is exothermic and thus the sign of the enthalpy change is negative. Answer: negative", "output": [ "What enthalpy change is observed in an exothermic reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bbbdc56cfe09466a90d4b36811066faa", "input": "Passage: Thunderstorms are are known for their heavy rains and lightning. In strong thunderstorms, hail and high winds are also likely. Thunderstorms are very common. Worldwide, there are about 14 million of them each year! In the U. S. , they are most common — and strongest — in the Midwest. Answer: 14 million", "output": [ "About how many thunderstorms are there each year worldwide?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bb263925a9d74fb19a4a368ab854d80b", "input": "Passage: The dual character is critical for the formation of the lipid bilayer. The hydrophilic portions of the molecule are in contact with the aqueous environment of the cell, while the hydrophobic portion of the lipids is in the interior of the bilayer and provides a barrier to the passive diffusion of most molecules. Answer: lipid bilayer", "output": [ "The dual character is critical for the formation of the what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2c30493dfe6a4b99bf6ae6a011e72b90", "input": "Passage: 4. Zeros that appear after all nonzero digits are called right-end zeros. Right-end zeros in a number that lacks a decimal point are not significant. A. 140 has two significant figures. Answer: right-end zeros", "output": [ "What do we call zeros that appear after nonzero digits?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1ce0d67f043b4fe683884c9031e22fb3", "input": "Passage: Radar maps of Venus show that it has mountains, canyons and volcanoes surrounded by plains of lava. Answer: lava", "output": [ "Radar maps of venus show that it has mountains, canyons and volcanoes surrounded by plains of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7fbba63538a44b3e927c85f6fc01a46d", "input": "Passage: Consumers are organisms that depend on other living things for food. They take in organic compounds by eating or absorbing other living things. Consumers include all animals and fungi. They also include some bacteria and protists. Answer: consumers", "output": [ "What are organisms that depend on other living things for food?" ] }, { "id": "task594-54e2e0322a014f03989f624aaf838cc0", "input": "Passage: The classes of elements are metals, metalloids, and nonmetals. They are color-coded in the table. Blue stands for metals, orange for metalloids, and green for nonmetals. You can read about each of these three classes of elements later in the chapter, in the lesson \"Classes of Elements. \". Answer: elements", "output": [ "Metals, metalloids, and nonmetals are the different classes of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3db125e8a3de48a18b0d1855393d6aa4", "input": "Passage: Volcanoes may be active, dormant, or extinct. This depends on whether there is the possibility of magma in their magma chambers. Answer: magma", "output": [ "Volcanoes are termed active, dormant, or extinct depending on the possibility of the presence of what in chamber structures?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f4e62916590e444eaf0e97dc04c2a5b3", "input": "Passage: Figure 16.33 The wave on a guitar string is transverse. The sound wave rattles a sheet of paper in a direction that shows the sound wave is longitudinal. Answer: longitudinal", "output": [ "The wave on a guitar string is transverse. the sound wave rattles a sheet of paper in a direction that shows the sound wave is what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-be03717b40e84974ac783de5514ee12e", "input": "Passage: Electronegativity Differences between Metals and Nonmetals An element’s electronegativity provides us with a single value that we can use to characterize the chemistry of an element. Elements with a high electronegativity (χ ≥ 2.2 in Figure 7.15 \"Pauling Electronegativity Values of the \") have very negative affinities and large ionization potentials, so they are generally nonmetals and electrical insulators that tend to gain electrons in chemical reactions (i. , they are oxidants). In contrast, elements with a low electronegativity (χ ≤ 1.8) have electron affinities that have either positive or small negative values and small ionization potentials, so they are generally metals and good electrical conductors that tend to lose their valence electrons in chemical reactions (i. , they are reductants). In between the metals and nonmetals, along the heavy diagonal line running from B to At in Figure 1.24 \"The Periodic Table Showing the Elements in Order of Increasing \", is a group of elements with intermediate electronegativities (χ ~ 2.0). These are the semimetals, elements that have some of the chemical properties of both nonmetals and metals. The distinction between metals and nonmetals is. Answer: reductants", "output": [ "What are metals and good electrical conductors that tend to lose their valence electrons in chemical reactions called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cb083593ad9f48e38e97de21f1eeaf9f", "input": "Passage: Human skin color is primarily due to the presence of the pigment melanin in the skin. Melanin is not a protein, but it is the product of a biosynthetic pathway. Skin color is a polygenic trait and obviously demonstrates quantitative characteristics. A number of genes factor into determining a person's natural skin color, so modifying only one of those genes changes the color only slightly. It is currently thought that at least three separately inherited genes contribute to skin pigmentation. Let’s call these three genes A, B, and C. A, B, and C are incompletely dominant to a, b, and c, with A, B, and C each contributing a “unit of darkness” to the phenotype. Therefore an AABBCC individual is very dark, darker than an AaBbCc individual, and much darker than a aabbcc individual. A person may have as many as 6 “dark units” to as few as no “dark units,” and any combination in between. This will result in a phenotypic spectrum of color gradation. When graphed, a phenotypic spectrum usually results in a bell-shaped curve, with extreme phenotypes on both ends and more common phenotypes in the center of the curve. Answer: melanin", "output": [ "Human skin color is primarily due to the presence of what pigment in the skin?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8cbe4dc8573e4fcf9937d1a6cae66f13", "input": "Passage: Pepsinogen is an inactive form of pepsin; pepsin is the active form of the enzyme. Both enzymes catalyze the hydrolysis of peptide bonds. Chymotrypsin catalyzes the hydrolysis of peptide bonds following aromatic amino acids, while trypsin catalyzes the hydrolysis of peptide bonds following lysine and arginine. Aminopeptidase catalyzes the hydrolysis of amino acids from the N-terminal end of a protein, while carboxypeptidase catalyzes the hydrolysis of amino acids from the Cterminal end of a protein. Answer: aminopeptidase", "output": [ "What catalyzes the hydrolysis of amino acids from the n-terminal end of a protein?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0592dd810f0548fc90355dcde6f5b038", "input": "Passage: Absorption of Light Light energy enters the process of photosynthesis when pigments absorb the light. In plants, pigment molecules absorb only visible light for photosynthesis. The visible light seen by humans as white light actually exists in a rainbow of colors. Certain objects, such as a prism or a drop of water, disperse white light to reveal these colors to the human eye. The visible light portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is perceived by the human eye as a rainbow of colors, with violet and blue having shorter wavelengths and, therefore, higher energy. At the other end of the spectrum toward red, the wavelengths are longer and have lower energy. Answer: rainbow of colors", "output": [ "In plants, pigment molecules absorb only visible light for photosynthesis. the visible light seen by humans as white light actually exists in a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-60b1a5db78294ea680cf41f13d3507c5", "input": "Passage: Light microscopes allow biologists to see small details of a specimen. Most of the microscopes used in schools and laboratories are light microscopes. Light microscopes use lenses, typically made of glass or plastic, to focus light either into the eye, a camera, or some other light detector. The most powerful light microscopes can make images up to 2,000 times larger. Answer: 2000 times", "output": [ "How much larger can the most powerful light microscropes make an image?" ] }, { "id": "task594-483041471dc34428b1346303e0af1bf7", "input": "Passage: Insecticides are commonly used to control insect pests, but they can have harmful effects on the environment. Answer: insecticides", "output": [ "What are commonly used to control insect pests, but can have harmful effects on the environment?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6e52be6d35b1443788d80b63b786b571", "input": "Passage: Oncogenes are genes involved in cancer formation. Answer: cancer", "output": [ "Oncogenes are involved in the formation of what disease?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b63fa3e13ea84a5d8c330bd4d67d2a22", "input": "Passage: Human Biology provides an overview of the physiology of humans, from the skin inward. In addition to the skin, the skeletal, muscular, nervous, circulatory, respiratory, digestive, excretory, immune, and reproductive systems are described. Answer: human biology", "output": [ "What branch of science offers an overview of the physiology of humans?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ee310ffc5df24b1a8a5d2d8d5a09d61d", "input": "Passage: Prokaryotic organisms reproduce asexually by binary fission , a process that produces identical offspring ( Figure below ). In asexual reproduction , a single parent produces genetically identical offspring. As prokaryotes do not have a nucleus, and have only one circular chromosome, they do not need to reproduce by the same mechanism as eukaryotic cells; mitosis does not exist in prokaryotic cells . Prokaryotic cell division is a much simpler process. In prokaryotic cell division, after the single chromosome is copied, the cell grows larger. Eventually the two chromosomes separate and move to opposite ends of the cell. Newly formed cell membrane then grows into the center of the cell, separating the two chromosomes, and forming two genetically identical daughter cells. Some eukaryotic organelles, such as mitochondria and chloroplasts, also divide by binary fission. Answer: binary fission", "output": [ "How do prokaryotic organisms reproduce asexually?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e2cf069091ff479fbbeb5facc4d657b1", "input": "Passage: Metals will typically lose electrons to achieve stability, while non-metals typically gain electrons to achieve stability. Two atoms or ions with the same number of electrons are referred to as isoelectronic . Answer: electrons", "output": [ "What do metals typically lose to achieve stability?" ] }, { "id": "task594-efe0883e354248eeacece309a4d0232b", "input": "Passage: Thermal Expansion The intermolecular forces in liquids are strong enough to keep them from expanding significantly when heated (typically only a few percent over a 100°C temperature range). Thus the volumes of liquids are somewhat fixed. Notice from Table 11.1 \"The Density of Water at Various Temperatures\" that the density of water, for example, changes by only about 3% over a 90-degree temperature range. Table 11.1 The Density of Water at Various Temperatures. Answer: intermolecular forces", "output": [ "What forces in liquids are strong enough to keep them from expanding significantly when heated?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c2e8eb09640742d28f8ff235b41c58c9", "input": "Passage: The combined gas law relates pressure, volume, and temperature of a gas. Answer: combines gas law", "output": [ "Which law relates the pressure, volume, and temperature of a gas?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6ed8ff4d747242cd8b892cb93f11091a", "input": "Passage: How can a molecule containing just 4 different nucleotides specify the sequence of the 20 amino acids that occur in proteins? If each nucleotide coded for 1 amino acid, then obviously the nucleic acids could code for only 4 amino acids. What if amino acids were coded for by groups of 2 nucleotides? There are 42, or 16, different combinations of 2 nucleotides (AA, AU, AC, AG, UU, and so on). Such a code is more extensive but still not adequate to code for 20 amino acids. However, if the nucleotides are arranged in groups of 3, the number of different possible combinations is 43, or 64. Here we have a code that is extensive enough to direct the synthesis of the primary structure of a protein molecule. The genetic code can therefore be described as the identification of each group of three nucleotides and its particular amino acid. The sequence of these triplet groups in the mRNA dictates the sequence of the amino acids in the protein. Each individual three-nucleotide coding unit, as we have seen, is called a codon. Protein synthesis is accomplished by orderly interactions between mRNA and the other ribonucleic acids (transfer RNA [tRNA] and ribosomal RNA [rRNA]), the ribosome, and more than 100 enzymes. The mRNA formed in the nucleus during transcription is transported across the nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm to the ribosomes—carrying with it the genetic instructions. The process in which the information encoded in the mRNA is used to direct the sequencing of amino acids and thus ultimately to synthesize a protein is referred to as translation. Before an amino acid can be incorporated into a polypeptide chain, it must be attached to its unique tRNA. This crucial process requires an enzyme known as aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase (Figure 19.12 \"Binding of an Amino Acid to Its tRNA\"). There is a specific aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase for each amino acid. This high degree of specificity is vital to the incorporation of the correct amino acid into a protein. After the amino acid molecule has been bound to its tRNA carrier, protein synthesis can take place. Figure 19.13 \"The Elongation Steps in Protein Synthesis\" depicts a schematic stepwise representation of this all-important process. Figure 19.12 Binding of an Amino Acid to Its tRNA Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: trna carrier", "output": [ "After the amino acid molecule has been bound to its what, protein synthesis can take place?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2556c81d42124994b3073d2bafe5c04b", "input": "Passage: Nucleic acids are biochemical compounds that include RNA (ribonucleic acid) and DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Nucleic acids consist of chains of small molecules called nucleotides. Nucleotides are the monomers of nucleic acids. A nucleotide is shown in Figure below . Answer: nucleic acids", "output": [ "What consist of chains of small molecules called nucleotides?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f5434b2faf8649a38334df29db3ecef6", "input": "Passage: Chapter 46 1 Figure 46.8 According to the first law of thermodynamics, energy can neither be created nor destroyed. Eventually, all energy consumed by living systems is lost as heat or used for respiration, and the total energy output of the system must equal the energy that went into it. 3 Figure 46.17 C: Nitrification by bacteria converts nitrates (NO3−) to nitrites (NO2−). 4 D 6 B 8 A 10 D 12 D 14 B 16 A 18 A 20 C 21 Food webs show interacting groups of different species and their many interconnections with each other and the environment. Food chains are linear aspects of food webs that describe the succession of organisms consuming one another at defined trophic levels. Food webs are a more accurate representation of the structure and dynamics of an ecosystem. Food chains are easier to model and use for experimental studies. 23 Grazing food webs have a primary producer at their base, which is either a plant for terrestrial ecosystems or a phytoplankton for aquatic ecosystems. The producers pass their energy to the various trophic levels of consumers. At the base of detrital food webs are the decomposers, which pass this energy to a variety of other consumers. Detrital food webs are important for the health of many grazing food webs because they eliminate dead and decaying organic material, thus, clearing space for new organisms and removing potential causes of disease. By breaking down dead organic matter, decomposers also make mineral nutrients available to primary producers; this process is a vital link in nutrient cycling. 25 NPE measures the rate at which one trophic level can use and make biomass from what it attained in the previous level, taking into account respiration, defecation, and heat loss. Endotherms have high metabolism and generate a lot of body heat. Although this gives them advantages in their activity level in colder temperatures, these organisms are 10 times less efficient at harnessing the energy from the food they eat compared with cold-blooded animals, and thus have to eat more and more often. 27 Many factors can kill life in a lake or ocean, such as eutrophication by nutrient-rich surface runoff, oil spills, toxic waste spills, changes in climate, and the dumping of garbage into the ocean. Eutrophication is a result of nutrient-rich runoff from land using artificial fertilizers high in nitrogen and phosphorus. These nutrients cause the rapid and excessive growth of microorganisms, which deplete local dissolved oxygen and kill many fish and other aquatic organisms. Answer: energy", "output": [ "According to the first law of thermodynamics, what can neither be created nor destroyed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fe8e8fa3f0e7499696eca9cc359ca773", "input": "Passage: Burning and other changes in matter do not destroy matter. The mass of matter is always the same before and after the changes occur. Answer: the mass remains the same", "output": [ "How does burning matter affect its mass?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ae7b24ed31ed46e1b4a8617fce80e23f", "input": "Passage: MyPyramid can help you choose foods wisely for good health. Each colored band represents a different food group. The key shows which food group each color represents. Which colored band of MyPyramid is widest? Which food group does it represent?. Answer: food groups", "output": [ "Mypyramid features colored bands that represent what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e6eda70c25d04725b1043eaac1681d42", "input": "Passage: The echinoderm nervous system has a nerve ring at the center and five radial nerves extending outward along the arms. There is no centralized nervous control. Echinoderms have separate sexes and release their gametes into the water where fertilization takes place. Echinoderms may also reproduce asexually through regeneration from body parts. Answer: fertilization", "output": [ "What process takes place when echinoderms release their gametes into the water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-df98672d50cc4afca0e55369ea72904c", "input": "Passage: Independent assortment occurs when chromosomes go to opposite poles of the cell in anaphase I. Which chromosomes end up together at each pole is a matter of chance. You can see this in Figures 5.15 and 5.16 as well. Answer: chromosomes", "output": [ "Independent assortment occurs when what go to opposite poles of the cell in anaphase i?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d11c07419f41451f88b3873002d91346", "input": "Passage: With the naked eye, bacteria just look like a slimy smear on a petri dish. How can we study them in more detail? The invention of the microscope has allowed us to see bacteria, cells, and other things too small to be seen with the naked eye. Answer: slimy smear", "output": [ "How does the bacteria look when seen with the naked eye?" ] }, { "id": "task594-003c4f6a8bcd4ba1b40806b58552c02c", "input": "Passage: Perhaps the most familiar liquid-solid solution is dental amalgam, used to fill teeth when there is a cavity. Approximately 50% of the amalgam material is liquid mercury to which a powdered alloy of silver, tin and copper is added. Mercury is used because it binds well with the solid metal alloy. However, the use of mercury-based dental amalgam has gone under question in recent years because of concerns regarding the toxicity of mercury. Answer: the toxicity", "output": [ "The use of mercury-based dental amalgam has gone under question in recent years because of concerns regarding what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-85264dcf937344be85d93380e65b56d9", "input": "Passage: The peripheral nervous system consists of all the nerves that are found outside the central nervous system. Answer: central nervous system", "output": [ "The peripheral nervous system consists of all the nerves that are found outside what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-11c6e1d0e1a84e4387656b5bee27522b", "input": "Passage: Ionic substances are completely held together by ionic bonds. The full charges of the ions (for example, Na + and Cl - in sodium chloride) cause electrostatic interactions that result in a stable crystal lattice. We saw in the previous chapter that most ionic compounds have high melting points, are brittle, are often soluble in water, and conduct electricity when melted or dissolved in water. Ionic compounds exist as extended, orderly arrangements of ions. As we will see, this is quite different from the structure of molecular substances, which take the form of collections of individual molecules. The atoms within a molecule are held very strongly together, but the interactions between different molecules are significantly weaker. Answer: ionic bonds", "output": [ "What are ionic substances completely held together by?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d2c3b0e32f4148b7849526be73ae302f", "input": "Passage: Chemistry in Everyday Life Statue of Liberty: Changing Colors The Statue of Liberty is a landmark every American recognizes. The Statue of Liberty is easily identified by its height, stance, and unique blue-green color (Figure 17.16). When this statue was first delivered from France, its appearance was not green. It was brown, the color of its copper “skin. ” So how did the Statue of Liberty change colors? The change in appearance was a direct result of corrosion. The copper that is the primary component of the statue slowly underwent oxidation from the air. The oxidation-reduction reactions of copper metal in the environment occur in several steps. Copper metal is oxidized to copper(I) oxide (Cu2O), which is red, and then to copper(II) oxide, which is black. Answer: corrosion", "output": [ "Changes in the color of the statue of liberty owe to oxidation-reduction reactions, or what simpler term?" ] }, { "id": "task594-906fb92f496445f7bf2418d139659fdd", "input": "Passage: Dendrites extend from the cell body and receive nerve impulses from other neurons. Answer: other neurons", "output": [ "What do dendrites from the cell body recieve impulses from?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9fa69a4be4534b27aa9e414b8f69df2e", "input": "Passage: There are two main types of fats, saturated and unsaturated. Answer: fats", "output": [ "Saturated and unsaturated are the two main kinds of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2352a71ce2e14e03b19bedddb11cd71d", "input": "Passage: Figure 4.11 The nucleus stores chromatin (DNA plus proteins) in a gel-like substance called the nucleoplasm. The nucleolus is a condensed region of chromatin where ribosome synthesis occurs. The boundary of the nucleus is called the nuclear envelope. It consists of two phospholipid bilayers: an outer membrane and an inner membrane. The nuclear membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum. Nuclear pores allow substances to enter and exit the nucleus. Answer: nucleoplasm", "output": [ "Where does the nucleus store chromatin ?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9cea32e9d6a54dde8f14d918f25eaf0f", "input": "Passage: The human species evolved during the Cenozoic Era. The scientific name of the human species is Homo sapiens. Answer: homo sapiens", "output": [ "What is the scientific name for the human species?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c8ce65f00a7b47c8b553dc3f9951ec11", "input": "Passage: Bonds break and reform during chemical reactions. Reactants and products contain the same atoms, but they are rearranged during the reaction, so reactants and products are different substances. Answer: reactants", "output": [ "In a chemical reaction, what, in general, comes together in order to form a product?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e67c42b75f454b8983706d3c478cdfdd", "input": "Passage: The nucleus of many cells also contains a non-membrane bound organelle called a nucleolus , shown in Figure below . The nucleolus is mainly involved in the assembly of ribosomes. Ribosomes are organelles made of protein and ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and they build cellular proteins in the cytoplasm. The function of the rRNA is to provide a way of decoding the genetic messages within another type of RNA (called mRNA), into amino acids. After being made in the nucleolus, ribosomes are exported to the cytoplasm, where they direct protein synthesis. Answer: ribosomes", "output": [ "What are organelles made of protein and ribosomal rna (rrna)?" ] }, { "id": "task594-115b0cd302fa4a4db7d62e54239549df", "input": "Passage: Summary Nuclear reactions are accompanied by large changes in energy, which result in detectable changes in mass. The change in mass is related to the change in energy according to Einstein’s equation: ΔE = (Δm)c2. Large changes in energy are usually reported in kiloelectronvolts or megaelectronvolts (thousands or millions of electronvolts). With the exception of 1H, the experimentally determined mass of an atom is always less than the sum of the masses of the component particles (protons, neutrons, and electrons) by an amount called the mass defect of the nucleus. The energy corresponding to the mass defect is the nuclear binding energy, the amount of energy released when a nucleus forms from its component particles. In nuclear fission, nuclei split into lighter nuclei with an accompanying release of multiple neutrons and large amounts of energy. Thecritical mass is the minimum mass required to support a self-sustainingnuclear chain reaction. Nuclear fusion is a process in which two light nuclei combine to produce a heavier nucleus plus a great deal of energy. Answer: nuclear fusion", "output": [ "In which process do two light nuclei combine to produce a heavier nucleus and great energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4c2e805606c241989cdaa7f4601582b7", "input": "Passage: Because air is slightly more optically dense than a vacuum, when sunlight passes from the vacuum of space into our atmosphere, it bends slightly towards the normal. When the sun is below the horizon and thus not visible on a direct line, the light path will bend slightly and thus make the sun visible by refraction. Observers can see the sun before it actually comes up over the horizon, or after it sets. Answer: refraction", "output": [ "When the sun is below the horizon and thus not visible on a direct line, the light path will bend slightly and thus make the sun visible by what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b2ae69a2e09c4b899f79ea4f7fb91c82", "input": "Passage: Contact metamorphism occurs when hot magma transforms rock that it contacts. Answer: contact metamorphism", "output": [ "What occurs when hot magma transforms rock that it contacts?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0725f03d35c74e40980f463fa2679dd6", "input": "Passage: The stars that make up a constellation appear close to each other from Earth. In reality, they may be very distant from one another. Constellations were important to people, like the Ancient Greeks. People who spent a lot of time outdoors at night, like shepherds, named the constellations. They told stories about them. Pictured below is one of the most easily recognized constellations ( Figure below ). The ancient Greeks thought this group of stars looked like a hunter. They named it Orion, after a great hunter in Greek mythology. Answer: constellations", "output": [ "What do you call the patterns and groups of stars in the sky that ancient people observed and made stories about?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f28c26e471924310aa0b97242f47dacb", "input": "Passage: The dermis is the layer of skin directly under the epidermis. It is made of a tough connective tissue. The dermis contains hair follicles, sweat glands, oil glands, and blood vessels ( Figure above ). It also holds many nerve endings that give you your sense of touch, pressure, heat, and pain. Answer: the dermis", "output": [ "What layer of skin is directly under the epidermis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c04dfe0ee129445dba68dabed39e293a", "input": "Passage: Plant-like protists are essential to the ecosystem. They are the base of the marine food chain, and they produce oxygen through photosynthesis for animals to breathe. They are classified into a number of basic groups ( Table below ). Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "Plant-like protists produce oxygen through which process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-20f7ce34fe6e4c7d8ac47aa45f4283aa", "input": "Passage: Rougher surfaces have more friction between them than smoother surfaces. That’s why we put sand on icy sidewalks and roads. The blades of skates are much smoother than the soles of shoes. That’s why you can’t slide as far across ice with shoes as you can with skates (see Figure below ). The rougher surface of shoes causes more friction and slows you down. Heavier objects also have more friction because they press together with greater force. Did you ever try to push boxes or furniture across the floor? It’s harder to overcome friction between heavier objects and the floor than it is between lighter objects and the floor. Answer: friction", "output": [ "What force is greater on rougher surfaces than smooth surfaces?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0304f92cfc1c4e7ca3a8dc255ad3b178", "input": "Passage: The placenta is a spongy mass of blood vessels. Some of the vessels come from the mother. Some come from the fetus. The placenta is attached to the inside of the mother’s uterus. The fetus is connected to the placenta by a tube called the umbilical cord . The cord contains two arteries and a vein. Substances pass back and forth between the mother’s and fetus’s blood through the placenta and cord. Oxygen and nutrients pass from the mother to the fetus. Carbon dioxide passes from the fetus to the mother. Answer: placenta", "output": [ "The fetus is connected to what by a tube called the umbilical cord?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c3779cec41464f198dbbeafc1908cba9", "input": "Passage: The pharyngeal slits are located in the pharynx. The pharynx is the tube that joins the mouth to the digestive and respiratory tracts. Answer: pharynx", "output": [ "Where are the pharyngeal slits located?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5904a8af4b5f4706ab8548c4c95a86ee", "input": "Passage: The nervous system sends electrical messages throughout the body and controls all other body systems. Answer: the nervous system", "output": [ "Which body system controls all the others by sending electrical messages?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7271f55c87f64743b161b2d29262e977", "input": "Passage: Monotremes have a cloaca instead of a uterus and vagina. The eggs pass through the opening of the cloaca. Answer: cloaca", "output": [ "What do monotremes have instead of a uterus and vagina?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dc13ec3e562a405cb0204ea30d348baa", "input": "Passage: Ionic bonds form only between metals and nonmetals. Metals \"want\" to give up electrons, and nonmetals \"want\" to gain electrons. Find sodium (Na) in Figure below . Sodium is an alkali metal in group 1. Like other group 1 elements, it has just one valence electron. If sodium loses that one electron, it will have a full outer energy level. Now find fluorine (F) in Figure below . Fluorine is a halogen in group 17. It has seven valence electrons. If fluorine gains one electron, it will have a full outer energy level. After sodium gives up its valence electron to fluorine, both atoms have a more stable arrangement of electrons. Answer: ionic bonds", "output": [ "What type of bonds form only between metals and nonmetals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4a4467364ee045ad9ff6f36e5f4c2402", "input": "Passage: Acceleration occurs when a force is applied to a moving object. Answer: acceleration", "output": [ "What occurs when force is applied to a moving object?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a29108c48261473dafd7079809c775d7", "input": "Passage: skin infection caused by the fungus Trichophyton that causes a characteristic ring-shaped rash. Answer: ring-shaped", "output": [ "What shape rash is formed from a skin infection caused by trichophyton?" ] }, { "id": "task594-31934ce6f81f4b53ac7be067d01da4d0", "input": "Passage: Sound, like all waves, travels at a certain speed and has the properties of frequency and wavelength. You can observe direct evidence of the speed of sound while watching a fireworks display. The flash of an explosion is seen well before its sound is heard, implying both that sound travels at a finite speed and that it is much slower than light. You can also directly sense the frequency of a sound. Perception of frequency is called pitch. The wavelength of sound is not directly sensed, but indirect evidence is found in the correlation of the size of musical instruments with their pitch. Small instruments, such as a piccolo, typically make high-pitch sounds, while large instruments, such as a tuba, typically make low-pitch sounds. High pitch means small wavelength, and the size of a musical instrument is directly related to the wavelengths of sound it produces. So a small instrument creates short-wavelength sounds. Similar arguments hold that a large instrument creates long-wavelength sounds. The relationship of the speed of sound, its frequency, and wavelength is the same as for all waves:. Answer: wavelength", "output": [ "Sound, like all waves, travels at a certain speed and has the properties of frequency and this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dae57b7037d14a349b8dea3c9a05f24a", "input": "Passage: Because the organs of the integumentary system are external to the body, you may think of them as little more than “accessories,” like clothing or jewelry. But the organs of the integumentary system serve important biological functions. They provide a protective covering for the body and help the body maintain homeostasis. Answer: integumentary system", "output": [ "What provides a protective covering for the body and helps maintain homeostasis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b560bb15de80482e9cdad90d1805f78f", "input": "Passage: Mutation Mutations are changes to an organism’s DNA and are an important driver of diversity in populations. Species evolve because of the accumulation of mutations that occur over time. The appearance of new mutations is the most common way to introduce novel genotypic and phenotypic variance. Some mutations are unfavorable or harmful and are quickly eliminated from the population by natural selection. Others are beneficial and will spread through the population. Whether or not a mutation is beneficial or harmful is determined by whether it helps an organism survive to sexual maturity and reproduce. Some mutations do not do anything and can linger, unaffected by natural selection, in the genome. Some can have a dramatic effect on a gene and the resulting phenotype. Answer: mutations", "output": [ "What term is used to describe changes to an organism’s dna and are an important driver of diversity in populations?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f25a9331919e4653b701c60c98f98e41", "input": "Passage: The menstrual cycle includes events that take place in the ovary, such as ovulation. It also includes changes in the uterus, including menstruation. Menopause occurs when menstruation stops occurring, usually in middle adulthood. Answer: in middle adulthood", "output": [ "At what time of life does menopause occur?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6349c3e68e8f4144ba29a9ab2a5c4f4d", "input": "Passage: A combustion reaction is a reaction in which a substance reacts with oxygen gas, releasing energy in the form of light and heat. Combustion reactions must involve O 2 as one reactant. The combustion of hydrogen gas produces water vapor. Answer: oxygen", "output": [ "What chemical element is required for a combustion reaction ?" ] }, { "id": "task594-17713da67fde4476bf5e5b96c22751f4", "input": "Passage: There are about 10,000 living species of birds. Almost all of them can fly. Flying birds are classified in 29 orders. Most species belong to the order of perching birds. A few birds are flightless, such as the ostrich and penguin, but they evolved from a flying ancestor. Answer: flightlessness", "output": [ "What important and unusual physical property (for birds) do ostriches and penguins share?" ] }, { "id": "task594-84eab1584bb3490982d9cf8793af92df", "input": "Passage: A combustion reaction occurs when a substance reacts quickly with oxygen (O 2 ). You can see an example of a combustion reaction in Figure below . Combustion is commonly called burning. The substance that burns is usually referred to as fuel. The products of a combustion reaction include carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and water (H 2 O). The reaction typically gives off heat and light as well. The general equation for a combustion reaction can be represented by:. Answer: combustion reaction", "output": [ "What occurs when a substance reacts quickly with oxygen?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9b3c80cf938a4b3fa0c284711b73f76d", "input": "Passage: Figure 20.11 Carbon dioxide gas exists in the atmosphere and is dissolved in water. Photosynthesis converts carbon dioxide gas to organic carbon, and respiration cycles the organic carbon back into carbon dioxide gas. Long-term storage of organic carbon occurs when matter from living organisms is buried deep underground and becomes fossilized. Volcanic activity and, more recently, human emissions bring this stored carbon back into the carbon cycle. (credit: modification of work by John M. Evans and Howard Perlman, USGS). Answer: carbon", "output": [ "Long-term storage of what element occurs when matter from living organisms is buried deep underground and becomes fossilized?" ] }, { "id": "task594-85dfdb5ea89c4df493bf324a250cab69", "input": "Passage: Climate influences the types of plants and animals that inhabit a specific biome. Answer: climate", "output": [ "What influences the types of plants and animals that inhabit a specific biome?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d6929be3b3c543feafa83917a32950a8", "input": "Passage: linked to a lower incidence of certain diseases. Thus, there have been an increasing number of recommendations by government bodies and health associations to decrease the proportion of saturated fat and increase the proportion of unsaturated fat in the diet. Most of these organizations also recommend decreasing the total amount of fat in the diet. Recently, certain fats called trans fats have been implicated in the presence of heart disease. These are fats from animal sources and are also produced when liquid oils are exposed to partial hydrogenation, an industrial process that increases their saturation. Trans fats are used in many prepared and fried foods. Because they bring with them the health risks that naturally occurring saturated fats do, there has been some effort to better quantify the presence of trans fats in food products. US law now requires that food labels list the amount of trans fat in each serving. Since 1992, the US Department of Agriculture has been promoting a food pyramid that gives a simple, visual picture of how much of what kind of foods make up a good, balanced diet. It recommends eating as few fats as possible. Although nutritionists recognize that some fat is necessary (and largely unavoidable, even by strict vegetarians), they emphasize that a large proportion of any fat, saturated or unsaturated, in the diet is unhealthy. Even so, a difference as simple as the difference between a single and double carbon–carbon bond can have a significant impact on health. Answer: trans fats", "output": [ "What kind of fats have been implicated in the presence of heart disease?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f0fd3e45f8e347838edb53486936859c", "input": "Passage: Decomposition of dead organisms and organic wastes releases carbon back to the atmosphere, soil, or ocean. Answer: carbon", "output": [ "What does the decomposition of dead organisms and organic waste release into the atmosphere, soil, or ocean?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d72f8eb6e9e544d6a14bd7d774ad1351", "input": "Passage: Liquids that mix with water in all proportions are usually polar substances or substances that form hydrogen bonds. For such liquids, the dipole-dipole attractions (or hydrogen bonding) of the solute molecules with the solvent molecules are at least as strong as those between molecules in the pure solute or in the pure solvent. Hence, the two kinds of molecules mix easily. Likewise, nonpolar liquids are miscible with each other because there is no appreciable difference in the strengths of solute-solute, solvent-solvent, and solute-solvent intermolecular attractions. The solubility of polar molecules in polar solvents and of nonpolar molecules in nonpolar solvents is, again, an illustration of the chemical axiom “like dissolves like. ” Two liquids that do not mix to an appreciable extent are called immiscible. Layers are formed when we pour immiscible liquids into the same container. Gasoline, oil (Figure 11.15), benzene, carbon tetrachloride, some paints, and many other nonpolar liquids are immiscible with water. The attraction between the molecules of such nonpolar liquids and polar water molecules is ineffectively weak. The only strong attractions in such a mixture are between the water molecules, so they effectively squeeze out the molecules of the nonpolar liquid. The distinction between immiscibility and miscibility is really one of degrees, so that miscible liquids are of infinite mutual solubility, while liquids said to be immiscible are of very low (though not zero) mutual solubility. Answer: hydrogen bonds", "output": [ "Liquids that mix with water in all proportions are usually polar substances or substances that form these?" ] }, { "id": "task594-808c40a108b44a2f8e3aafeccbcbfd13", "input": "Passage: Engineering is the practical application of scientific principles and discoveries to develop things that make our lives easier. Is medicine science or engineering? Justify your answer. Answer: engineering", "output": [ "What is the practical application of scientific principles and discoveries to develop things that make our lives easier?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c91b8bea4d2042b8b4896da29a27599d", "input": "Passage: Experimental controls are other factors that might affect the dependent variable. They are kept constant so they will not affect the results of the experiment. Answer: experimental controls", "output": [ "In an experiment, what is kept constant so they will not affect the results, including affecting the dependent variable?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fe0e866827454fd6867f574783b02fcc", "input": "Passage: Cervical Vertebrae Typical cervical vertebrae, such as C4 or C5, have several characteristic features that differentiate them from thoracic or lumbar vertebrae (Figure 7.25). Cervical vertebrae have a small body, reflecting the fact that they carry the least amount of body weight. Cervical vertebrae usually have a bifid (Y-shaped) spinous process. The spinous processes of the C3–C6 vertebrae are short, but the spine of C7 is much longer. You can find these vertebrae by running your finger down the midline of the posterior neck until you encounter the prominent C7 spine located at the base of the neck. The transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae are sharply curved (U-shaped) to allow for passage of the cervical spinal nerves. Each transverse process also has an opening called the transverse foramen. An important artery that supplies the brain ascends up the neck by passing through these openings. The superior and inferior articular processes of the cervical vertebrae are flattened and largely face upward or downward, respectively. The first and second cervical vertebrae are further modified, giving each a distinctive appearance. The first cervical (C1) vertebra is also called the atlas, because this is the vertebra that supports the skull on top of the vertebral column (in Greek mythology, Atlas was the god who supported the heavens on his shoulders). The C1 vertebra does not have a body or spinous process. Instead, it is ring-shaped, consisting of an anterior arch and a posterior arch. The transverse processes of the atlas are longer and extend more laterally than do the transverse processes of any other cervical vertebrae. The superior articular processes face upward and are deeply curved for articulation with the occipital condyles on the base of the skull. The inferior articular processes are flat and face downward to join with the superior articular processes of the C2 vertebra. The second cervical (C2) vertebra is called the axis, because it serves as the axis for rotation when turning the head toward the right or left. The axis resembles typical cervical vertebrae in most respects, but is easily distinguished by the dens (odontoid process), a bony projection that extends upward from the vertebral body. The dens joins with the inner aspect of the anterior arch of the atlas, where it is held in place by transverse ligament. Answer: vertebrae", "output": [ "Compared to thoracic and lumbar types, the cervical type of what structures carry the least amount of body weight?" ] }, { "id": "task594-20bb62f5963644e995f6f8e206b85405", "input": "Passage: The adult human skeleton has 206 bones, some of which are named below ( Figure below ). Bones are made up of living tissue. They contain many different types of tissues. Cartilage, a dense connective tissue, is found at the end of bones and is made of tough protein fibers. Cartilage creates smooth surfaces for the movement of bones that are next to each other, like the bones of the knee. Answer: end", "output": [ "On what part of bones would you expect to find cartilage?" ] }, { "id": "task594-64164e70743140b9a2ad53ae3e050c7d", "input": "Passage: The biosphere includes all living things within all of their environments. It includes every part of the environment where life exists, from the upper reaches of the atmosphere to the top few meters of soil, to the bottoms of the oceans. An ecosystem is made up of the relationships among smaller groups of organisms with each other, and with their environment. Scientists often speak of the interrelatedness of living things, because, according to evolutionary theory, organisms adapt to their environment, and they must also adapt to other organisms in that environment. Answer: biosphere", "output": [ "What includes all living things within all their environments, including everywhere life exists, from the upper atmosphere, to the top of the soil, to ocean bottoms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-35059605b0204f7b8ad61945d8c11296", "input": "Passage: The immune system is the body system that fights to protect the body from specific pathogens. The immune system’s specific reaction to a pathogen is called an immune response. The immune system includes several organs and a system of vessels that carry lymph. Answer: immune system", "output": [ "What is the name of the body system that fights to protect the body from specific pathogens?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5c02e3a3fed94e20842e25fa522627b0", "input": "Passage: The population is an important unit in ecology as well as other biological sciences. How is a population defined, and what are the strengths and weaknesses of this definition? Are there some species that at certain times or places are not in populations?. Answer: cell division", "output": [ "During interphase, the cell undergoes normal growth processes while also preparing for what, by accumulating energy and building blocks of dna?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f71fd22240854e5d887a85ae68ca3d36", "input": "Passage: African Giraffes. Giraffes feed on leaves high in trees. Their long necks allow them to reach leaves that other ground animals cannot. Answer: long necks", "output": [ "What allows giraffes to reach leaves that other ground animals cannot?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3cbfe99823cd4b838d64ccc7380e99ab", "input": "Passage: Proteins play a variety of important roles in biochemical systems. Some of the most common protein functions are listed below:. Answer: protein", "output": [ "What plays a variety of important roles in biochemical systems?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b704875bad8349a8884c771b82863f05", "input": "Passage: Did you ever see workers sandblasting a building to clean it? Sand is blown onto the surface to scour away dirt and debris. Wind-blown sand has the same effect. It scours and polishes rocks and other surfaces. Wind-blown sand may carve rocks into interesting shapes ( Figure below ). This form of erosion is called abrasion. It occurs any time rough sediments are blown or dragged over surfaces. Can you think of other ways abrasion might occur?. Answer: abrasion", "output": [ "Sandblasting a surface exemplifies what form of erosion?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3fff15331bd14901813ef91ae91bc675", "input": "Passage: The rate at which a device changes electric current to another form of energy is called electric power . The SI unit of power—including electric power—is the watt. A watt equals 1 joule of energy per second. High wattages are often expressed in kilowatts, where 1 kilowatt equals 1000 watts. The power of an electric device, such as a microwave, can be calculated if you know the current and voltage of the circuit. This equation shows how power, current, and voltage are related:. Answer: electric power", "output": [ "What term describes the rate at which a device changes electric current to another form of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a71d1f8d4d25413b8dde3eea060d4d92", "input": "Passage: An ionic bond is the force of attraction that holds together oppositely charged ions. Ionic bonds form crystals instead of molecules. Table salt contains ionic bonds. Answer: ionic bond", "output": [ "What term means the force of attraction that holds together oppositely charged ions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7480947290b242a6b925caf967eae994", "input": "Passage: Vaporization is the process in which a liquid boils and changes to a gas. Answer: gas", "output": [ "What does liquid change to due to vaporization?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e51c2261d8204cd8a1046e185fded82b", "input": "Passage: An ideal gas is one that follows the gas laws at all conditions of temperature and pressure. To do so, the gas would need to completely abide by the kinetic-molecular theory. The gas particles would need to occupy zero volume and they would need to exhibit no attractive forces what so ever toward each other. Since neither of those conditions can be true, there is no such thing as an ideal gas. A real gas is a gas that does not behave according to the assumptions of the kinetic-molecular theory. Fortunately, at the conditions of temperature and pressure that are normally encountered in a laboratory, real gases tend to behave very much like ideal gases. Answer: ideal gas", "output": [ "What is the term for a gas that completely abides by the kinetic-molecular theory?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d88af6cf9b834405aeed58bb92504de3", "input": "Passage: The cell membrane consists of two layers of phospholipids. It encloses the cytoplasm and controls what enters and leaves the cell. Answer: two", "output": [ "How many layers of phospholipids does the cell membrane contain?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7db509400e294ac9be345ca9ab3577b2", "input": "Passage: Endocrine system: A high concentration of sugar in the blood triggers secretion of insulin by an endocrine gland called the pancreas. Insulin is a hormone that helps cells absorb sugar from the blood. Answer: insulin", "output": [ "Which hormone helps cells absorb sugar from the blood?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9f3d304a73b2424ab0e191d7b2d7a4d0", "input": "Passage: Polar climates are found near the North and South Poles. They also occur on high mountains at lower latitudes. The summers are very cool, and the winters are frigid. Precipitation is very low because it’s so cold. The growing season is very short. Tundra prefers areas of permafrost. Permafrost is a lower layer of soil that is permanently frozen. Tundra also refers to a treeless plain with small plants. You can see examples of polar climates pictured below. Answer: permafrost", "output": [ "What do you call the lower layer of soil that is permanently frozen, and is a frequent feature of tundra?" ] }, { "id": "task594-09ea3f3514724591891456618daf9714", "input": "Passage: Pinocytosis or \"cellular drinking,\" occurs when the plasma membrane folds inward to form a channel allowing dissolved substances to enter the cell, as shown in Figure below . When the channel is closed, the liquid is encircled within a pinocytic vesicle. Answer: cell", "output": [ "Pinocytosis or \"cellular drinking,\" occurs when the plasma membrane folds inward to form a channel allowing dissolved substances to enter what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-60095c99726b4510996d4fd54c67fad4", "input": "Passage: Elements and Compounds Any sample of matter that has the same physical and chemical properties throughout the sample is called a substance. There are two types of substances. A substance that cannot be broken down into chemically simpler components is an element. Aluminum, which is used in soda cans, is an element. A substance that can be broken down into chemically simpler components (because it has more than one element) is acompound (Figure 1.2 \"The General Steps of the Scientific Method\"). Water is a compound composed of the elements hydrogen and oxygen. Today, there are about 118 elements in the known universe. In contrast, scientists have identified tens of millions of different compounds to date. Answer: substance", "output": [ "Any sample of matter that has the same physical and chemical properties throughout the sample is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c044162de1c541c4ad72e89604187592", "input": "Passage: Like Earth, the Moon has a distinct crust, mantle, and core. The crust is composed of igneous rock. This rock is rich in the elements oxygen, silicon, magnesium, and aluminum. On the near side, the Moon’s crust is about 30 kilometers thick. On the far side, the crust is about 100 kilometers thick. The mantle is made of rock like Earth’s upper mantle. The Moon has a small metallic core, perhaps 300 to 500 kilometers in diameter. The composition of the core is probably mostly iron with some sulfur and nickel. We learned this both from the rock samples gathered by astronauts and from spacecraft sent to the Moon. Answer: igneuos rock", "output": [ "What is the earths crust composed of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-133638dbbce34c81869dd31fcd8cd140", "input": "Passage: 7. People with red hair usually have very light skin. What might be a genetic explanation for this observation?. Answer: light", "output": [ "People with red hair usually have what type of skin?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ce7f81691a4b4e40b3c1561af58c419e", "input": "Passage: Reactions can proceed by themselves if they are exergonic or exothermic, that is if they release energy. The associated free energy of the reaction is composed of two different thermodynamic quantities, enthalpy and entropy. Enthalpy is a measure of the total energy of a thermodynamic system. The change in enthalpy is positive in endothermic reactions, and negative in exothermic processes. Answer: thermodynamic", "output": [ "Enthalpy is a measure of the total energy of what kind of system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4ebb798722784121b8485ee50a9fe222", "input": "Passage: Biodiversity is a measurement of the amount of variation of the species in a given area. More specifically, biodiversity can be defined as the variety of life and its processes, including the variety of living organisms, the genetic differences among them, and the communities and ecosystems in which they occur. Answer: biodiversity", "output": [ "What is a measurement of the amount of variation of the species in a given area called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-58b0623a79b24da1a4a2550a97f4aeb3", "input": "Passage: Homo sapiens is our species. We originated about 200,000 years ago in Africa. Evidence of a spiritual life appears about 32,000 years ago. The evidence includes stone figurines that probably have religious significance ( Figure below ). Answer: homo sapiens", "output": [ "What species do humans belong to?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2e767562805048159201809ae2cf796a", "input": "Passage: The mouth and nose are not lined with skin. Instead, they are lined with mucous membranes . Other organs that are exposed to the outside world, including the lungs and stomach, are also lined with mucous membranes. Mucous membranes are not tough like skin, but they have other defenses. Answer: mucous membranes", "output": [ "What is in the inside of your mouth and nose instead of skin?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a5bf3ffff1a74db08c956696163acc54", "input": "Passage: The blood picks up oxygen in the lungs and carries it to cells throughout the body. Answer: oxygen", "output": [ "What does blood pickup from the lungs to be carried throughout the rest of the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b0b200b6e11141aa89120323863ce987", "input": "Passage: A wobble base pair is a non-Watson Crick base pairing between two nucleotides in RNA molecules. The four main wobble base pairs are guanine-uracil, inocine-uracil, inosine-adenine, and inosine-cytosine. Wobble base pairs are fundamental in RNA secondary structure and are critical for the proper translation of the genetic code. Inosine is a nucleoside that is formed from the hydrolytic deamination of adenine. Structurally, it resembles guanine, but lacks the 2-amino group. This lack of the 2-amino group allows inosine to form base pairs with uracil, cytosine and adenine, making it a particularly wobbly base. Answer: uracil", "output": [ "Of the four main wobble base pairs, guanine is paired with what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6c51f757f113400c8b7cb23e2aa36ac8", "input": "Passage: Fats may be either saturated or unsaturated. A saturated fat is a fat that consists of triglycerides whose carbon chains consist entirely of carbon-carbon single bonds. Therefore, the carbon chains are saturated with the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible. An unsaturated fat is a fat that consists of triglycerides whose carbon chains contain one or more carbon-carbon double bonds . A fat with one double bond is called monounsaturated, while a fat with multiple double bonds is called polyunsaturated (see Figure below ). Answer: saturated and unsaturated", "output": [ "What are the two types of fats?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1350e48f723d45ebb637fcf64a4fd9c2", "input": "Passage: The mammalian middle ear has three tiny bones that carry sound vibrations from the outer to inner ear. The bones give mammals exceptionally good hearing. In other vertebrates, the three bones are part of the jaw and not involved in hearing. Answer: three", "output": [ "How many bones does the mammalian middle ear have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ae0bce3e89a54d418cf3354764dd72c0", "input": "Passage: Mycologist Mycologists are biologists who study fungi. Mycology is a branch of microbiology, and many mycologists start their careers with a degree in microbiology. To become a mycologist, a bachelor's degree in a biological science (preferably majoring in microbiology) and a master's degree in mycology are minimally necessary. Mycologists can specialize in taxonomy and fungal genomics, molecular and cellular biology, plant pathology, biotechnology, or biochemistry. Some medical microbiologists concentrate on the study of infectious diseases caused by fungi (mycoses). Mycologists collaborate with zoologists and plant pathologists to identify and control difficult fungal infections, such as the devastating chestnut blight, the mysterious decline in frog populations in many areas of the world, or the deadly epidemic called white nose syndrome, which is decimating bats in the Eastern United States. Government agencies hire mycologists as research scientists and technicians to monitor the health of crops, national parks, and national forests. Mycologists are also employed in the private sector by companies that develop chemical and biological control products or new agricultural products, and by companies that provide disease control services. Because of the key role played by fungi in the fermentation of alcohol and the preparation of many important foods, scientists with a good understanding of fungal physiology routinely work in the food technology industry. Oenology, the science of wine making, relies not only on the knowledge of grape varietals and soil composition, but also on a solid understanding of the characteristics of the wild yeasts that thrive in different wine-making regions. It is possible to purchase yeast strains isolated from specific grape-growing regions. The great French chemist and microbiologist, Louis Pasteur, made many of his essential discoveries working on the humble brewer’s yeast, thus discovering the process of fermentation. Answer: mycologists", "output": [ "What is the name for a biologist who studies fungi?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6dc11cff1ea64211a3b9d23a1ae90121", "input": "Passage: Transpiration occurs when plants release water vapor through leaf pores called stomata (see Figure below ). The water is a product of photosynthesis. Answer: transpiration", "output": [ "What occurs when plants release water vapor through stomata (leaf pores)?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6f10da224f5a411da7728620b11d6a46", "input": "Passage: Based on their knowledge of subatomic particles, scientists have developed a theory called the standard model to explain all the matter in the universe and how it is held together. The model includes only the fundamental particles in the Table above . No other particles are needed to explain all kinds of matter. According to the model, all known matter consists of quarks and leptons that interact by exchanging bosons, which transmit fundamental forces. The standard model is a good theory because all of its predictions have been verified by experimental data. However, the model doesn’t explain everything, including the force of gravity and why matter has mass. Scientists continue to search for evidence that will allow them to explain these aspects of force and matter as well. You can learn much more about the standard model at the URL below. Click on “the standard model” and follow the sequence titled “What is fundamental?”. Answer: standard model", "output": [ "What is the theory scientists use to explain the matter in the universe and how it's held together?" ] }, { "id": "task594-530f22b67ae14f26bc0a9155cab994a6", "input": "Passage: Earth is a sphere and so is a globe. A globe is the best way to make a map of the whole Earth. Because both the planet and a globe have curved surfaces, the sizes and shapes of countries are not distorted. Distances are true to scale. ( Figure below ). Answer: whole earth", "output": [ "A globe is the best way to make a map of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bb929f81ae7d4b89bf2f829689e5cfc9", "input": "Passage: The most obvious landforms created by lava are volcanoes. These are mostly cinder cones, composite volcanoes, and shield volcanoes. Eruptions also take place through other types of vents, commonly from fissures ( Figure below ). The eruptions that created the entire ocean floor are essentially fissure eruptions. Answer: fissure eruptions", "output": [ "Which type of eruptions created the entire ocean floor?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0dcf5e48572041018e807e57cac197aa", "input": "Passage: Archimedes’ law explains why some objects float in fluids even though they are very heavy. It all depends on how much fluid they displace. The cruise ship pictured in the opening image is extremely heavy, yet it stays afloat. If a steel ball with the same weight as the ship were placed in water, it would sink to the bottom. This is modeled in the Figure below . The reason the ball sinks is that its shape is very compact, so it displaces relatively little water. The volume of water displaced by the steel ball weighs less than the ball itself, so the buoyant force is not as great as the force of gravity pulling down on the ball. Thus, the ball sinks. Answer: archimedes' law", "output": [ "What law explains why some objects float and some sink." ] }, { "id": "task594-8eb9c26eae6f47d6a804f017163b3fb5", "input": "Passage: Minerals are made by natural processes. The processes that make minerals happen in or on the Earth. For example, when hot lava cools, mineral crystals form. Minerals also precipitate from water. Some minerals grow when rocks are exposed to high pressures and temperatures. Answer: mineral crystals", "output": [ "What is formed when hot lava cools?" ] }, { "id": "task594-621c9f7d55d94d559ad787dd558f3a51", "input": "Passage: For each of the following situations, tell whether the rate of the reaction would increase or decrease, and explain your answer in terms of collision theory. The concentration of a reactant is doubled. Answer: compounds", "output": [ "What is formed when atoms of different elements combine in a chemical reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d8827549312343618c057aacb35255f8", "input": "Passage: Partly movable joints allow only a little movement. Your backbone has partly movable joints between the vertebrae ( Figure below ). Answer: partially movable", "output": [ "Are the joints between the vertebrae contained in your backbone fully movable, partially movable, or unmovable?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c792ed74cef74eafbf0f149125ebcaae", "input": "Passage: Condensation occurs in your cells constantly. It occurs in the form of a chemical reaction. These condensation reactions involve the formation of a water molecule from two other molecules. Water forms when two molecules, such as amino acids or monosaccharides, are joined together. The amino acids join together to form peptides (or polypeptides or proteins) and the monosaccharides join together to form disaccharides or polysaccharides. Answer: constantly", "output": [ "How often does condensation occur in your cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7f982022cda840c9a8b7ceacc8dd06da", "input": "Passage: All living things—even the simplest life forms—have a complex chemistry. Living things consist of large, complex molecules, and they also undergo many complicated chemical changes to stay alive. Thousands (or more) of these chemical reactions occur in each cell at any given moment. Metabolism is the accumulated total of all the biochemical reactions occurring in a cell or organism. Complex chemistry is needed to carry out all the functions of life. Answer: metabolism", "output": [ "What is the accumulated total of all the biochemical reactions occurring in a cell or organism called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d6a7d3fdb404414daa1c760bcc664e67", "input": "Passage: Centrioles are made of short microtubules and are very important in cell division. Answer: short microtubules", "output": [ "What are centrioles made from?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1ef8b222488748f38593e0e02e76b412", "input": "Passage: of human sperm as well as a diagram of the parts of the sperm. An acrosome is found at the top of the head of the sperm. This structure contains lysosomal enzymes that can digest the protective coverings that surround the egg to help the sperm penetrate and fertilize the egg. An ejaculate will contain from two to five milliliters of fluid with from 50–120 million sperm per milliliter. Answer: acrosome", "output": [ "What structure is found at the top of the head of the sperm that helps it penetrate and fertilize the egg?" ] }, { "id": "task594-823916e0e8ae4c7a87e3cbddb558f1b3", "input": "Passage: Arterial Supply The major artery carrying recently oxygenated blood away from the heart is the aorta. The very first branches off the aorta supply the heart with nutrients and oxygen. The next branches give rise to the common carotid arteries, which further branch into the internal carotid arteries. The external carotid arteries supply blood to the tissues on the surface of the cranium. The bases of the common carotids contain stretch receptors that immediately respond to the drop in blood pressure upon standing. The orthostatic reflex is a reaction to this change in body position, so that blood pressure is maintained against the increasing effect of gravity (orthostatic means “standing up”). Heart rate increases—a reflex of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system—and this raises blood pressure. Answer: aorta", "output": [ "What do we call the major artery carrying recently oxygenated blood away from the heart?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b8a6a0c370cd4610a3332a60a6810471", "input": "Passage: Gastrointestinal and Urinary Adjustments In adults, the gastrointestinal tract harbors bacterial flora—trillions of bacteria that aid in digestion, produce vitamins, and protect from the invasion or replication of pathogens. In stark contrast, the fetal intestine is sterile. The first consumption of breast milk or formula floods the neonatal gastrointestinal tract with beneficial bacteria that begin to establish the bacterial flora. The fetal kidneys filter blood and produce urine, but the neonatal kidneys are still immature and inefficient at concentrating urine. Therefore, newborns produce very dilute urine, making it particularly important for infants to obtain sufficient fluids from breast milk or formula. Answer: beneficial bacteria", "output": [ "The first consumption of breast milk or formula floods the baby's gastrointestinal tract with what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8df41791b1a44fb7b10703d97d1cac76", "input": "Passage: Usually, traits are polygenic when there is wide variation in the trait. For example, humans can be many different sizes. Height is a polygenic trait, controlled by at least three genes with six alleles. If you are dominant for all of the alleles for height, then you will be very tall. There is also a wide range of skin color across people. Skin color is also a polygenic trait, as are hair and eye color. Answer: polygenic traits", "output": [ "What is the term for traits that show wide variation, such as height, skin color, and eye color?" ] }, { "id": "task594-32beb401789c47188b77d8e2be91d0a0", "input": "Passage: Most reptiles have sexual reproduction with internal fertilization. Reptiles have a body cavity called a cloaca that is involved in reproduction. Sperm or eggs are released into an adult reptile’s cloaca. Males have one or two penises that pass sperm from their cloaca to the eggs in the cloaca of a female, where fertilization takes place. In most reptile species, once fertilized the eggs leave the body through an opening in the cloaca. These reptiles are oviparous. Eggs develop and hatch outside the mother’s body. Answer: cloaca", "output": [ "What is the body cavity that reptiles have that is involved in reproduction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-849c183f03cf445c8c0f9f0e8bad7093", "input": "Passage: The mRNA is the message sent from the nucleus to the ribosome, the organelle of protein synthesis. Like a foreign language, the genetic code of the mRNA message must then be translated so that the ribosomes make the correct protein. The process of reading the code of a mRNA to make a protein is called translation. Answer: mrna", "output": [ "What is the message sent from the nucleus to the ribosome?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d32016e272164927916507e4faae074e", "input": "Passage: Hepatic Portal System The liver is a complex biochemical processing plant. It packages nutrients absorbed by the digestive system; produces plasma proteins, clotting factors, and bile; and disposes of worn-out cell components and waste products. Instead of entering the circulation directly, absorbed nutrients and certain wastes (for example, materials produced by the spleen) travel to the liver for processing. They do so via the hepatic portal system (Figure 20.43). Portal systems begin and end in capillaries. In this case, the initial capillaries from the stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and spleen lead to the hepatic portal vein and end in specialized capillaries within the liver, the hepatic sinusoids. You saw the only other portal system with the hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal vessel in the endocrine chapter. The hepatic portal system consists of the hepatic portal vein and the veins that drain into it. The hepatic portal vein itself is relatively short, beginning at the level of L2 with the confluence of the superior mesenteric and splenic veins. It also receives branches from the inferior mesenteric vein, plus the splenic veins and all their tributaries. The superior mesenteric vein receives blood from the small intestine, two-thirds of the large intestine, and the stomach. The inferior mesenteric vein drains the distal third of the large intestine, including the descending colon, the sigmoid colon, and the rectum. The splenic vein is formed from branches from the spleen, pancreas, and portions of the stomach, and the inferior mesenteric vein. After its formation, the hepatic portal vein also receives branches from the gastric veins of the stomach and cystic veins from the gall bladder. The hepatic portal vein delivers materials from these digestive and circulatory organs directly to the liver for processing. Because of the hepatic portal system, the liver receives its blood supply from two different sources: from normal systemic circulation via the hepatic artery and from the hepatic portal vein. The liver processes the blood from the portal system to remove certain wastes and excess nutrients, which are stored for later use. This processed blood, as well as the systemic blood that came from the hepatic artery, exits the liver via the right, left, and middle hepatic veins, and flows into the inferior vena cava. Overall systemic blood composition remains relatively stable, since the liver is able to metabolize the absorbed digestive components. Answer: liver", "output": [ "What organ packages nutrients absorbed by the digestive system; produces plasma proteins, clotting factors, and bile; and disposes of worn-out cell components and waste products?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d44b7e5868a14234aff813ea44801edc", "input": "Passage: Core electrons are the electrons that are closer to the nucleus and therefore do not participate in bonding. Answer: core electrons", "output": [ "What is the name for electrons closer to the nucleus that do not participate in bonding?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8588ac28f12047fd8ac961edeec3cac8", "input": "Passage: The majority of amphibian species go through a larval stage that is very different from the adult form, as you can see from the frog in Figure below . The early larval, or tadpole , stage resembles a fish. It lacks legs and has a long tail, which it uses to swim. The tadpole also has gills to absorb oxygen from water. As the larva undergoes metamorphosis , it grows legs, loses its tail, and develops lungs. These changes prepare it for life on land as an adult frog. Answer: tadpole", "output": [ "What is another term for the early larval stage of a frog?" ] }, { "id": "task594-50ed768a91d54de4a414169396f5a712", "input": "Passage: Liquefaction of Gases Liquefaction of gases is the condensation of gases into a liquid form, which is neither anticipated nor explained by the kinetic molecular theory of gases. Both the theory and the ideal gas law predict that gases compressed to very high pressures and cooled to very low temperatures should still behave like gases, albeit cold, dense ones. As gases are compressed and cooled, however, they invariably condense to form liquids, although very low temperatures are needed to liquefy light elements such as helium (for He, 4.2 K at 1 atm pressure). Liquefaction can be viewed as an extreme deviation from ideal gas behavior. It occurs when the molecules of a gas are cooled to the point where they no longer possess sufficient kinetic energy to overcome intermolecular attractive forces. The precise combination of temperature and pressure needed to liquefy a gas depends strongly on its molar mass and structure, with heavier and more complex molecules usually liquefying at higher temperatures. In general, substances with large van der Waals acoefficients are relatively easy to liquefy because large a coefficients indicate relatively strong intermolecular attractive interactions. Conversely, small molecules with only light elements have small a coefficients, indicating weak intermolecular interactions, and they are relatively difficult to liquefy. Gas liquefaction is used on a massive scale to separate O2, N2, Ar, Ne, Kr, and Xe. After a sample of air is liquefied, the mixture is. Answer: intermolecular attractive forces", "output": [ "Liquefaction ccurs when the molecules of a gas are cooled to the point where they no longer possess sufficient kinetic energy to overcome what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-19425efa144b4293b77e4a5d250ef839", "input": "Passage: Compressibility is the measure of how much a given volume of matter decreases when placed under pressure. If we put pressure on a solid or a liquid, there is essentially no change in volume. The atoms, ions, or molecules that make up the solid or liquid are very close together. There is no space between the individual particles, so they cannot pack together. Answer: compressibility", "output": [ "The measure of how much a given volume of matter decreases when placed under pressure is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-de5347e3a5ae4798ab1dd5414858f2f0", "input": "Passage: The cell is the basic unit of life. A cell is made of molecules, which are made of elements. All life-which means all bacteria and archaea, all protists, fungi, plants and animals-is built around the element carbon, and four categories of organic compounds: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. These molecules come together to form a cell, which is the basis of life. One particular type of protein, enzymes, are biological catalysts, allowing biochemical reactions to proceed at the rate necessary to maintain life. One other molecule, water, is also essential to life, though water is not an organic compound. Answer: carbon", "output": [ "What element is all life built around?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e6ef9fb825ab4819be0fb7d939b24165", "input": "Passage: Some of them are inorganic . Inorganic materials are made from non-living substances like pebbles and sand. Answer: inorganic", "output": [ "Materials made from non-living substances like pebbles and sand are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-28f79f9bc2fd40629b5ce9a2a02be322", "input": "Passage: As a solid is heated, its particles vibrate more rapidly as the solid absorbs kinetic energy. Eventually, the organization of the particles within the solid structure begins to break down and the solid starts to melt. The melting point is the temperature at which a solid changes into a liquid. At its melting point, the disruptive vibrations of the particles of the solid overcome the attractive forces operating within the solid. As with boiling points, the melting point of a solid is dependent on the strength of those attractive forces. Sodium chloride (NaCl) is an ionic compound that consists of a multitude of strong ionic bonds. Sodium chloride melts at 801°C. Ice (solid H 2 O) is a molecular compound whose molecules are held together by hydrogen bonds. Though hydrogen bonds are the strongest of the intermolecular forces, the strength of hydrogen bonds is much less than that of ionic bonds. The melting point of ice is 0°C. Answer: hydrogen", "output": [ "Which bonds are the strongest of the intermolecular forces?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b35184f8953d4818bf9f04624eb899dc", "input": "Passage: 2.3 Scientific method The scientific method is not a step by step, linear process. It is an intuitive process, a methodology for learning about the world through the application of knowledge. Scientists must be able to have an \"imaginative preconception\" of what the truth is. Scientists will often observe and then hypothesize the reason why a phenomenon occurred. They use all of their knowledge and a bit of imagination, all in an attempt to uncover something that might be true. A typical scientific investigation might go like so: You observe that a room appears dark, and you ponder why the room is dark. In an attempt to find explanations to this curiosity, your mind unravels several different hypotheses. One hypothesis might state that the lights are turned off. Another hunch might be that the room's lightbulb has burnt out. Worst yet, you could be going blind. To discover the truth, 10 11 12 13 14. Answer: hypothesize", "output": [ "Scientists will often observe and then what the reason why a phenomenon occurred?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a72b766c035e4b0c85346a0cb1c1ba78", "input": "Passage: If a solution contains so much solute that its solubility limit is reached, the solution is said to be saturated, and its concentration is known from information contained inTable 9.2 \"Solubilities of Various Solutes in Water at 25°C (Except as Noted)\". If a solution contains less solute than the solubility limit, it is unsaturated. Under special circumstances, more solute can be dissolved even after the normal solubility limit is reached; such solutions are called supersaturated and are not stable. If the solute is solid, excess solute can easily recrystallize. If the solute is a gas, it can bubble out of solution uncontrollably, like what happens when you shake a soda can and then immediately open it. Answer: saturated", "output": [ "If a solution contains so much solute that its solubility limit is reached, the solution is said to be what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ec99209946fe4e1e899ed7adfbed5669", "input": "Passage: Following fertilization, the sporophyte forms. The sporophyte is connected to, and dependent on, the gametophyte. Answer: the sporophyte", "output": [ "What is connected to, and dependent on, the gametophyte?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4bb40355509e4017b574162dbda92bbc", "input": "Passage: Like acetic acid, pentanoic acid is a carboxylic acid. Unlike acetic acid, however, the alkyl group is rather large, consisting of a 4-carbon chain as in butanol. As with butanol, the nonpolar character of the alkyl group is likely to be as important as the polar character of the carboxylic acid group, making it unlikely that pentanoic. Answer: carboxylic", "output": [ "Like acetic acid, pentanoic acid is what kind of acid?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5d2e2ee5c3b848f9848ddc9e92c55e5b", "input": "Passage: Radioactivity involves the spontaneous emission of material and/or energy from the nucleus of an atom. The most common radioactive atoms have high atomic numbers and contain a large excess of neutrons. Some typical radioactive elements are technetium (atomic number 43), promethium (atomic number 61), and all elements atomic number 84 (polonium) and higher. There are four primary types of emission, either involving the release of a particle from the nucleus or the release of energy. In many instances, both energy and a particle are produced by the radioactive event. Answer: radioactivity", "output": [ "What term refers to the emission of material or energy from an atom's nucleus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-19567a39f5b44516a54fbc58197a820d", "input": "Passage: Malaria is common in tropical and subtropical climates throughout the world (see Figure below ). In fact, malaria is one of the most common infectious diseases on the planet. Malaria is also a very serious disease. It kills several million people each year, most of them children. Answer: tropical and subtropical", "output": [ "What type of climates is malaria commonly found in?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0e2a40a9d12b4ec786d75097da01ff57", "input": "Passage: The process of protein synthesis is summarized in the Figure below . DNA produces an RNA template that directs the amino acids to be introduced into the growing protein chain in the proper sequence. A specific transfer RNA attaches to each amino acid and brings it to the RNA for incorporation. Answer: rna template", "output": [ "What directs the amino acids to be introduced into the growing protein chain in the proper sequence?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c1f581c7ec0a4acf87e8ddf751e2d523", "input": "Passage: The digestive system is the body system that digests food mechanically and chemically and absorbs nutrients. The digestive system also eliminates solid food waste. The major organs of the digestive system include the mouth, esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestines. These organs make up the long tube called the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, which goes from the mouth to the anus. Answer: digestive system", "output": [ "What is the body system that digests food mechanically and chemically and absorbs nutrients?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f2deaf331f264ffcbcc94c41caeb742e", "input": "Passage: Your immune system usually protects you from pathogens and keeps you well. However, like any other body system, the immune system itself can develop problems. Sometimes it responds to harmless foreign substances as though they were pathogens. Sometimes it attacks the body’s own cells. Certain diseases can also attack and damage the immune system and interfere with its ability to defend the body. Answer: immune system", "output": [ "What protects you from pathogens and keeps you healthy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d790132b21a64a5b8b50b131066f54f4", "input": "Passage: Multicellular seaweeds called kelp may grow as large as trees. They are the food base of ecosystems called kelp forests (see Figure below ). Kelp forests are found throughout the ocean in temperate and arctic climates. They are highly productive ecosystems. Answer: kelp", "output": [ "Which forests are found throughout the ocean in temperate and arctic climates?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b29673e2446f41308fda1caf866ab078", "input": "Passage: Living cells need organic molecules, known as nucleic acids . Nucleic acids are molecules that store genetic information. They pass that genetic information to the next generation. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the nucleic acid that carries information for nearly all living cells today. DNA has done this for most of Earth's history. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) delivers genetic instructions to the location in a cell where protein is synthesized. RNA regulates protein synthesis. Some scientists think that RNA was the first replicating molecule. Answer: dna (deoxyribonucleic acid) and rna (ribonucleic acid)", "output": [ "Name the two types of nucleic acids." ] }, { "id": "task594-12428f9b9c2a44e4bf61633b599371c6", "input": "Passage: Ice wedging happens because water expands as it goes from liquid to solid. When the temperature is warm, water works its way into cracks in rock. When the temperature cools below freezing, the water turns to ice and expands. The ice takes up more space. Over time, this wedges the rock apart. Ice wedging is very effective at weathering. You can find large piles of broken rock at the base of a slope. These rocks were broken up by ice wedging. Once loose, they tumbled down the slope. Answer: water expands", "output": [ "Why does ice wedging occur?" ] }, { "id": "task594-599eab356cc644dd864d9b96c44409ef", "input": "Passage: The mouth is the first digestive organ that food enters. The sight, smell, or taste of food stimulates the release of saliva and digestive enzymes by salivary glands inside the mouth. Saliva wets the food, which makes it easier to break up and swallow. The enzyme amylase in saliva begins the chemical digestion of starches to sugars. Answer: mouth", "output": [ "What is the first digestive organ that food enters?" ] }, { "id": "task594-650902b8271145de87b2124632397f66", "input": "Passage: Sympatric speciation occurs when groups from the same species stop mating because of something other than physical or geographic separation. The behavior of two groups that live in the same region is an example of such separation. The separation may be caused by different mating seasons, for example. Sympatric speciation is more difficult to identify. Answer: sympatric speciation", "output": [ "What occurs when groups from the same species stop mating because of something other than physical or geographic separation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-66fc97416dd94b46813bd82b714d01be", "input": "Passage: Migration is another type of movement that changes population size. Migration is the regular movement of individuals or populations each year during certain seasons. The purpose of migration usually is to find food, mates, or other resources. For example, many northern hemisphere birds migrate thousands of miles south each fall. They go to areas where the weather is warmer and more resources are available (see Figure below ). Then they return north in the spring to nest. Some animals, such as elk, migrate vertically. They go up the sides of mountains in spring as snow melts. They go back down the mountain sides in fall as snow returns. Answer: migration", "output": [ "Typically done to find food or mates, what do you call the regular movement of individuals or populations each year during certain seasons?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1dbe3158631145ab80b1ae9503aea794", "input": "Passage: Adding a solute increases the boiling point of a pure solvent. This change can be calculated using the equation . Answer: increases it", "output": [ "Adding a solute does what to the boiling point of a pure solvent?" ] }, { "id": "task594-97e6b38bd00f4002b7518d884d092eb2", "input": "Passage: Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in matter. In everyday usage, temperature indicates a measure of how hot or cold an object is. Temperature is an important parameter in chemistry. When a substance changes from solid to liquid, it is because there was an increase in the temperature of the material. Chemical reactions usually proceed faster if the temperature is increased. Many unstable materials (such as enzymes) will be viable longer at lower temperatures. Answer: temperature", "output": [ "What is the measure of kinetic energy of the particles in matter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b0fe4595d5484ff4969cc65684ff9513", "input": "Passage: The vascular tissues for which these plants are named are specialized to transport fluid. They consist of long, narrow cells arranged end-to-end, forming tubes. There are two different types of vascular tissues, called xylem and phloem. Both are shown in Figure below . Answer: xylem and phloem", "output": [ "What are the two different types of vascular tissues called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2895f666dd04431aac5dc543e1b19308", "input": "Passage: Starfish: Flickr:amanderson2; Yeast: Zappy's. Starfish and yeasts are examples of organisms that reproduce asexually . Starfish: CC BY 2.0; Yeast: CC BY-NC 3.0. Answer: asexual reproduction", "output": [ "What type of reproduction is exemplified by starfish and yeasts?" ] }, { "id": "task594-65af1dd3e65743e6a6d5aac14444eb42", "input": "Passage: Radioactive elements and isotopes have unstable nuclei. To become more stable, the nuclei undergo radioactive decay. In radioactive decay, the nuclei give off, or emit, radiation in the form of energy and often particles as well. There are several types of radioactive decay, including alpha, beta, and gamma decay. Energy is emitted in all three types of decay, but only alpha and beta decay also emit particles. Answer: particles", "output": [ "Radioactive decay can give off energy and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-63adaff41e6b463fa8902feb42fdb37e", "input": "Passage: Earth is not the only active planetary body in the solar system. Io, one of Jupiter’s moons, is home to fantastic volcanic eruptions. Volcanism is much hotter than on Earth. Lava curtains and fountains are common. In this color image, the Galileo spacecraft spotted two volcanic plumes. One is spewing high above the planet on the horizon. The second is near he boundary between day and night. Besides being hotter than Earth’s volcanism, eruptions on Io have a different composition. They are mostly sulfur!. Answer: jupiter", "output": [ "What planet in our solar system has a moon with volcanic activity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d25159c3076146f6acd6a68392889eb8", "input": "Passage: Synthetic carbon polymers are produced in labs or factories. Plastics are common examples of synthetic carbon polymers. You are probably familiar with the plastic called polyethylene. All of the plastic items pictured in the Figure below are made of polyethylene. It consists of repeating monomers of ethylene (C 2 H 4 ). Structural formulas for ethylene and polyethylene are also shown in the Figure below . To learn more about synthetic carbon polymers and how they form, go to this URL: http://www. youtube. com/watch?v=7nCfbZwGWK8. Answer: carbon", "output": [ "Plastics are common examples of synthetic polymers of what abundant element?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2dc4f887c1d94609906ded776daec68f", "input": "Passage: Melting and boiling points are somewhat unique identifiers, especially of compounds. In addition to giving some idea as to the identity of the compound, important information can be obtained about the purity of the material. Answer: 100 degrees c and 0 degrees c", "output": [ "What is the boiling and freezing point of water in celcius?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1519b7937b514fcebedcfd8573cfdc2a", "input": "Passage: The skin helps maintain a constant body temperature. It keeps the body cool in two ways. Sweat from sweat glands in the skin evaporates to cool the body. Blood vessels in the skin dilate, or widen, increasing blood flow to the body surface. This allows more heat to reach the surface and radiate into the environment. The opposite happens to retain body heat. Blood vessels in the skin constrict, or narrow, decreasing blood flow to the body surface. This reduces the amount of heat that reaches the surface so less heat is lost to the environment. Answer: blood vessels", "output": [ "What in the skin dilates, or widens, in order to increase blood flow to the bodys surface?" ] }, { "id": "task594-128b83431d6e4ec38792bb4efb98c86f", "input": "Passage: Many animals go through daily cycles. Daily cycles of behavior are called circadian rhythms. For example, most animals go to sleep when the sun sets down and wake up when the sun rises. These animals are active during the day and called diurnal. Other animals go to sleep when the sun rises and wake up when the sun sets. These animals are active during the night and called nocturnal. Many owls, like the owls in Figure below , are nocturnal. Like some other nocturnal animals, they have large eyes that are specially adapted for seeing when light levels are low. Answer: nocturnal", "output": [ "What term refers to an animal that sleeps during the day and is active at night?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0689c3f333e14ac8b58d9e5e0f56108a", "input": "Passage: A vapor light also produces visible light by electroluminescence The bulb contains a small amount of solid sodium or mercury as well as a mixture of neon and argon gases. When an electric current passes through the gases, it causes the solid sodium or mercury to change to a gas and emit visible light. Sodium vapor lights, like the streetlight pictured in the Figure below , produce yellowish light. Mercury vapor lights produce bluish light. In addition to lighting city streets, vapor lights are used to light highways and stadiums. The bulbs are very bright and long lasting so they are a good choice for these places. Answer: gas", "output": [ "When electricity is passed through solid sodium it changes into what and gives off light?" ] }, { "id": "task594-07bebd61f7fb43c381c547b7b7255f9d", "input": "Passage: Wave frequency is the number of waves that pass a fixed point in a given amount of time. Answer: wave frequency", "output": [ "The number of waves that pass a fixed point in a given amount of time is referred to as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b753cc584dee4a11a960e341d64c419d", "input": "Passage: Prokaryotes that need oxygen are described as aerobic. They use oxygen for cellular respiration. Examples include the prokaryotes that live on your skin. Answer: aerobic", "output": [ "Name the term used to described prokaryotes that require oxygen." ] }, { "id": "task594-072eb7e78a994b479bb4373bcff87d0b", "input": "Passage: Near the time of birth, the amniotic sac breaks in a gush of liquid. Labor usually begins within a day of this event. Labor involves contractions of the muscular walls of the uterus. With the mother’s help, the contractions eventually push the fetus out of the uterus and through the vagina. Answer: contractions", "output": [ "What helps push the fetus from the uterus during birth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ba0dfe7ac04e470f999419330eff5014", "input": "Passage: Work is defined differently in physics than in everyday language. In physics, work means the use of force to move an object. The teen who is playing tennis in Figure above is using force to move her tennis racket, so she is doing work. The teen who is studying isn’t moving anything, so she is not doing work. Answer: work", "output": [ "What term in physics refers to the use of force to move an object?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2e9f5ca3ce03420398ee39e74fff14ac", "input": "Passage: Centripetal force is the force that causes centripetal acceleration. Answer: centripetal force", "output": [ "What is the force that causes centripetal acceleration?" ] }, { "id": "task594-aca9d997db324720b9587967ec925315", "input": "Passage: Convection within the Earth’s mantle causes the plates to move. Mantle material is heated above the core. The hot mantle rises up towards the surface ( Figure below ). As the mantle rises it cools. At the surface the material moves horizontally away from a mid-ocean ridge crest. The material continues to cool. It sinks back down into the mantle at a deep sea trench. The material sinks back down to the core. It moves horizontally again, completing a convection cell. Answer: plates to move", "output": [ "What does convection within the earth's mantel cause?" ] }, { "id": "task594-72e01cf7ef184059b4bf76ca0127279b", "input": "Passage: The 1,000 or so species of cartilaginous fish are subdivided into two subclasses: the first includes sharks, rays, and skates; the second includes chimaera, sometimes called ghost sharks. Fish from this group range in size from the dwarf lanternshark, at 6.3 inches, to the over 50-foot whale shark. Sharks obviously have jaws, as do the other cartilaginous fish. These fish evolved from the jawless fish. So why did fish eventually evolve to have jaws? Such an adaptation would allow fish to eat a much wider variety of food, including plants and other organisms. Answer: chimaera", "output": [ "What is another term for ghost sharks?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4df1011f908f42b2a077471eb3380c74", "input": "Passage: Most chemical reactions in organisms take place in an environment that is mostly water. Answer: water", "output": [ "The environment where most chemical reactions in organisms takes place consists mostly of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-779e34f5c60846d28fde1e6d036fcb90", "input": "Passage: Vinegar is an acid that can be produced from the aerobic fermentation of wine. In fact, vinegar is most likely the oldest known acid. It is commonly used as a food additive (to give things an acidic or sour taste) and as a mild cleaning agent. Answer: vinegar", "output": [ "What is an acid that can be produced from the aerobic fermentation of wine?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e1089f499cf840feb8114b1e85efbd44", "input": "Passage: Companies that design and build roller coasters employ a range of technology professionals. Technology is the application of science to real-world problems. Professionals in technology are generally called engineers . Engineers are creative problem solvers. They use math and science to design and develop just about everything—from roller coasters to video games. Answer: engineers", "output": [ "What are professionals in technology are generally called ?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5aa8d9e5f8db455c8c4a6fe1fc8cba9b", "input": "Passage: 22.1 Introduction Viruses are the smallest biological particle (the tiniest are only 20 nm in diameter). However, they are not biological organisms so they are not classified in any kingdom of living things. They do not have any organelles and cannot respire or perform metabolic functions. Viruses are merely strands of DNA or RNA surrounded by a protective protein coat called a capsid. Viruses only come to life when they have invaded a cell. Outside of a host cell, viruses are completely inert. Since first being identified in 1935, viruses have been classified into more than 160 major groups. Viruses are classified based on their shape, replication properties, and the diseases that they cause. Furthermore, the shape of a virus is determined by the type and arrangement of proteins in its capsid. Viruses pathogenic to humans are currently classified into 21 groups. Viruses can also attack bacteria and infect bacterial cells. Such viruses are called bacteriophages. Answer: capsid", "output": [ "The shape of a virus is determined by the type and arrangement of proteins in its what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-564cd699473d41d6a9050cfeeb9d0220", "input": "Passage: In eukaryotic cells, most of the intracellular proteins that are activated by a ligand binding to a receptor protein are enzymes. Receptor proteins are named after the type of enzyme that they interact with inside the cell. These enzymes include G proteins and protein kinases, likewise there are G-protein-linked receptors and tyrosine kinase receptors. A kinase is a protein involved in phosphorylation. Tyrosine kinase receptors bind many polypeptide growth factors, cytokines, and hormones. Once the ligand is bound, these receptors specifically phosphorylate tyrosine amino acids, activating the signal transduction process inside the cell. Answer: receptor proteins", "output": [ "What is named after the type of enzyme they interact with in the cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-110b97256cb048deab15765fc1c2f370", "input": "Passage: Polymers are long molecules composed of chains of units called monomers. Answer: polymers", "output": [ "What long molecules are composed of chains of units called monomers?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3efd0e44747d487c8f0af15773799b41", "input": "Passage: solution. In addition, sucrose does not undergo reactions that are typical of aldehydes and ketones. Therefore, sucrose is a nonreducing sugar. The hydrolysis of sucrose in dilute acid or through the action of the enzyme sucrase(also known as invertase) gives an equimolar mixture of glucose and fructose. This 1:1 mixture is referred to as invert sugar because it rotates plane-polarized light in the opposite direction than sucrose. The hydrolysis reaction has several practical applications. Sucrose readily recrystallizes from a solution, but invert sugar has a much greater tendency to remain in solution. In the manufacture of jelly and candy and in the canning of fruit, the recrystallization of sugar is undesirable. Therefore, conditions leading to the hydrolysis of sucrose are employed in these processes. Moreover, because fructose is sweeter than sucrose, the hydrolysis adds to the sweetening effect. Bees carry out this reaction when they make honey. The average American consumes more than 100 lb of sucrose every year. About twothirds of this amount is ingested in soft drinks, presweetened cereals, and other highly processed foods. The widespread use of sucrose is a contributing factor to obesity and tooth decay. Carbohydrates such as sucrose, are converted to fat when the caloric intake exceeds the body’s requirements, and sucrose causes tooth decay by promoting the formation of plaque that sticks to teeth. Answer: sugar", "output": [ "Sucrose does not undergo reactions that are typical of aldehydes and ketones, therefore it is a nonreducing what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3db870ff08a84431aec48c666b86e1ab", "input": "Passage: Radioactivity was discovered in 1896 by a French physicist named Antoine Henri Becquerel. Becquerel was experimenting with uranium, which glows after being exposed to sunlight. Becquerel wanted to see if the glow was caused by rays of energy, like rays of light and X-rays. He placed a bit of uranium on a photographic plate. The plate was similar to film that’s used today to take X-rays. You can see an example of an X-ray in Figure below . As Becquerel predicted, the uranium left an image on the photographic plate. This meant that uranium gives off rays after being exposed to sunlight. Answer: antoine henri becquerel", "output": [ "Name the physicist who discovered radioactivity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dc644729497e42b1a288632ee6df4ca4", "input": "Passage: Soil develops over time and forms soil horizons. Soil horizons are different layers of soil with depth. The most weathering occurs in the top layer. This layer is most exposed to weather! It is where fresh water comes into contact with the soil. Each layer lower is weathered just a little bit less than the layer above. As water moves down through the layers, it is able to do less work to change the soil. Answer: top layer", "output": [ "Which layer of soil experiences the most weathering?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1f9a915c13de48fd8bb7716591450eca", "input": "Passage: Components along the same axis, say the x-axis, are vectors along the same line and, thus, can be added to one another like ordinary numbers. The same is true for components along the y-axis. (For example, a 9-block eastward walk could be taken in two legs, the first 3 blocks east and the second 6 blocks east, for a total of 9, because they are along the same direction. ) So resolving vectors into components along common axes makes it easier to add them. Now that the components of R are known, its magnitude and direction can be found. Step 3. To get the magnitude. Answer: added", "output": [ "Vectors along the same line can be what to one another like ordinary numbers?" ] }, { "id": "task594-16081063e9cd4c17872b6a4bade7daed", "input": "Passage: Farsightedness, or hyperopia, is the condition in which distant objects are seen clearly, but nearby objects appear blurry. It occurs when the eyeball is shorter than normal (see Figure below ). This causes images to be focused in a spot that would fall behind the retina (if light could pass through the retina). Hyperopia can be corrected with convex lenses. The lenses focus images farther forward in the eye, so they fall on the retina instead of behind it. Answer: farsightedness, or hyperopia", "output": [ "What is the condition in which distant objects are seen clearly, but nearby objects appear blurry?" ] }, { "id": "task594-65e08357755d4f47a88b639ccd4447e2", "input": "Passage: Particles of a gas are constantly moving and bumping into things. This gives gases pressure. Answer: pressure", "output": [ "Particles of a gas are constantly moving and bumping into things. this gives gases what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-04e8f556e2f54a80a77314e5739b6a0e", "input": "Passage: Bone matrix provides bones with their basic structure. Notice the spongy bone in the middle, and the compact bone towards the outer region. The osteon is the functional unit of compact bone. Answer: the osteon", "output": [ "What is the functional unit of compact bone?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2032b51e4abc4dbdac90dd546d4aeee1", "input": "Passage: Pressure, volume, and temperature are related by the combined gas law. Answer: gas law", "output": [ "Pressure, volume, and temperature are related by which law?" ] }, { "id": "task594-763329e53274496d87ddd7b8b805eed0", "input": "Passage: The human skeleton is an endoskeleton that consists of 206 bones in the adult. It has five main functions: providing support to the body, storing minerals and lipids, producing blood cells, protecting internal organs, and allowing for movement. The skeletal system in vertebrates is divided into the axial skeleton (which consists of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage), and the appendicular skeleton (which consists of the shoulders, limb bones, the pectoral girdle, and the pelvic girdle). Answer: allowing movement", "output": [ "The human skeleton is an endoskeleton that consists of 206 bones in the adult. it has five main functions: providing support to the body, storing minerals and lipids, producing blood cells, protecting internal organs, and this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-65a742ba3f044ee596134039c904ba0c", "input": "Passage: Energy Requirements Related to Levels of Activity The more active an animal is, the more energy is needed to maintain that activity, and the higher its BMR or SMR. The average daily rate of energy consumption is about two to four times an animal’s BMR or SMR. Humans are more sedentary than most animals and have an average daily rate of only 1.5 times the BMR. The diet of an endothermic animal is determined by its BMR. For example: the type of grasses, leaves, or shrubs that an herbivore eats affects the number of calories that it takes in. The relative caloric content of herbivore foods, in descending order, is tall grasses > legumes > short grasses > forbs (any broad-leaved plant, not a grass) > subshrubs > annuals/biennials. Energy Requirements Related to Environment Animals adapt to extremes of temperature or food availability through torpor. Torpor is a process that leads to a decrease in activity and metabolism and allows animals to survive adverse conditions. Torpor can be used by animals for long periods, such as entering a state of hibernation during the winter months, in which case it enables them to maintain a reduced body temperature. During hibernation, ground squirrels can achieve an abdominal temperature of 0° C (32° F), while a bear’s internal temperature is maintained higher at about 37° C (99° F). If torpor occurs during the summer months with high temperatures and little water, it is called estivation. Some desert animals use this to survive the harshest months of the year. Torpor can occur on a daily basis; this is seen in bats and hummingbirds. While endothermy is limited in smaller animals by surface to volume ratio, some organisms can be smaller and still be endotherms because they employ daily torpor during the part of the day that is coldest. This allows them to conserve energy during the colder parts of the day, when they consume more energy to maintain their body temperature. Answer: hibernation", "output": [ "Torpor, a process that leads to a decrease in activity and metabolism and allows animals to survive adverse conditions, includes what long winter 'sleep'?" ] }, { "id": "task594-22281797f35749659235bef8bc151fd1", "input": "Passage: The menstrual cycle includes events that take place in the ovary, such as ovulation. Answer: ovary", "output": [ "Ovulation takes place in what organ and is part of the menstrual cycle?" ] }, { "id": "task594-707e8531449a4023909fc2b9bc61f8ab", "input": "Passage: Brain injuries can range from mild to extremely severe, but even mild injuries need medical attention. Brain injuries can result from falls, car accidents, violence, sports injuries, and war and combat. Falls are the most common cause of brain injuries, particularly in older adults and young children. Answer: falls", "output": [ "What are the most common causes of brain injuries?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4e93f9f43eee47c18fffbf163bcc68cb", "input": "Passage: Heats of reaction are typically measured in kilojoules. It is important to include the physical states of the reactants and products in a thermochemical equation as the value of the depends on those states. Answer: kilojoules", "output": [ "What units are typically used to measure heats of reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eac8738edc644d2a9c81e9f59e571641", "input": "Passage: The placenta allows nutrients and wastes to be exchanged between the mother and fetus. The fetus is connected to the placenta through the umbilical cord. Answer: umbilical cord", "output": [ "What connects the fetus to the placenta?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8ea622e3f4fb4b4a98a064dab21f48a8", "input": "Passage: Lines of latitude circle around Earth. The Equator is a line of latitude right in the middle of the planet. Latitude is divided into degrees: 90° north of the Equator and 90° south of the Equator. One degree is subdivided into 60 minutes. One minute is subdivided into 60 seconds. The Equator is at 0°. The Equator is an equal distance from both the North and South Poles. If you know your latitude, you know how far you are north or south of the Equator. Answer: equator", "output": [ "What line of latitude is an equal distance from both the north and south poles?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8683786a95964bdb9e850508e4b9c37d", "input": "Passage: When magma heats groundwater, it may come to the surface as a hot spring or a geyser. Answer: geyser", "output": [ "When magma heats groundwater, it may come to the surface as a hot spring or a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7061814bd25a493f955637661281b68e", "input": "Passage: The process of getting oxygen into the body and releasing carbon dioxide is called respiration . Sometimes breathing is called respiration, but there is much more to respiration than just breathing. Breathing is only the movement of oxygen into the body and carbon dioxide out of the body. The process of respiration also includes the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and the cells of the body. Answer: respiration", "output": [ "The process of getting oxygen into the body and releasing carbon dioxide is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d3c86181761449d79d8fafe3fed816a2", "input": "Passage: Mammals have important roles in the food webs of practically every ecosystem. Mammals are important members of food chains and food webs, as grazers and predators. Mammals can feed at various levels of food chains, as herbivores, insectivores, carnivores and omnivores. Answer: omnivores", "output": [ "Mammals can feed at various levels of food chains, as herbivores, insectivores, carnivores and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e79b878e78674380a31eed6181a31db6", "input": "Passage: Chemical elements and water are recycled through biogeochemical cycles. The cycles include both biotic and abiotic parts of ecosystems. Answer: biogeochemical", "output": [ "Chemical elements and water are recycled through what cycle?" ] }, { "id": "task594-232fd67debb24a0fa49c57c2cb2ad758", "input": "Passage: Chemists often need to know what elements are present in a compound and in what percentage. The percent composition is the percent by mass of each element in a compound. It is calculated in a similar way that we just indicated for the peanut butter. Answer: percent composition", "output": [ "What term means the percent by mass of each element in a compound?" ] }, { "id": "task594-25848eb2538c4297a8aa3076feb8c342", "input": "Passage: The water cycle takes place on, above, and below Earth’s surface. In the cycle, water occurs as water vapor, liquid water, and ice. Many processes are involved as water changes state in the cycle. The atmosphere is an exchange pool for water. Ice masses, aquifers, and the deep ocean are water reservoirs. Answer: on, above, and below", "output": [ "Where on the earth's surface does the water cycle takes place?" ] }, { "id": "task594-49f652ff656842138109da99ab019383", "input": "Passage: Fossil fuels are mixtures of hydrocarbons that formed over millions of years from the remains of dead organisms. They include petroleum (commonly called oil), natural gas, and coal. Fossil fuels provide most of the energy used in the world today. They are burned in power plants to produce electrical energy, and they also fuel cars, heat homes, and supply energy for many other purposes. You can see examples of their use in Figure below . Answer: fossil fuels", "output": [ "What is the common name of mixtures of hydrocarbons that formed over millions of years from the remains of dead organisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3cb1f9a400764ca28e1c2ca53b3c277f", "input": "Passage: All matter is made of tiny particles. Protons, neutrons, and electrons form atoms that bond together to create molecules. Atoms are the smallest units that have the properties of an element. Molecules are the smallest units of a compound. Chemical bonds hold molecules together. Molecules form the different types of minerals. The silicates make up most of Earth's crust. Minerals come together to create the three major rock types. They are igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form from cooled magma. Sedimentary rocks form from compacted or cemented sediments. Metamorphic rocks are those that have been altered by heat and pressure. These three rock types are the material part of the rock cycle. They are connected by different processes. Different processes convert any type of rock into any other type of rock. These processes are weathering and erosion, crystallization, and burial and pressure, among others. Each rock contains a story of how it formed. For most rocks it is possible to know what it formed from. Answer: atoms", "output": [ "The smallest units of matter that retain the unique properties of an element are known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cc25e672e03b41e0948f80354b5d9db6", "input": "Passage: Chloroplasts are plastids that contain the green pigment chlorophyll. They capture light energy from the sun and use it to make food. A chloroplast is shown in Figure above . Answer: chloroplasts", "output": [ "What do you call plastids that contain the green pigment chlorophyll?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d3c901b8664845e387a2bc5e806c7464", "input": "Passage: Any magnet has two ends called poles where the magnetic effect is strongest. Answer: poles", "output": [ "What do you call the two ends of a magnet where the magnetic effect is strongest?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d4d8e4b149c04d05baed485ee2f0ac99", "input": "Passage: Only the top 200 meters or so of water receive enough sunlight for photosynthesis. This part of the water is called the photic zone. Below 200 meters, there is too little sunlight for photosynthesis to take place. This part of the water is called the aphotic zone. In this zone, food must come from other sources. It may be made by chemosynthesis, in which microorganisms use energy in chemicals instead of sunlight to make food. Or, food may drift down from the water above. Answer: photic zone", "output": [ "What is the top part of water able to receive enough sunlight for photosynthesis called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-93b2c88757a64fa987b6898b9834d3c9", "input": "Passage: 7.3 Errors in Meiosis The number, size, shape, and banding pattern of chromosomes make them easily identifiable in a karyogram and allow for the assessment of many chromosomal abnormalities. Disorders in chromosome number, or aneuploidies, are typically lethal to the embryo, although a few trisomic genotypes are viable. Because of X inactivation, aberrations in sex chromosomes typically have milder effects on an individual. Aneuploidies also include instances in which segments of a chromosome are duplicated or deleted. Chromosome structures also may be rearranged, for example by inversion or translocation. Both of these aberrations can result in negative effects on development, or death. Because they force chromosomes to assume contorted pairings during meiosis I, inversions and translocations are often associated with reduced fertility because of the likelihood of nondisjunction. Answer: abnormalities", "output": [ "The number, size, shape, and banding pattern of chromosomes make them easily identifiable in a karyogram and allow for the assessment of many chromosomal" ] }, { "id": "task594-5ce5fefd38b74fbca729e6a3fc52d3ad", "input": "Passage: Electronegativities generally increase from left to right across a period. This is due to an increase in nuclear charge because of the greater number of protons in the nucleus. Alkali metals have the lowest electronegativities, while halogens have the highest. Because most noble gases do not form compounds, they are generally not assigned electronegativity values. Note that there is little variation among the transition metals. Electronegativities generally decrease from top to bottom within a group due to the larger atomic size. Answer: larger atomic size", "output": [ "Why do electronegativities decrease from top to bottom?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ddc41e41d4df496b8fcb9f5a82578f27", "input": "Passage: The nucleus is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. The nucleus is the largest organelle in the cell and contains most of the cell's genetic information (mitochondria also contain DNA, called mitochondrial DNA, but it makes up just a small percentage of the cell’s overall DNA content). The genetic information, which contains the information for the structure and function of the organism, is found encoded in DNA in the form of genes. A gene is a short segment of DNA that contains information to encode an RNA molecule or a protein strand. DNA in the nucleus is organized in long linear strands that are attached to different proteins. These proteins help the DNA to coil up for better storage in the nucleus. Think how a string gets tightly coiled up if you twist one end while holding the other end. These long strands of coiled-up DNA and proteins are called chromosomes. Each chromosome contains many genes. Humans have about 20,000 to 22,000 genes scattered among 23 chromosomes. Answer: chromosomes", "output": [ "Humans have about 20,000 to 22,000 genes scattered among 23 of these?" ] }, { "id": "task594-260bdd24792a42a5a87e9e58e5b71058", "input": "Passage: 16.2 | Digestive System By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Explain the processes of digestion and absorption • Explain the specialized functions of the organs involved in processing food in the body • Describe the ways in which organs work together to digest food and absorb nutrients • Describe the essential nutrients required for cellular function that cannot be synthesized by the animal body • Describe how excess carbohydrates and energy are stored in the body All living organisms need nutrients to survive. While plants can obtain nutrients from their roots and the energy molecules required for cellular function through the process of photosynthesis, animals obtain their nutrients by the consumption of other organisms. At the cellular level, the biological molecules necessary for animal function are amino acids, lipid molecules, nucleotides, and simple sugars. However, the food consumed consists of protein, fat, and complex carbohydrates. Animals must convert these macromolecules into the simple molecules required for maintaining cellular function. The conversion of the food consumed to the nutrients required is a multistep process involving digestion and absorption. During digestion, food particles are broken down to smaller components, which are later absorbed by the body. This happens by both physical means, such as chewing, and by chemical means. One of the challenges in human nutrition is maintaining a balance between food intake, storage, and energy expenditure. Taking in more food energy than is used in activity leads to storage of the excess in the form of fat deposits. The rise in obesity and the resulting diseases like type 2 diabetes makes understanding the role of diet and nutrition in maintaining good health all the more important. Answer: digestion and absorption", "output": [ "The conversion of food that is consumed to nutrients involves what two major processes:" ] }, { "id": "task594-61d66b1df53d4d56b1c2623ab2405fa4", "input": "Passage: Plants can get the energy they need for photosynthesis from either sunlight or artificial light. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "Sunlight gives plants the energy they need for what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-333a15b25e384f8b8e98916d8de7fefe", "input": "Passage: Cynodonts probably gave rise to mammals about 200 million years ago. However, they are not considered to be mammals themselves. In fact, competition with early mammals may have led to their extinction. They went extinct sometime during the Jurassic or Cretaceous Period. Answer: mammals", "output": [ "Competition with what emerging animal group may have led to extinction of cynodonts about 200 million years ago?" ] }, { "id": "task594-02adaa15c6d54271a813cff1497cd6bf", "input": "Passage: There are a variety of types of movable joints, which are illustrated in Figure below . The joints are classified by how they move. For example, a ball-and-socket joint, such as the shoulder, has the greatest range of motion, allowing movement in several directions. Other movable joints, including hinge joints such as the knee, allow less movement. Answer: ball-and-socket", "output": [ "What type of joint has the greatest range of motion?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bd975cce6e694a1f89fedca92ccdac9e", "input": "Passage: Deleting or inserting a nitrogen base causes a frameshift mutation. All of the codons following the mutation are misread. This may be disastrous. To see why, consider this English-language analogy. Take the sentence “The big dog ate the red cat. ” If the second letter of “big” is deleted, then the sentence becomes: “The bgd oga tet her edc at. ” Deleting a single letter makes the rest of the sentence impossible to read. Answer: a frameshift mutation", "output": [ "Deleting or inserting a nitrogen base causes what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dd17a04553784c309083acc410f23588", "input": "Passage: Bees and other social animals must cooperate to live together successfully. Cooperation means working together with others. Members of the group may cooperate by dividing up tasks, defending each other, and sharing food. The ants in Figure below are sharing food. One ant is transferring food directly from its mouth to the mouth of another colony member. Answer: cooperation", "output": [ "What is it called when individual organisms work together with one another?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dcb73ef2ad6c46ea99fc99844f45b34f", "input": "Passage: REVIEW QUESTIONS 2. Magnesium has an atomic number of 12. Which of the following statements is true of a neutral magnesium atom? a. Answer: 12", "output": [ "What is the atomic number of magnesium?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c8adecb8790a4dbaa0f7ac7ef2cfa9e9", "input": "Passage: Like the stem, the leaf contains vascular bundles composed of xylem and phloem (Figure 30.27). The xylem consists of tracheids and vessels, which transport water and minerals to the leaves. The phloem transports the photosynthetic products from the leaf to the other parts of the plant. A single vascular bundle, no matter how large or small, always contains both xylem and phloem tissues. Answer: leaf", "output": [ "Like the stem, what basic plant structure contains vascular bundles composed of xylem and phloem?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8e4314dffeff4628b7b303408fbcc567", "input": "Passage: Absolute zero is the temperature where molecular motion stops and is the lowest possible temperature. Answer: absolute zero", "output": [ "What is the temperature where molecular motion stops?" ] }, { "id": "task594-795dd64e2e9c4ae19cf91350f9e0a213", "input": "Passage: Fertilizer runoff can create dead zones in the ocean. Answer: dead zones", "output": [ "Fertilizer runoff can create what type of zones in the ocean?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e9dc364c66fa409088c897cf5c14c676", "input": "Passage: Colligative properties have practical applications, such as the salting of roads in cold-weather climates. By applying salt to an icy road, the melting point of the ice is decreased, and the ice will melt more quickly, making driving safer. Sodium chloride (NaCl) and either calcium chloride (CaCl 2 ) or magnesium chloride (MgCl 2 ) are used most frequently, either alone or in a mixture. Sodium chloride is the least expensive option, but is less effective because it only dissociates into two ions instead of three. Answer: decreased", "output": [ "By applying salt to an icy road, the melting point of the ice is what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-54cbb5314998479c9b476039de334b89", "input": "Passage: CHAPTER SUMMARY 4.1 Studying Cells A cell is the smallest unit of life. Most cells are so tiny that they cannot be seen with the naked eye. Therefore, scientists use microscopes to study cells. Electron microscopes provide higher magnification, higher resolution, and more detail than. Answer: cell", "output": [ "What is considered the smallest unit of life?" ] }, { "id": "task594-92c47b5aa08d4a46895f8cc74b40a0e2", "input": "Passage: Density is mass per unit volume. Density is a measure of how closely molecules are packed together. The closer together they are, the greater the density. Since air is a gas, the molecules can pack tightly or spread out. Answer: density", "output": [ "What is the measure of how closely molecules are packed together?" ] }, { "id": "task594-93f056a304384194aa410a54505dae34", "input": "Passage: All plants have a characteristic life cycle that includes alternation of generations. Asexual reproduction with spores produces a haploid gametophyte generation. Sexual reproduction with gametes and fertilization produces a diploid sporophyte generation. Answer: plants", "output": [ "Alternation of generations is characteristic of the life cycle of all what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-403248a76fe44b54943cae06ffe74955", "input": "Passage: To measure very small masses, scientists use electronic balances, like the one in the Figure below . This type of balance also makes it easier to make accurate measurements because mass is shown as a digital readout. In the picture, the balance is being used to measure the mass of a white powder on a plastic weighing tray. The mass of the tray alone would have to be measured first and then subtracted from the mass of the tray and powder together. The difference between the two masses is the mass of the powder alone. Answer: electronic balance", "output": [ "What instrument, with a digital readout, is used by scientists to measure very small masses?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f4ffd909e3434e93a8292fb3a5d3e042", "input": "Passage: Anaerobic exercises involve the muscles working against resistance. In this case the resistance is the weight of a barbell. Answer: resistance", "output": [ "When performing anaerobic exercise, your muscles work against what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bc823b27798d444fb59d9ed476a2773b", "input": "Passage: A population is a group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area. The population is the unit of natural selection, adaptation, and microevolution. In ecology, how large a population is and how quickly it is growing are often used as measures of a species’ health. Answer: population", "output": [ "What term refers to a group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area and is the unit of natural selection, adaptation, and microevolution?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c6df718c687d42f18c94fa89de3d9d9b", "input": "Passage: Hydraulic car lifts also use fluid to transmit pressure and increase force. The lifts are used to raise cars, which are very heavy, so mechanics can work on them from underneath. Controls in airplanes use fluids to transmit pressure and increase force so a flick of a switch can raise or lower heavy landing gear. To see animations of hydraulic systems such as these, go to URLs:. Answer: hydraulic systems", "output": [ "What kind of systems use fluid to transmit pressure and increase force?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d2f6d67f8c884b0fba92c4d5b95fbd01", "input": "Passage: Two planets are on a collision course, heading directly towards each other at 0.250c . A spaceship sent from one planet approaches the second at 0.750c as seen by the second planet. What is the velocity of the ship relative to the first planet? 28. When a missile is shot from one spaceship towards another, it leaves the first at 0.950c and approaches the other at ships?. Answer: regenerate", "output": [ "Spinal cord injuries are notoriously difficult to treat because spinal nerves do not do what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-661a4d86f9b64269940c4805a72ff22b", "input": "Passage: Eris is the largest known dwarf planet in the solar system. It is 27 percent larger than Pluto ( Figure above ). Like Pluto and Makemake, Eris is in the Kuiper belt. But Eris is about 3 times farther from the Sun than Pluto. Because of its distance, Eris was not discovered until 2005. Early on, it was thought that Eris might be the tenth planet. Its discovery helped astronomers realize that they needed a new definition of “planet. ” Eris has a small moon, Dysnomia. Its moon orbits Eris once about every 16 days. Answer: dwarf planets", "output": [ "What are small planets in our solar system called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4feaefb1e3b54a94a05958583cbf39f4", "input": "Passage: Discussion The minus sign indicates that acceleration is to the left. This sign is reasonable because the train initially has a positive velocity in this problem, and a negative acceleration would oppose the motion. Again, acceleration is in the same direction as the change in velocity, which is negative here. This acceleration can be called a deceleration because it has a direction opposite to the velocity. Answer: acceleration", "output": [ "Deceleration is the opposite of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f93eae2223fd42fbb560915d1f0fbe51", "input": "Passage: Another interesting feature of many cnidarians is the ability to produce light. The production of light by living things is called bioluminescence. A more familiar example of bioluminescence is the light produced by fireflies. In cnidarians, bioluminescence may be used to startle predators or to attract prey or mates. Watch this short video to see an amazing light show put on by a jellyfish at the Monterey Aquarium in Monterey, California: https://www. youtube. com/watch?v=kdufLq2P1Ag . Answer: bioluminescence", "output": [ "The production of light by living things is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-15e8eb3832a840b0bd13b6925cb93e22", "input": "Passage: Figure 11.26 Applying a pressure greater than the osmotic pressure of a solution will reverse osmosis. Solvent molecules from the solution are pushed into the pure solvent. Answer: reverse osmosis", "output": [ "Applying a pressure greater than the osmotic pressure of a solution will do what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-870286c1baa44a7c96cac26ddaf4b066", "input": "Passage: Symptoms of chlamydia may include a burning sensation during urination and a discharge from the vagina or penis. Chlamydia can be cured with antibiotics , but often there are no symptoms, so people do not seek treatment. Untreated chlamydia can lead to more serious problems, such as pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) . This is an infection of the uterus, fallopian tubes, and/or ovaries. It can scar a woman’s reproductive organs and make it difficult for her to become pregnant. Answer: female reproductive system", "output": [ "Untreated chlamydia can lead to pelvic inflammatory disease, which affects what organ system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f1cd95292a724cbcb1872c6daee42306", "input": "Passage: The extent to which a substance may be dissolved in water, or any solvent, is quantitatively expressed as its solubility, defined as the maximum concentration of a substance that can be achieved under specified conditions. Substances with relatively large solubilities are said to be soluble. A substance will precipitate when solution conditions are such that its concentration exceeds its solubility. Substances with relatively low solubilities are said to be insoluble, and these are the substances that readily precipitate from solution. More information on these important concepts is provided in the text chapter on solutions. For purposes of predicting the identities of solids formed by precipitation reactions, one may simply refer to patterns of solubility that have been observed for many ionic compounds (Table 4.1). Solubilities of Common Ionic Compounds in Water Soluble compounds contain • group 1 metal cations (Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, and Cs+). Answer: solubility", "output": [ "The extent to which a substance may be dissolved in water or another solvent is known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-befb6d752e904e13a06f1a498c96388b", "input": "Passage: Diamond is a network solid and consists of carbon atoms covalently bonded to one another in a repeating three-dimensional pattern. Each carbon atom makes four single covalent bonds in a tetrahedral geometry. Answer: a diamond", "output": [ "What is a network solid and consists of carbon atoms covalently bonded to one another in a repeating three-dimensional pattern?" ] }, { "id": "task594-517089a9dff745ffa15370064650b3cd", "input": "Passage: The epidermis is the outer layer of skin, consisting of epithelial cells and little else (see Figure below ). For example, there are no nerve endings or blood vessels in the epidermis. The innermost cells of the epidermis are continuously dividing through mitosis to form new cells. The newly formed cells move up through the epidermis toward the skin surface, while producing a tough, fibrous protein called keratin . The cells become filled with keratin and die by the time they reach the surface, where they form a protective, waterproof layer called the stratum corneum . The dead cells are gradually shed from the surface of the skin and replaced by other cells. Answer: the epidermis", "output": [ "What is the name of the outer layer of skin?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dd9b12af13ac44049d51d37e80580b08", "input": "Passage: Pipettes are small, but important tools in many biology labs. Micropipettes, such as the ones shown here, are calibrated to measure very small amounts of liquids. For example, 100 microliters (100 µL) is about half the volume of your little finger tip; or even 1 µL, which is much smaller than a drop of water. Answer: micropipettes", "output": [ "What kind of pipettes are suitable for measuring very small amounts of liquids?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dca5964fcb7647bbae19503f562e160c", "input": "Passage: Two important concepts associated with the ecosystem are niche and habitat. Answer: ecosystem", "output": [ "Two important concepts, niche and habitat, are associated with what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1fdf064168924a63a7983efe511db5ed", "input": "Passage: The highest-numbered shell is the third shell, which has 2 electrons in the 3s subshell and 3 electrons in the 3p subshell. That gives a total of 5 electrons, so neutral phosphorus atoms have 5 valence electrons. The 10 remaining electrons, from the first and second shells, are core electrons. Answer: five", "output": [ "How many valence electrons do neutral phosphorus atoms have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-707e14efdd094461a4572091de125555", "input": "Passage: All redox reactions occur with a simultaneous change in the oxidation numbers of some atoms. At least two elements must change their oxidation numbers. When an oxidation number of an atom is increased in the course of a redox reaction, that atom is being oxidized. When an oxidation number of an atom is decreased in the course of a redox reaction, that atom is being reduced. Thus oxidation and reduction can also be defined in terms of increasing or decreasing oxidation numbers, respectively. Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: reduced", "output": [ "When an oxidation number of an atom is decreased in the course of a redox reaction, that atom is being what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-47f2359fced841e1af7f8bfd125c7003", "input": "Passage: Adding more heat energy to Earth’s atmosphere also causes more extreme weather and changes in precipitation patterns. Global warming is already causing food and water shortages and species extinctions. These problems will only grow worse unless steps are taken to curb greenhouse gases and global climate change. Answer: global warming", "output": [ "What is already causing food and water shortages and species extinctions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-061681fdda0048738ac081b87b3bf4fe", "input": "Passage: A: Homogenized milk is a colloid. The particles in the milk are large enough to see—that’s why milk is white instead of clear like water, which is the main component of milk. However, the particles are not large enough to settle out of the mixture. Answer: water", "output": [ "What is the main component of milk?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d5f25aa7485c4b1bbbfb7b5221075941", "input": "Passage: While many elements differ dramatically in their chemical and physical properties, some elements have similar properties. We can identify sets of elements that exhibit common behaviors. For example, many elements conduct heat and electricity well, whereas others are poor conductors. These properties can be used to sort the elements into three classes: metals (elements that conduct well), nonmetals (elements that conduct poorly), and metalloids (elements that have properties of both metals and nonmetals). The periodic table is a table of elements that places elements with similar properties close together (Figure 1.22). You will learn more about the periodic table as you continue your study of chemistry. Answer: metals", "output": [ "What elements tend to conduct well?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c37d2b309466412ab4fbe16147b3a707", "input": "Passage: Ovulation, the release of an egg from the ovary, occurs at about the midpoint of the cycle. This would be around day 14 of a 28 day cycle. The egg is swept into the fallopian tube. If sperm is present, fertilization may occur. As sperm can only survive in the fallopian tube for up to a few days, fertilization can only occur within those few days post-ovulation. Answer: ovary", "output": [ "Ovulation is the release of an egg from the what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e21153b2a2de4e0c9b9a521565895918", "input": "Passage: Early land plants also evolved a dominant sporophyte generation. Sporophytes are diploid, so they have two copies of each gene. This gives them a \"back-up\" copy in case of mutation. This was important for coping with the strong solar radiation and higher risk of mutations on land. Answer: organism has two copies of each gene", "output": [ "What does it mean to be a diploid organism?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a57612f85f264b7daf5e95fdbfb7e3e4", "input": "Passage: All of the examples of potential energy described above involve movement or the potential to move. The form of energy that involves movement is called mechanical energy. Other forms of energy also involve potential energy, including chemical energy and nuclear energy. Chemical energy is stored in the bonds between the atoms of compounds. For example, food and batteries both contain chemical energy. Nuclear energy is stored in the nuclei of atoms because of the strong forces that hold the nucleus together. Nuclei of radioactive elements such as uranium are unstable, so they break apart and release the stored energy. Answer: mechanical energy", "output": [ "What is the type of energy that involves movement?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2f542fe276c5449c9be03be339c6a131", "input": "Passage: The electrical conductivity of a substance is a property that depends only on the type of substance. Silver, gold, and copper are excellent conductors of electricity, while glass and plastic are poor conductors. A larger or smaller piece of glass will not change this property. An intensive property is a property of matter that depends only on the type of matter in a sample and not on the amount. Other intensive properties include color, temperature, density, and solubility. Answer: electricity", "output": [ "Silver, gold, and copper all conduct what very well?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0bdd68e2864c439b9f2db41322071082", "input": "Passage: Figure 12.25 Graded Potentials Graded potentials are temporary changes in the membrane voltage, the characteristics of which depend on the size of the stimulus. Some types of stimuli cause depolarization of the membrane, whereas others cause hyperpolarization. It depends on the specific ion channels that are activated in the cell membrane. Answer: membrane voltage", "output": [ "Graded potentials are temporary changes in what, the characteristics of which depend on the size of the stimuli?" ] }, { "id": "task594-42a9bc43479a40bea507fd15197a2c43", "input": "Passage: Bacteria are like eukaryotic cells in that they have cytoplasm, ribosomes, and a plasma membrane. Answer: plasma membrane", "output": [ "Bacteria are like eukaryotic cells in that they have cytoplasm, ribosomes, and a?" ] }, { "id": "task594-aa7bf1579a09497ebaebd07497b93dbc", "input": "Passage: Evolution happens because of natural selection . Good traits become more common in a population. Bad traits become less common. The deer mouse, species Peromyscus maniculatus gives an example of evolution by natural selection. In Nebraska, this mouse is typically brown. But in places where glaciers dropped lighter sand over the darker soil, the mice are light. Why? Because predators could more easily spot the dark mice on light sand. The lighter mice were more likely to survive and have offspring. Natural selection favored the light mice. Over time, the population became light colored. Enough changes may take place over time that the two types of mice become different species. Answer: natural selection", "output": [ "Evolution happens because of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e2672a84f75a419e8412240de487dbf4", "input": "Passage: CHAPTER REVIEW 11.1 Interactions of Skeletal Muscles, Their Fascicle Arrangement, and Their Lever Systems Skeletal muscles each have an origin and an insertion. The end of the muscle that attaches to the bone being pulled is called the muscle’s insertion and the end of the muscle attached to a fixed, or stabilized, bone is called the origin. The muscle primarily responsible for a movement is called the prime mover, and muscles that assist in this action are called synergists. A synergist that makes the insertion site more stable is called a fixator. Meanwhile, a muscle with the opposite action of the prime mover is called an antagonist. Several factors contribute to the force generated by a skeletal muscle. One is the arrangement of the fascicles in the skeletal muscle. Fascicles can be parallel, circular, convergent, pennate, fusiform, or triangular. Each arrangement has its own range of motion and ability to do work. Answer: fixator", "output": [ "A synergist that makes the insertion site more stable is called a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2264ee5c322d48a1a9e1f0b2f651a341", "input": "Passage: There are two main types of diabetes, type 1 diabetes and type 2 diabetes. Type 1 diabetes makes up about 5-10% of all cases of diabetes in the United States. Type 2 diabetes accounts for most of the other cases. Both types of diabetes are more likely in people that have certain genes. Having a family member with diabetes increases the risk of developing the disease. Answer: two", "output": [ "How many main types of diabetes are there?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c719e2dd6505452a9bcc61ffdc1c3285", "input": "Passage: The only light that people can see is called visible light . It refers to a very narrow range of wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum that falls between infrared light and ultraviolet light. Within the visible range, we see light of different wavelengths as different colors of light, from red light, which has the longest wavelength, to violet light, which has the shortest wavelength. You can see the spectrum of colors of visible light in Figure below . When all of the wavelengths are combined, as they are in sunlight, visible light appears white. You can learn more about visible light in the chapter \"Visible Light\" and at the URL below. Answer: infrared light and ultraviolet light", "output": [ "Where does visible light fall in between on the electromagnetic spectrum?" ] }, { "id": "task594-62e96ceefe1140bd9aa3e263ec083a13", "input": "Passage: Opening Essay Although yeast has been used for thousands of years, its true nature has been known only for the last two centuries. Yeasts are single-celled fungi. About 1,000 species are recognized, but the most common species is Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which is used in bread making. Other species are used for the fermentation of alcoholic beverages. Some species can cause infections in humans. Yeasts live primarily on sugars, such as glucose (C6H12O6). They convert glucose into carbon dioxide (CO2) and ethanol (C2H5OH) in a chemical transformation that is represented as follows:. Answer: bread making", "output": [ "Yeasts are single-celled fungi. about 1,000 species are recognized, but the most common species is saccharomyces cerevisiae, which is used in this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8294ef55cf094198b2e777d80bdf1727", "input": "Passage: Microwaves are used for cell phones and radar. Answer: microwaves", "output": [ "Which types of waves are used for cell phones and radar?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bb7f8c0c9c63418fb70d9643a32dd015", "input": "Passage: Each separate substance in a medium, such as the extracellular fluid, has its own concentration gradient, independent of the concentration gradients of other materials. Additionally, each substance will diffuse according to that gradient. Several factors affect the rate of diffusion. • Extent of the concentration gradient: The greater the difference in concentration, the more rapid the diffusion. The closer the distribution of the material gets to equilibrium, the slower the rate of diffusion becomes. • Mass of the molecules diffusing: More massive molecules move more slowly, because it is more difficult for them to move between the molecules of the substance they are moving through; therefore, they diffuse more slowly. • Temperature: Higher temperatures increase the energy and therefore the movement of the molecules, increasing the rate of diffusion. • Solvent density: As the density of the solvent increases, the rate of diffusion decreases. The molecules slow down because they have a more difficult time getting through the denser medium. Answer: equilibrium", "output": [ "In a medium, the closer the distribution of the material gets to what state, the slower the rate of diffusion becomes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-037cb8fe3dcb4f578f3bd1ba5e715afa", "input": "Passage: External Respiration The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood into the lungs from the heart, where it branches and eventually becomes the capillary network composed of pulmonary capillaries. These pulmonary capillaries create the respiratory membrane with the alveoli (Figure 22.22). As the blood is pumped through this capillary network, gas exchange occurs. Although a small amount of the oxygen is able to dissolve directly into plasma from the alveoli, most of the oxygen is picked up by erythrocytes (red blood cells) and binds to a protein called hemoglobin, a process described later in this chapter. Oxygenated hemoglobin is red, causing the overall appearance of bright red oxygenated blood, which returns to the heart through the pulmonary veins. Carbon dioxide is released in the opposite direction of oxygen, from the blood to the alveoli. Some of the carbon dioxide is returned on hemoglobin, but can also be dissolved in plasma or is present as a converted form, also explained in greater detail later in this chapter. External respiration occurs as a function of partial pressure differences in oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli and the blood in the pulmonary capillaries. Answer: heart", "output": [ "The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood into the lungs from this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-925985587857465582d46d3362f13cf1", "input": "Passage: Enzymes are involved in most biochemical reactions, and they do their job extremely well. A typical biochemical reaction could take several days to occur without an enzyme. With the proper enzyme, the same reaction can occur in just a split second! Without enzymes to speed up biochemical reactions, most organisms could not survive. The activities of enzymes depend on the temperature, ionic conditions, and the pH of the surroundings. Some enzymes work best at acidic pHs, while others work best in neutral environments. Answer: enzymes", "output": [ "Most organisms could not survive without what being present to speed up biochemical reactions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8054a24ee3d7447bb4758514ddd771fe", "input": "Passage: Thick fur and a layer of blubber keep polar bears warm in their Arctic ecosystem. Why do you think their fur is white? Why might it be an adaptation in an Arctic biome?. Answer: thick fur, blubber", "output": [ "What 2 things keep polar bears warm in their arctic ecosystem?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c8815aedbee4408093391c8a548c99f6", "input": "Passage: All living things are capable of reproduction. Reproduction is the process by which living things give rise to offspring. Reproducing may be as simple as a single cell dividing to form two daughter cells. Generally, however, it is much more complicated. Nonetheless, whether a living thing is a huge whale or a microscopic bacterium, it is capable of reproduction. Answer: reproduction", "output": [ "What is the process called in which living things produce offspring?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c361be0b03004ae08edc97adf192bc9f", "input": "Passage: Substances may be either elements or pure compounds. They may also be solid, liquid, or gas. Some of the elements (such as silver) exist in the solid form. Other elements (mercury) exist as liquids at room temperature. Elements such as helium and radon exist as gases at room temperature. A compound such as water will take the form of a solid, a liquid, or a gas, depending upon the temperature. Answer: pure compounds", "output": [ "Substances may be either elements or what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fc2cbb6545614a8d8eadca469e9861fa", "input": "Passage: The most important way that humans communicate is with language. Language is the use of symbols to communicate. In human languages, the symbols are words. Words may stand for things, people, actions, feelings, or ideas. By combining words in sentences, language can be used to express very complex thoughts. Answer: language", "output": [ "What is the most important way that humans communicate?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7eb2054f5800448fb518f12867a2e58f", "input": "Passage: Animals are multicellular eukaryotes in the Animal Kingdom. All animals are heterotrophs. They eat other living things because they can’t make their own food. All animals also have specialized cells that can do different jobs. Most animals have higher levels of organization as well. They may have specialized tissues, organs, and even organ systems. Having higher levels of organization allows animals to perform many complex functions. For a visual introduction to what makes a living thing an animal, watch this short video: https://www. youtube. com/watch?v=DXPhJUHooP8 . Answer: cells", "output": [ "All animals have specialized types of what basic structures, which can then do different jobs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5e16989a6bd44897aa13d85957ecefc4", "input": "Passage: Vascular tissue runs through the ground tissue inside a plant. It consists of bundles of xylem and phloem, which transport fluids throughout the plant. Answer: vascular tissue", "output": [ "This type of tissue consists of bundles of xylem and phloem and transports fluids throughout the plant." ] }, { "id": "task594-2f1ae63d91424c2ca9e97d51f5a94ac8", "input": "Passage: Biofuels are useful because they are liquid. Biofuels can go into a gas tank unlike many other types of alternative energy. Answer: liquid", "output": [ "What form do biofuels take that makes them very useful?" ] }, { "id": "task594-caffd9b85323429bb98b258c96d2f3a4", "input": "Passage: A chemical reaction is a process in which some substances change into different substances. In a chemical reaction, bonds break in reactants and new bonds form in products. Answer: a chemical reaction", "output": [ "What is a process in which some substances change into different substances?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1cc8d5932ad040febfbc4882ed796931", "input": "Passage: Anions form when an atom gains electrons. Nonmetallic atoms typically gain enough electrons to obtain the same electron configuration as the nearest noble gas. All the elements in Group 17 have seven valence electrons, which are arranged into an outer configuration of n s 2 n p 5 . To achieve a noble gas configuration ( n s 2 n p 6 ), each of these elements needs to gain just one electron, resulting in an anion with a 1− charge. Similarly, Group 16 elements can obtain an n s 2 n p 6 valence configuration by forming ions with a 2− charge, and the Group 15 nonmetals will form ions with a 3− charge. Naming anions is slightly different than naming cations. The end of the element’s name is dropped and replaced with the – ide suffix. For example, when the chlorine atom (Cl) gains one electron, it becomes the chloride ion (Cl - ). This structure has the same electron configuration as the noble gas argon. Similarly, sulfur can gain two electrons to become the sulfide ion (S 2- ), which also has a noble gas configuration. Answer: anions", "output": [ "What forms when an atom gains electrons?" ] }, { "id": "task594-42ecfb4885f6438d873acea1bec6f27f", "input": "Passage: Oxygen has the second highest electronegativity of any element; consequently, it prefers to share or accept electrons from other elements. Only with fluorine does oxygen form compounds in positive oxidation states. Answer: positive oxidation states", "output": [ "Oxygen has the second highest electronegativity of any element; consequently, it prefers to share or accept electrons from other elements. only with fluorine does oxygen form compounds in this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f9888bc9361641219cb08bad9db15909", "input": "Passage: Female reproductive structures include the vagina, uterus, ovaries, and fallopian tubes. Answer: reproductive", "output": [ "What structures include the vagina, uterus, ovaries, and fallopian tubes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-53f5dfa588334d13973a1f89e5f35d66", "input": "Passage: There are three types of mechanical waves. They differ in how they travel through a medium. The three types are transverse, longitudinal, and surface waves. All three types are described in detail below. Answer: three", "output": [ "How many types of mechanical waves are there?" ] }, { "id": "task594-520218c7e9ae43bc9cb9195e40a6f5c9", "input": "Passage: 2.2 | Chemical Bonds By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Explain the relationship between molecules and compounds • Distinguish between ions, cations, and anions • Identify the key difference between ionic and covalent bonds • Distinguish between nonpolar and polar covalent bonds • Explain how water molecules link via hydrogen bonds Atoms separated by a great distance cannot link; rather, they must come close enough for the electrons in their valence shells to interact. But do atoms ever actually touch one another? Most physicists would say no, because the negatively charged electrons in their valence shells repel one another. No force within the human body—or anywhere in the natural world—is strong enough to overcome this electrical repulsion. So when you read about atoms linking together or colliding, bear in mind that the atoms are not merging in a physical sense. Instead, atoms link by forming a chemical bond. A bond is a weak or strong electrical attraction that holds atoms in the same vicinity. The new grouping is typically more stable—less likely to react again—than its component atoms were when they were separate. A more or less stable grouping of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds is called a molecule. The bonded atoms may be of the same element, as in the case of H2, which is called molecular hydrogen or hydrogen gas. When a molecule is made up of two or more atoms of different elements, it is called a chemical compound. Thus, a unit of water, or H2O, is a compound, as is a single molecule of the gas methane, or CH4. Three types of chemical bonds are important in human physiology, because they hold together substances that are used by the body for critical aspects of homeostasis, signaling, and energy production, to name just a few important processes. These are ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and hydrogen bonds. Answer: bonds", "output": [ "Ionic, covalent, and hydrogen are three important types of what type of interaction between different types of atoms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2bd3e49ce5dc4ba2804b2ebcded244f5", "input": "Passage: An electron is accelerated from rest through a potential difference of volts. It then enters a region traveling perpendicular to a magnetic field of . Calculate the velocity of the electron. Answer: volts", "output": [ "An electron is accelerated from rest through a potential difference of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2644d3fac10d451c843a66ef10202a05", "input": "Passage: Most mature plant cells have a large central vacuole . This vacuole can make up as much as 90% of the cell’s volume. The central vacuole has a number of functions, including storing substances such as water, enzymes, and salts. It also helps plant tissues, such as stems and leaves, stay rigid and hold their shape. It even helps give flowers, like the ones in Figure below , their beautiful colors. Answer: central vacuole", "output": [ "What part of a mature plant cell is responsible for storing substances like water, enzymes, and salts?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cf69ea9b49e249e99a81ba082ccdcc2c", "input": "Passage: The kidneys help the body maintain homeostasis in several ways. They filter all the blood in the body many times each day and produce urine. They control the amount of water and dissolved substances in the blood by excreting more or less of them in urine. Answer: the kidneys", "output": [ "Which body organ filters the blood in the body and creates urine?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c30f7789c0274e4dadc6cc84b1f46423", "input": "Passage: Gastrin, which signals the secretion of gastric acid. Answer: gastrin", "output": [ "What signals the secretion of gastric acid?" ] }, { "id": "task594-522631950b8f46f4ad697c6152044da2", "input": "Passage: By 180 million years ago, Pangaea began to break up. The continents started to drift apart. They slowly moved to where they are today. The movement of the continents caused Panthalassa to break into smaller oceans. These oceans are now known as the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, and Arctic Oceans. The waters of all the oceans are connected. That’s why some people refer to the oceans together as the “World Ocean. ”. Answer: break up", "output": [ "By 180 million years ago, pangaea began to do what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-03a4eb775da94dfa9482dd39e8f2ac0a", "input": "Passage: Deep sea trenches are found near chains of active volcanoes. These volcanoes can be at the edges of continents or in the oceans. Trenches are the deepest places on Earth. The deepest trench is the Mariana Trench in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. This trench plunges about 11 kilometers (35,840 feet) beneath sea level. The ocean floor does have lots of flat areas. These abyssal plains are like the scientists had predicted. Answer: deep sea trenches", "output": [ "What are the deepest places on earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d62d480baf824a9b85d521707c5e839e", "input": "Passage: RNA is studied to understand gene expression patterns in cells. RNA is naturally very unstable because enzymes that break down RNA are commonly present in nature. Some are even secreted by our own skin and are very difficult to inactivate. Similar to DNA extraction, RNA extraction involves the use of various buffers and enzymes to inactivate other macromolecules and preserve only the RNA. Gel Electrophoresis Because nucleic acids are negatively charged ions at neutral or alkaline pH in an aqueous environment, they can be moved by an electric field. Gel electrophoresis is a technique used to separate charged molecules on the basis of size and charge. The nucleic acids can be separated as whole chromosomes or as fragments. The nucleic acids are loaded into a slot at one end of a gel matrix, an electric current is applied, and negatively charged molecules are pulled toward the opposite end of the gel (the end with the positive electrode). Smaller molecules move through the pores in the gel faster than larger molecules; this difference in the rate of migration separates the fragments on the basis of size. The nucleic acids in a gel matrix are invisible until they are stained with a compound that allows them to be seen, such as a dye. Distinct fragments of nucleic acids appear as bands at specific distances from the top of the gel (the negative electrode end) that are based on their size (Figure 10.3). A mixture of many fragments of varying sizes appear as a long smear, whereas uncut genomic DNA is usually too large to run through the gel and forms a single large band at the top of the gel. Answer: rna", "output": [ "What is studied to understand gene expression patterns in cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4f8cd93ceb9e4441bf4976ca05b464ec", "input": "Passage: What is the difference between distance and displacement? Whereas displacement is defined by both direction and magnitude, distance is defined only by magnitude. Displacement is an example of a vector quantity. Distance is an example of a scalar quantity. A vector is any quantity with both magnitude and direction. Other examples of vectors include a velocity of 90 km/h east and a force of 500 newtons straight down. The direction of a vector in one-dimensional motion is given simply by a plus. Answer: magnitude", "output": [ "Displacement is a vector quantity, which means it has both direction and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8e58dd1e0e22446db2444323b7a9567e", "input": "Passage: Intensity is defined to be the power per unit area carried by a wave. Power is the rate at which energy is transferred by the wave. In equation form, intensity I is. Answer: wave", "output": [ "Intensity is defined to be the power per unit area carried by a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a7891e9af8dc4bd4bb89493f52391fd6", "input": "Passage: The breasts are not directly involved in reproduction, but they nourish a baby after birth. Each breast contains mammary glands, which secrete milk. The milk drains into ducts leading to the nipple. A suckling baby squeezes the milk out of the ducts and through the nipple. Answer: mammary glands", "output": [ "What glands in the breast secrete milk?" ] }, { "id": "task594-42be9f225e9d416eb46408d2ec9ed3f0", "input": "Passage: Melanocytes are located at the bottom of the epidermis. Answer: bottom", "output": [ "Melanocytes are located in which layer of the epidermis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4e609c2465c4463cba57a1c6001895b1", "input": "Passage: Heat Transfer to an Ectothermic Reptile. This crocodile is being warmed by the environment in three ways. Heat is radiating directly from the sun to the animal’s back. Heat is also being conducted to the animal from the rocks it rests on. In addition, convection currents are carrying warm air from surrounding rocks to the animal’s body. Answer: convection", "output": [ "What type of current carries warm air from surrounding rocks to an animal's body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4d5d18c430ac4d8d9532cc36b4ffe3c1", "input": "Passage: Two different pathways accomplish the regeneration of NAD + with rather famous products: lactic acid (C 3 H 6 O 3 ) and ethyl alcohol (C 2 H 6 O) ( Figure above ). Making ATP in the absence of oxygen by glycolysis alone is known as fermentation . Therefore, these two pathways are called lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation . If you lack interest in organisms, such as yeast and bacteria, which have “stuck with” the anaerobic tradition, the products of these chemical reactions may still intrigue you. Fermentation makes bread, yogurt, beer, wine, and some new biofuels. In addition, some of your body’s cells are facultative anaerobes, retaining one of these ancient pathways for short-term, emergency use. Answer: fermentation", "output": [ "In what process is atp created by glycolysis, without oxygen?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a8f393d4c8ba4f06ad3c051eba4a4aaa", "input": "Passage: The process in which a solid changes directly to a gas is called sublimation . It occurs when the particles of a solid absorb enough energy to completely overcome the force of attraction between them. Dry ice (solid carbon dioxide, CO 2 ) is an example of a solid that undergoes sublimation. Figure below shows a chunk of dry ice changing directly to carbon dioxide gas. Sometimes snow undergoes sublimation as well. This is most likely to occur on sunny winter days when the air is very dry. What gas does snow become?. Answer: sublimation", "output": [ "What is the process in which a solid changes directly to a gas called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f3b62ea68c4a45eaab9bec1b6ccf8bdc", "input": "Passage: The bacteria that make food from chemicals are also primary producers. These organisms do not do photosynthesis since there is no light at the vents. They do something called chemosynthesis. They break down chemicals to make food. Answer: chemosynthesis", "output": [ "What is the process bacteria use to break down chemicals into food?" ] }, { "id": "task594-40bdbfd478ea4d288852c0d11ee64568", "input": "Passage: Without communication, animals would not be able to live together in groups. Animals that live in groups with other members of their species are called social animals. Social animals include many species of insects, birds, and mammals. Specific examples are ants, bees, crows, wolves, and human beings. Answer: social animals", "output": [ "Animals that live in groups with other members of their species are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3d5b0bf209f04537a9f57ff763464ed2", "input": "Passage: Figure 23.30 Virtually all aquatic organisms depend directly or indirectly on protists for food. (credit “mollusks”: modification of work by Craig Stihler, USFWS; credit “crab”: modification of work by David Berkowitz; credit “dolphin”: modification of work by Mike Baird; credit “fish”: modification of work by Tim Sheerman-Chase; credit “penguin”: modification of work by Aaron Logan). Answer: protists", "output": [ "Virtually all aquatic organisms depend directly or indirectly on what for food?" ] }, { "id": "task594-551d20a4fc7043a587a507f9d5b0aa0d", "input": "Passage: Forests are also being destroyed. Trees may be cut down for their wood, or they may be burned to clear the land for farming. Burning wood releases more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. You can see how a tropical rainforest was cleared for farming in Figure below . With forests shrinking, there are fewer trees to remove carbon dioxide from the air. This makes the greenhouse effect even worse. Answer: carbon dioxide", "output": [ "What does burning wood release into the atmosphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1e420faf420148a981f7dc7a40d24eff", "input": "Passage: An ovule is a female reproductive structure in seed plants that contains a tiny female gametophyte. The gametophyte produces an egg cell. After the egg is fertilized by sperm, the ovule develops into a seed. Answer: seed", "output": [ "In seed plants, after fertilization, what will the ovule eventually develop into?" ] }, { "id": "task594-070c5a2575084d3ebb8c77f0e3136f53", "input": "Passage: An element is a pure substance. It cannot be separated into any other substances. There are more than 90 different elements that occur in nature. Some are much more common than others. Hydrogen is the most common element in the universe. Oxygen is the most common element in Earth’s crust. Figure below shows other examples of elements. Still others are described in the video below. Answer: hydrogen", "output": [ "What element is the most common element in the universe?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3694393cc4fb4c2582e51b534fa5f155", "input": "Passage: In a transverse wave, such as a wave in a rope, the medium vibrates at right angles to the direction that the wave travels. The high points of transverse waves are called crests, and the low points are called troughs. Answer: crests and troughs", "output": [ "What do you call the high and low points of transverse waves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cacc8ab0e5cd425a9adf31d86fd52361", "input": "Passage: All living things are capable of reproduction, the process by which living things give rise to offspring. Answer: reproduction", "output": [ "All living things are capable of what process whereby living things give rise to offspring?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eaaf7faa520e495385fe193fe82f4950", "input": "Passage: Ecosystems require constant inputs of energy from sunlight or chemicals. Answer: energy", "output": [ "What do ecosystems require constant inputs of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-96a9b3954f8542878e60e45c478e12e6", "input": "Passage: Reactive elements combine easily with other elements. This explains why they usually exist in nature in compounds rather than in pure form. Answer: easily", "output": [ "Reactive elements are able to combine more what with other elements?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f9f12abfd72b497d97d3633db0dbe811", "input": "Passage: An example of a disaccharide is sucrose (table sugar), which consists of the monosaccharides glucose and fructose ( Figure below ). Other common disaccharides include lactose (\"milk sugar\") and maltose. Monosaccharides and disaccharides are also called simple sugars . They provide the major source of energy to living cells. Answer: simple sugars", "output": [ "What are monosaccharides and disaccharides also called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e6fbdf347cfa47ce808ceae97b5767ff", "input": "Passage: Color, temperature, and solubility are examples of intensive properties. Answer: intensive", "output": [ "Color, temperature, and solubility are examples of what type of property?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bb928abdd7ba4d45ae64b1875df27fdb", "input": "Passage: In the winter, many people find the snow and ice beautiful. They enjoy getting out to ski or ice-skate. Others don’t find that time of year to be so much fun. When the snow melts, the roads get very sloppy and messy. Those people look forward to spring when all the ice and snow are gone and the weather is warmer. Answer: winter", "output": [ "What season causes people to look forward to spring?" ] }, { "id": "task594-df3ff719b5624a3cbd0c6204183936b0", "input": "Passage: Ecosystems need a constant input of energy to supply the needs of their organisms. Most ecosystems get energy from sunlight. A few ecosystems get energy from chemical compounds. Answer: sunlight", "output": [ "Where do most ecosystems get energy from?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5cb88adb28ec471c9b1c546ecfa645df", "input": "Passage: Towels soak up liquids like water because the fibers of a towel are made of molecules that are attracted to water molecules. Most cloth towels are made of cotton, and paper towels are generally made from paper pulp. Both consist of long molecules of cellulose that contain many −OH groups. Water molecules are attracted to these −OH groups and form hydrogen bonds with them, which draws the H2O molecules up the cellulose molecules. The water molecules are also attracted to each other, so large amounts of water are drawn up the cellulose fibers. Capillary action can also occur when one end of a small diameter tube is immersed in a liquid, as illustrated in Figure 10.20. If the liquid molecules are strongly attracted to the tube molecules, the liquid creeps up the inside of the tube until the weight of the liquid and the adhesive forces are in balance. The smaller the diameter of the tube is, the higher the liquid climbs. It is partly by capillary action occurring in plant cells called xylem that water and dissolved nutrients are brought from the soil up through the roots and into a plant. Capillary action is the basis for thin layer chromatography, a laboratory technique commonly used to separate small quantities of mixtures. You depend on a constant supply of tears to keep your eyes lubricated and on capillary action to pump tear fluid away. Answer: capillary action", "output": [ "What can occur when one end of a small diameter tube is immersed in liquid?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fdfd145e654f4239a7e1eaf4548046b9", "input": "Passage: Sometimes people with an allergy get allergy shots. They are injected with tiny amounts of the allergen that triggers the allergic reaction. The shots are repeated at regular intervals, and the amount of allergen that is injected each time gradually increases. How do you think this might help an allergy? Do you think this approach just treats allergy symptoms or might it cure the allergy?. Answer: allergy shots", "output": [ "What type of shots do people with allergy get?" ] }, { "id": "task594-89dfde4e5aca4b219a23be9db9d70977", "input": "Passage: All other mammals give birth to live young and belong to one of two different categories, the marsupials and the placental mammals. A marsupial is an animal in which the embryo, which is often called a joey, is born at an immature stage. Development must be completed outside the mother's body. Most female marsupials have an abdominal pouch or skin fold where there are mammary glands. The pouch is a place for completing the development of the baby. Although blind, without fur, and with only partially formed hind legs, the tiny newborns have well developed forelimbs with claws that enable them to climb their way into their mother's pouch where they drink their mother's milk and continue their development. Marsupials include kangaroos, koalas, and opossums. Other marsupials are the wallaby and the Tasmanian Devil. Most marsupials live in Australia and nearby areas. ( Figure below ). Answer: marsupial", "output": [ "What do you call an animal in which the embryo, often termed a joey, is born immature and must complete its development outside the mother's body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1ffda6200f714ac8b04663043a354d4d", "input": "Passage: Some of the oldest evidence of evolution comes from embryology , the study of how organisms develop. An embryo is an animal or plant in its earliest stages of development. This means looking at a plant or animal before it is born or hatched. Centuries ago, people recognized that the embryos of many different species have similar appearances. The embryos of some species are even difficult to tell apart. Many of these animals do not differ much in appearance until they develop further. Answer: embryology", "output": [ "The study of how organisms develop is known as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-192f343e8007444cb867b27ed8a217b3", "input": "Passage: Nicotinic receptor causes depolarization. Muscarinic receptors can cause both depolarization or hyperpolarization depending on the subtype. Answer: subtype", "output": [ "Muscarinic receptors can cause both depolarization or hyperpolarization depending on the what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cf2b9ee96e7948329ceb7705140b9e02", "input": "Passage: The thymus gland is in the chest behind the breast bone. It stores some types of lymphocytes while they mature. Answer: thymus", "output": [ "What is the gland in the chest behind the breast bone that stores some types of lymphocytes while they mature?" ] }, { "id": "task594-905e42123e5d4fe482c25d0cbd44b292", "input": "Passage: New species arise in the process of speciation. Allopatric speciation occurs when some members of a species become geographically separated. They then evolve genetic differences. If the differences prevent them from interbreeding with the original species, a new species has evolved. Sympatric speciation occurs without geographic separation. Answer: allopatric speciation", "output": [ "What occurs when some members of a species become geographically separated?" ] }, { "id": "task594-730ba7c96f7d4b2aa2181ba54a5aa3df", "input": "Passage: Two main zones based on depth of water are the photic zone and aphotic zone. The photic zone is the top 200 meters of water. The aphotic zone is water deeper than 200 meters. The deeper you go, the darker the water gets. That’s because sunlight cannot penetrate very far under water. Sunlight is needed for photosynthesis. So the depth of water determines whether photosynthesis is possible. There is enough sunlight for photosynthesis only in the photic zone. Answer: water depth", "output": [ "The lighter photic zone and darker aphotic zone are determined by what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4d3755307dce4909b8ff8448edefcaa1", "input": "Passage: Unlike Mendel's peas, people do not all fall into two categories: short or tall. Most people, in fact, are somewhere in between. Obviously, Mendel's rules are too simple to explain the inheritance of human height. Answer: mendel", "output": [ "Whose rules are too simple to explain the inheritance of human height?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d488a5baf2d74e8baf5c106f29c25ca5", "input": "Passage: To predict the relative stabilities of metal complexes with different ligands. One of the most important properties of metallic elements is their ability to act as Lewis acids that form complexes with a variety of Lewis bases. A metal complex consists of a central metal atom or ion that is bonded to one or more ligands (from the Latinligare, meaning “to bind”), which are ions or molecules that contain one or more pairs of electrons that can be shared with the metal. Metal complexes can be neutral, such as Co(NH3)3Cl3; positively charged, such as [Nd(H2O)9]3+; or negatively charged, such as [UF8]4−. Electrically charged metal complexes are sometimes called complex ions. A coordination compound contains one or more metal complexes. Coordination compounds are important for at least three reasons. First, most of the elements in the periodic table are metals, and almost all metals form complexes, so metal complexes are a feature of the chemistry of more than half the elements. Second, many industrial catalysts are metal complexes, and such catalysts are steadily becoming more important as a way to control reactivity. For example, a mixture of a titanium complex and an organometallic compound of aluminum is the catalyst used to produce most of the polyethylene and polypropylene “plastic” items we use every day. Finally, transition-metal complexes are essential in biochemistry. Examples include hemoglobin, an iron complex that transports oxygen in our blood; cytochromes, iron complexes that transfer electrons in our cells; and complexes of Fe, Zn, Cu, and Mo that are crucial components of certain enzymes, the catalysts for all biological reactions. Metal complexes are so important in biology that we consider the topic separately in Section 23.6 \"Transition Metals in Biology\". Answer: oxygen", "output": [ "Hemoglobin is responsible for transporting what within our blood?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f5a0bf6f362a4927ab4f6824244d070d", "input": "Passage: The molarity is 0.0129 M, the molality is 0.0129 m, the mole fraction is 2.33 × 10 , and the solution contains 1830 ppm Na2HPO4. Mole fraction is most useful for calculating vapor pressure, because Raoult’s law states that the vapor pressure of a solution containing a non-volatile solute is equal to the mole fraction of solvent times the vapor pressure of the pure solvent. The mole fraction of the solvent is just one minus the mole fraction of solute. Answer: solute", "output": [ "The mole fraction of the solvent is just one minus the mole fraction of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d455803b0a5d4be4b0ff97601d86f5b1", "input": "Passage: Protists are the simplest eukaryotes. They are easiest to define by what they are not. Protists are not animals, plants, or fungi. Answer: eukaryotes", "output": [ "Protists are the simplest of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c076f303a3a54e329313d17e08c1241d", "input": "Passage: Movable joints are also known as synovial joints . This is because the space between the bones is filled with a thick fluid, called synovial fluid , that cushions the joint (see Figure below ). Answer: synovial", "output": [ "What is another term for movable joints?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a9fa39c8e07a4adf8ec596cf65f7b5b8", "input": "Passage: Geneticist Many diseases arise from genetic mutations that prevent the synthesis of critical proteins. One such disease is Lowe disease (also called oculocerebrorenal syndrome, because it affects the eyes, brain, and kidneys). In Lowe disease, there is a deficiency in an enzyme localized to the Golgi apparatus. Children with Lowe disease are born with cataracts, typically develop kidney disease after the first year of life, and may have impaired mental abilities. Lowe disease is a genetic disease caused by a mutation on the X chromosome. The X chromosome is one of the two human sex chromosome, as these chromosomes determine a person's sex. Females possess two X chromosomes while males possess one X and one Y chromosome. In females, the genes on only one of the two X chromosomes are expressed. Therefore, females who carry the Lowe disease gene on one of their X chromosomes have a 50/50 chance of having the disease. However, males only have one X chromosome and the genes on this chromosome are always expressed. Therefore, males will always have Lowe disease if their X chromosome carries the Lowe disease gene. The location of the mutated gene, as well as the locations of many other mutations that cause genetic diseases, has now been identified. Through prenatal testing, a woman can find out if the fetus she is carrying may be afflicted with one of several genetic diseases. Geneticists analyze the results of prenatal genetic tests and may counsel pregnant women on available options. They may also conduct genetic research that leads to new drugs or foods, or perform DNA analyses that are used in forensic investigations. Answer: proteins", "output": [ "Many diseases arise from genetic mutations that prevent the synthesis of critical what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-24406f4e04ab44cc8ad1af5509083605", "input": "Passage: Two natural products of mollusks used for decorations and jewelry are pearls and nacre. A pearl is the hard, round object produced within the mantle of a living shelled mollusk. Pearls are produced by many bivalves when a tiny particle of sand or grit is trapped between the mantle and the shell. It's as if the mollusk has a splinter. The mollusk forms a protective covering around the irritant. Most pearls used as jewelry are made by pearl oysters and freshwater mussels; most of the ones sold are cultured and not wild. Natural pearls have been highly valued as gemstones and objects of beauty for many centuries. Answer: pearl", "output": [ "What is the term for the hard, round object produced within the mantle of a living shelled mollusk?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2d83eeee89574a25a6dde45417013b82", "input": "Passage: The two ovaries are small, oval organs on either side of the uterus. Each ovary contains thousands of eggs, with about 1-2 million immature eggs present at birth and 40,000 immature eggs present at puberty, as most of the eggs die off. The eggs do not fully develop until a female has gone through puberty. About once a month, on average one egg completes development and is released by the ovary. The ovaries also secrete estrogen , the main female sex hormone. Answer: uterus", "output": [ "The two ovaries are small, oval organs on either side of what part of the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b439cd9fd1954cbba57137de87d972ea", "input": "Passage: Four underlying principles form the basis of biology. They are cell theory, gene theory, homeostasis, and evolution. Answer: four", "output": [ "How many underlying principles does the science of biology have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8abc1e57415941679cb95ff9afee1764", "input": "Passage: Delocalization of the electrons makes for a more stable molecule than a similar molecule that does not have delocalized electrons. Benzene is a more stable and less reactive compound than straight-chain hexenes. The sp 2 hybridization of the carbon atoms results in a planar molecule as opposed to the puckered structure of cyclohexane. Benzene rings are common in a great number of natural substances and biomolecules. The figure below shows the structural formulas for vanilla and naphthalene. Naphthalens is a chemical which is commonly used in mothballs. Answer: mothballs", "output": [ "Naphthalens is a chemical which is commonly used in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ed3f370ad53e4dd39cb63f5d89ae6255", "input": "Passage: In sexually reproducing organisms, parents pass a copy of each type of chromosome to their offspring by producing gametes. When gametes are fertilized and form offspring, each has a unique combination of chromosomes and genes from both parents. The inherited gene combination determines the characteristics of the offspring. Answer: chromosome", "output": [ "In sexually reproducing organisms, parents pass a copy of each type of what to their offspring by producing gametes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-87fa4d2f37864e43adec9d0ce04fc173", "input": "Passage: 38.4 Muscle Contraction and Locomotion The body contains three types of muscle tissue: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle. Skeleton muscle tissue is composed of sarcomeres, the functional units of muscle tissue. Muscle contraction occurs when sarcomeres shorten, as thick and thin filaments slide past each other, which is called the sliding filament model of muscle contraction. ATP provides the energy for cross-bridge formation and filament sliding. Regulatory proteins, such as troponin and tropomyosin, control cross-bridge formation. Excitation–contraction coupling transduces the electrical signal of the neuron, via acetylcholine, to an electrical signal on the muscle membrane, which initiates force production. The number of muscle fibers contracting determines how much force the whole muscle produces. Answer: three", "output": [ "The body contains how many types of muscle tissue?" ] }, { "id": "task594-733980b735e94fb5b08e1fca77e7b90f", "input": "Passage: All streams and rivers have several features in common. These features are shown in ( Figure below ). The place where a stream or river starts is its source. The source might be a spring, where water flows out of the ground. Or the source might be water from melting snow on a mountain top. A single stream may have multiple sources. A stream or river probably ends when it flows into a body of water, such as a lake or an ocean. A stream ends at its mouth. As the water flows into the body of water, it slows down and drops the sediment it was carrying. The sediment may build up to form a delta. Answer: source", "output": [ "What is the name of the location in which a stream or river starts?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f341c8217b09481f98bdb64c65c6e064", "input": "Passage: Amplitude is a measure of the size of sound waves. It depends on the amount of energy that started the waves. Greater amplitude waves have more energy and greater intensity, so they sound louder. For a video demonstration of the amplitude and loudness of sounds, go to this URL: http://www. youtube. com/watch?v=irqfGYD2UKw. Answer: amplitude", "output": [ "What is a measure of the size of sound waves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4b0ab05eb7924918aa935473f9f09997", "input": "Passage: Any organic material can be made into electricity. But some materials are better than others. Wastes can be used, like almond shells. Biomass power is a great use of wastes. It's hard to use wastes as a consistent large scale source of energy though. Answer: organic waste", "output": [ "What kind of material that might otherwise go to a landfill can serve as the source of biomass power?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b6ffa8233bae4ff6b6d1f9fb5d4e0e29", "input": "Passage: Some solutes, such as sodium acetate, do not recrystallize easily. Suppose an exactly saturated solution of sodium acetate is prepared at 50°C. As it cools back to room temperature, no crystals appear in the solution, even though the solubility of sodium acetate is lower at room temperature. A supersaturated solution is a solution that contains more than the maximum amount of solute that is capable of being dissolved at a given temperature. The recrystallization of the excess dissolved solute in a supersaturated solution can be initiated by the addition of a tiny crystal of solute, called a seed crystal. The seed crystal provides a nucleation site on which the excess dissolved crystals can begin to grow. Recrystallization from a supersaturated solution is typically very fast. Answer: seed crystal", "output": [ "What is used to recrystallize excess dissolved solute in a supersaturated solution?" ] }, { "id": "task594-972f3bb83b714bb4800e9aa04e62f068", "input": "Passage: This scene is from Anza-Borrago California Desert Park. However, deserts exist around the globe. You might find a similar picture of a desert in Africa. The desert is one type of biome. Answer: biome", "output": [ "A desert is a type of what community in an ecosystem?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b1b1841afae54bfba632b80727b0218b", "input": "Passage: When chemicals in solution react, the proper way of writing the chemical formulas of the dissolved ionic compounds is in terms of the dissociated ions, not the complete ionic formula. A complete ionic equation is a chemical equation in which the dissolved ionic compounds are written as separated ions. Solubility rules are very useful in determining which ionic compounds are dissolved and which are not. For example, when NaCl(aq) reacts with AgNO3(aq) in a double-replacement reaction to precipitate AgCl(s) and form NaNO3(aq), the complete ionic equation includes NaCl, AgNO3, and NaNO3 written as separated ions:. Answer: separated ions", "output": [ "A complete ionic equation is a chemical equation in which the dissolved ionic compounds are written as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-827548458e484ea095b424234a6f06ca", "input": "Passage: Red blood cells are flat, round, and very small. Their small size allows easy maneuverability through the capillaries, the narrowest blood vessels, where oxygen is transferred into body cells. Answer: capillaries", "output": [ "What are the narrowest blood vessels, where oxygen is transferred into body cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f7ce3d00e6ac4bcb8d6fe7ec76237a2c", "input": "Passage: When gas pressure-forces are used to move an object then work is done on the object by the expanding gas. Work can be done on the gas in order to compress it. Answer: expanding gas", "output": [ "When gas pressure-forces are used to move an object the work is done on the object by?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7118ad5d63b8442b8fb7b866b7517ec0", "input": "Passage: Another example of habituation is shown below ( Figure below ). Crows and most other birds are usually afraid of people. They avoid coming close to people, or they fly away when people come near them. The crows landing on this scarecrow have become used to a “human” in this place. They have learned that the scarecrow poses no danger. They are no longer afraid to come close. They have become habituated to the scarecrow. Answer: habituation", "output": [ "A crow that becomes used to a scarecrow and lands on it is an example of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2dbe5fe0ad6c4faba51e3474d1529515", "input": "Passage: Taste receptors are found in tiny bumps on the tongue called taste buds (see Figure below ). There are separate taste receptors for sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and meaty tastes. The meaty taste is called umami . You can learn more about taste receptors and the sense of taste by watching the animation at the following link: http://www. bbc. co. uk/science/humanbody/body/factfiles/taste/taste_ani_f5. swf . Answer: taste buds", "output": [ "What are the taste receptors found as tiny bumps on the tongue called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bf77f5eeb0c9460984a27cb8dab1fb00", "input": "Passage: Most ecosystems get their energy from the Sun. Only producers can use sunlight to make usable energy. Producers convert the sunlight into chemical energy or food. Consumers get some of that energy when they eat producers. They also pass some of the energy on to other consumers when they are eaten. In this way, energy flows from one living thing to another. Answer: sun", "output": [ "Where do most ecosystems get their energy from?" ] }, { "id": "task594-baa6b4213a0e462490180444ce3f4088", "input": "Passage: As you would expect, where plates collide there are lots of intense earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. The subducting oceanic plate melts as it reenters the mantle. The magma rises and erupts. This creates a volcanic mountain range near the coast of the continent. This range is called a continental arc . The Andes Mountains, along the western edge of South America, are a volcanic arc ( Figure below ). Answer: melts", "output": [ "The subducting oceanic plate does what as it reenters the mantle?" ] }, { "id": "task594-11c8bebf678543ce9dab6cc5d0ba8c1b", "input": "Passage: Protostomes and Deuterostomes Bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic eucoelomates can be divided into two groups based on differences in their early embryonic development. Protostomes include phyla such as arthropods, mollusks, and annelids. Deuterostomes include. Answer: protostomes and deuterostomes", "output": [ "What are the two groups that tripoblastic eucoelomates can be divided into based on early embryonic development differences?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3f15145638a44ae1adc262b3b81ed97c", "input": "Passage: Magma that cools underground forms intrusions ( Figure below ). Intrusions become land formations if they are exposed at the surface by erosion. Answer: instrusions", "output": [ "What does magma that cools underground form?" ] }, { "id": "task594-791be5491dde4df6b43a58fc450b6f99", "input": "Passage: Most plasma cells live for just a few days, but some of them live much longer. They may even survive for the lifetime of the individual. Long-living plasma cells are called memory cells. They retain a “memory” of a specific pathogen long after an infection is over. They help launch a rapid response against the pathogen if it invades the body again in the future. Answer: memory cells", "output": [ "What are long living plasma cells called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-16417a70a588463bbf4fa83cde83280d", "input": "Passage: Let’s take a closer look at a molecule of ATP. Although it carries less energy than glucose, its structure is more complex. “A” in ATP refers to the majority of the molecule – adenosine – a combination of a nitrogenous base and a five-carbon sugar. “T” and “P” indicate the three phosphates, linked by bonds which hold the energy actually used by cells. Usually, only the outermost bond breaks to release or spend energy for cellular work. Answer: adenosine", "output": [ "The a in atp is short for what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f66e084b8ed1424fbb71d20611beb829", "input": "Passage: Below the lithosphere is the asthenosphere . The asthenosphere is also in the upper mantle. This layer is solid, but it can flow and bend. A solid that can flow is like silly putty. Answer: asthenosphere", "output": [ "What layer is below the lithosphere and in the upper mantle?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bfcfdb906947432ba5bd2323133fee3b", "input": "Passage: The Neural Tube To begin, a sperm cell and an egg cell fuse to become a fertilized egg. The fertilized egg cell, or zygote, starts dividing to generate the cells that make up an entire organism. Sixteen days after fertilization, the developing embryo’s cells belong to one of three germ layers that give rise to the different tissues in the body. The endoderm, or inner tissue, is responsible for generating the lining tissues of various spaces within the body, such as the mucosae of the digestive and respiratory systems. The mesoderm, or middle tissue, gives rise to most of the muscle and connective tissues. Finally the ectoderm, or outer tissue, develops into the integumentary system (the skin) and the nervous system. It is probably not difficult to see that the outer tissue of the embryo becomes the outer covering of the body. But how is it responsible for the nervous system? As the embryo develops, a portion of the ectoderm differentiates into a specialized region of neuroectoderm, which is the precursor for the tissue of the nervous system. Molecular signals induce cells in this region to differentiate into the neuroepithelium, forming a neural plate. The cells then begin to change shape, causing the tissue to buckle and fold inward (Figure 13.2). A neural groove forms, visible as a line along the dorsal surface of the embryo. The ridge-like edge on either side of the neural groove is referred as the neural fold. As the neural folds come together and converge, the underlying structure forms into a tube just beneath the ectoderm called the neural tube. Cells from the neural folds then separate from the ectoderm to form a cluster of cells referred to as the neural crest, which runs lateral to the neural tube. The neural crest migrates away from the nascent, or embryonic, central nervous system (CNS) that will form along the neural groove and develops into several parts of the peripheral nervous system (PNS), including the enteric nervous tissue. Many tissues that are not part of the nervous system also arise from the neural crest, such as craniofacial cartilage and bone, and melanocytes. Answer: fertilized egg", "output": [ "A sperm cell and an egg cell fuse to become what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-753d78a1eb7348ad96d4925289dd05c8", "input": "Passage: Sensory neurons in each sense organ receive stimuli, or messages from the environment that cause a response in the body. For example, sensory neurons in the eyes send messages to the brain about light. Sensory neurons in the skin send messages to the brain about touch. Our sense organs recognize sensations, but they don’t tell us what we are sensing. For example, when you breathe in chemicals given off by baking cookies, your nose does not tell you that you are smelling cookies. That’s your brain’s job. The sense organs send messages about sights, smells, and other stimuli to the brain ( Figure below ). The brain then reads the messages and tells you what they mean. A certain area of the brain receives and interprets information from each sense organ. For example, information from the nose is received and interpreted by the temporal lobe of the cerebrum. Answer: brain", "output": [ "What organ interprets what our sensory organs sense?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2303a97bdf804f4e889515755ba3a2fa", "input": "Passage: The nuclear envelope is a double membrane of the nucleus that encloses the genetic material. It separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm. The nuclear envelope is made of two phospholipid bilayers, an inner membrane and an outer membrane. The outer membrane is continuous with the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Many tiny holes called nuclear pores are found in the nuclear envelope. These nuclear pores help to regulate the exchange of materials (such as RNA and proteins) between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. Answer: the nuclear envelope", "output": [ "What is a double membrane of the nucleus that encloses the genetic material?" ] }, { "id": "task594-14aa12ce92b64bd080c1ea90da59b3e4", "input": "Passage: Electric current occurs whenever there is a difference in electric potential energy, or voltage. Voltage is measured in volts (V). Answer: volts", "output": [ "What is the unit used to measure voltage?" ] }, { "id": "task594-59bbbc5b747b49fbb4e134391230809d", "input": "Passage: Amphibian larvae go through metamorphosis to change into the adult form. Answer: metamorphosis", "output": [ "Amphibian larvae go through what process to change into the adult form?" ] }, { "id": "task594-58fb6903b0ec4084b754eb33ab74df19", "input": "Passage: The main functions of the male reproductive system are to produce sperm and secrete testosterone. Answer: male reproductive system", "output": [ "Producing sperm and secreting testosterone are the main functions of what system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-732593ba886c4251a42d6f199a7eb874", "input": "Passage: The haploid gametophyte produces the gametes, or sperm and egg, by mitosis. Remember, gametes are haploid, having one set of chromosomes. Answer: mitosis", "output": [ "By what process does the haploid gametophyte produce the gametes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-35f77326f106486fb09fcb0184486678", "input": "Passage: When there is no mass in a volume of space, the space is not curved. An object passing through such space would follow a straight line in our normal way of thinking of a straight line. Answer: curved", "output": [ "When there is no mass in a volume of space, the space is not what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2c9966cd2d0841c480451aa0e7d0acc7", "input": "Passage: Bacteria are surrounded by a cell wall consisting of peptidoglycan . This complex molecule consists of sugars and amino acids. The cell wall is important for protecting bacteria. The cell wall is so important that some antibiotics, such as penicillin, kill bacteria by preventing the cell wall from forming. Answer: bacteria", "output": [ "What are surrounded by a cell wall consisting of peptidoglycan?" ] }, { "id": "task594-014c6bf5a93e4da48a6a87afbb53b933", "input": "Passage: Refrigerator magnets stick to a refrigerator door because it contains iron. Why won’t the magnets stick to wooden cabinet doors?. Answer: iron", "output": [ "What do refrigerator magnets contain that make them stick to a refrigerator door?" ] }, { "id": "task594-21403bdf80ed401586ba31ac811d51a6", "input": "Passage: The objects are at different temperatures, and heat flows from the hotter to the cooler object. This is always. Answer: from hotter to cooler", "output": [ "In which direction does heat always flow through objects?" ] }, { "id": "task594-13207fb493a04c5b9d6719afbed8dc7f", "input": "Passage: Figure 5.3 This phospholipid molecule is composed of a hydrophilic head and two hydrophobic tails. The hydrophilic head group consists of a phosphate-containing group attached to a glycerol molecule. The hydrophobic tails, each containing either a saturated or an unsaturated fatty acid, are long hydrocarbon chains. Answer: hydrophillic head , and hydrophobic tails", "output": [ "What two things are a phospholipid molecules composed of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7765731f8d22485f85e9c06197aa24ec", "input": "Passage: Light slows down when it enters water from the air. This causes the wave to refract, or bend. Answer: slowing down", "output": [ "What causes light to refract?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c3fd7f14cc8d4b4ba9ba80f8002ee8fd", "input": "Passage: In benzene, the true bonding between carbon atoms is neither a single nor a double bond. Rather, all of the bonds are a hybrid of a single and double bond. In benzene, the pi bonding electrons are free to move completely around the ring. Delocalized electrons are electrons that are not confined to the bond between two atoms, but are instead allowed to move between three or more. The delocalization of the electrons in benzene can best be shown by showing benzene with a ring inside the hexagon, with the hydrogen atoms understood. Answer: delocalized", "output": [ "What type of electrons are electrons that are not confined to the bond between two atoms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b2987ce790554e7cb27781dae9a559bf", "input": "Passage: Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in humans and other vertebrates and is made up of monomers of glucose. Glycogen is the animal equivalent of starch and is a highly branched molecule usually stored in liver and muscle cells. Whenever blood glucose levels decrease, glycogen is broken down to release glucose in a process known as glycogenolysis. Cellulose is the most abundant natural biopolymer. The cell wall of plants is mostly made of cellulose; this provides structural support to the cell. Wood and paper are mostly cellulosic in nature. Cellulose is made up of glucose monomers that are linked by β 1-4 glycosidic bonds (Figure 3.10). Answer: glycogen", "output": [ "What is the storage form of glucose in humans and other vertebrates?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ab6c320b0c4d48149a907654d944514c", "input": "Passage: 24.1 The biological species concept emphasizes reproductive isolation. Answer: biological species concept", "output": [ "What evolutionary concept emphasizes reproductive isolation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6e1f94d2daaa4d559921c8c54144ed03", "input": "Passage: Often, a worker will need to change the concentration of a solution by changing the amount of solvent. Dilution is the addition of solvent, which decreases the concentration of the solute in the solution. Concentration is the removal of solvent, which increases the concentration of the solute in the solution. (Do not confuse the two uses of the word concentration here!) In both dilution and concentration, the amount of solute stays the same. This gives us a way to calculate what the new solution volume must be for the desired concentration of solute. From the definition of molarity,. Answer: solute", "output": [ "Concentration is the removal of solvent, which increases the concentration of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-83471eaf3a204b10a0ee84f0fcb46b2b", "input": "Passage: Chemical reactions in the real world don’t always go exactly as planned on paper. In the course of an experiment, many things will contribute to the formation of less product than would be predicted. Besides spills and other experimental errors, there are usually losses due to an incomplete reaction, undesirable side reactions, etc. Chemists need a measurement that indicates how successful a reaction has been. This measurement is called the percent yield. Answer: percent yield", "output": [ "What is the term for proportion of amount of product actually produced in a chemical reaction versus predicted amount ?" ] }, { "id": "task594-953dcb27951f4aad903f8f36deb322df", "input": "Passage: Most chemical digestion and nearly all absorption of nutrients take place in the small intestine. This organ consists of three parts: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. Answer: small intestine", "output": [ "What organ is divided into the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum?" ] }, { "id": "task594-619ad18ca3434050a43e0d14f07be2f8", "input": "Passage: CHAPTER REVIEW 4.1 Types of Tissues The human body contains more than 200 types of cells that can all be classified into four types of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous. Epithelial tissues act as coverings controlling the movement of materials across the surface. Connective tissue integrates the various parts of the body and provides support and protection to organs. Muscle tissue allows the body to move. Nervous tissues propagate information. The study of the shape and arrangement of cells in tissue is called histology. All cells and tissues in the body derive from three germ layers in the embryo: the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. Different types of tissues form membranes that enclose organs, provide a friction-free interaction between organs, and keep organs together. Synovial membranes are connective tissue membranes that protect and line the joints. Epithelial membranes are formed from epithelial tissue attached to a layer of connective tissue. There are three types of epithelial membranes: mucous, which contain glands; serous, which secrete fluid; and cutaneous which makes up the skin. Answer: histology", "output": [ "What science is the study of the shape and arrangement of cells in tissue?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4f1e27de217a4534822bf817ba571254", "input": "Passage: Occipital Bone The occipital bone is the single bone that forms the posterior skull and posterior base of the cranial cavity (Figure 7.9; see also Figure 7.8). On its outside surface, at the posterior midline, is a small protrusion called the external occipital protuberance, which serves as an attachment site for a ligament of the posterior neck. Lateral to either side of this bump is a superior nuchal line (nuchal = “nape” or “posterior neck”). The nuchal lines represent the most superior point at which muscles of the neck attach to the skull, with only the scalp covering the skull above these lines. On the base of the skull, the occipital bone contains the large opening of the foramen magnum, which allows for passage of the spinal cord as it exits the skull. On either side of the foramen magnum is an oval-shaped occipital condyle. These condyles form joints with the first cervical vertebra and thus support the skull on top of the vertebral column. Answer: occipital bone", "output": [ "What is the single bone that forms the posterior skull and posterior base of the cranial cavity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a3c60920339040f7937c4b56986022f2", "input": "Passage: Yeast are used for the fermentation process that makes beer, wine, and bread. Answer: yeast", "output": [ "What is used for the fermentation process that makes beer, wine, and bread?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8869fba2a1d143d7abea734b255f9cbb", "input": "Passage: Polar compounds, such as water, are compounds that have a partial negative charge on one side of each molecule and a partial positive charge on the other side. All polar compounds contain polar bonds (although not all compounds that contain polar bonds are polar. ) In a polar bond, two atoms share electrons unequally. One atom attracts the shared electrons more strongly, so it has a partial negative charge. The other atom attracts the shared electrons less strongly, so it is has a partial positive charge. In a water molecule, the oxygen atom attracts the shared electrons more strongly than the hydrogen atoms do. This explains why the oxygen side of the water molecule has a partial negative charge and the hydrogen side of the molecule has a partial positive charge. Answer: polar", "output": [ "All polar compounds contain what type of bonds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b2c6b360c4de4981b033e226c3be038a", "input": "Passage: Under the right pressure conditions, lowering the temperature of a substance in the liquid state causes the substance to solidify. The opposite effect occurs if the temperature is increased. Answer: it solidifies", "output": [ "What happens to a substance in a liquid state when the temperate is lowed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6b5123e28b3546099e69d1df6d9b3b49", "input": "Passage: When water freezes in a non-crystalline, amorphous form as frost, the water molecules are fixed in place, but not in a regular, repeating pattern. Frost and other amorphous solids are characterized by their unorganized and unpredictable structure. Because ice comes in both amorphous and crystalline forms, there are differences in the physical properties of ice such as its hardness and density. Answer: amorphous", "output": [ "What kind of solid is characterized by an unorganized and unpredictable structure?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d250ee5a669a45d688afebd4403b0a72", "input": "Passage: Remember that a phase change depends on the direction of the heat transfer. If heat transfers in, solids become liquids, and liquids become solids at the melting and boiling points, respectively. If heat transfers out, liquids solidify, and gases condense into liquids. Answer: heat transfer", "output": [ "What type of direction does a phase change depend on?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3b6a578e578745c783d9309d84e68267", "input": "Passage: When a new air mass moves over a region it brings its characteristics to the region. This may change the area's temperature and humidity. Moving air masses cause the weather to change when they contact different conditions. For example, a warm air mass moving over cold ground may cause an inversion. Answer: warm air", "output": [ "An inversion may result when what kind of mass moves over cold ground?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a36843687352440589cab3930b3a00c3", "input": "Passage: A virus is a sub-microscopic particle that can infect living cells. Viruses are much smaller than prokaryotic organisms. In essence, a virus is simply a nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat, as seen in the Figure below . This outer coat is called a capsid . Viruses will be discussed in more detail in the Viruses concepts. Answer: a protein coat", "output": [ "In essence, a virus is simply a nucleic acid surrounded by what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-63414b46d83d4be9a3040673af04fdd0", "input": "Passage: Ions are highly reactive, especially as gases. They usually react with ions of opposite charge to form neutral compounds. For example, positive sodium ions and negative chloride ions react to form the neutral compound sodium chloride, commonly known as table salt. This occurs because oppositely charged ions attract each other. Ions with the same charge, on the other hand, repel each other. Ions are also deflected by a magnetic field, as you saw in the opening image of the northern lights. Answer: repel each other", "output": [ "What do ions of the same charge do?" ] }, { "id": "task594-27394fb0f61d4258b9e56007925099ea", "input": "Passage: Prokaryotic cells have a cell wall outside their plasma membrane. Answer: plasma membrane", "output": [ "Prokaryotic cells have a cell wall located outside of the __________?" ] }, { "id": "task594-54d762e966494c93bb160ef0054d9e3a", "input": "Passage: Fossils of ocean animals are found at the top of Mt. Everest. Mt. Everest is the highest mountain on Earth. These fossils show that the area was once at the bottom of a sea. The seabed was later uplifted to form the Himalaya mountain range. An example is shown in the Figure below . Answer: fossils", "output": [ "What evidence is there that mt. everest was once at the bottom of a sea?" ] }, { "id": "task594-82989d72bff649cbac9cd5ce3a7c9c83", "input": "Passage: As we studied in our chapter on the periodic table, we saw that elements share a number of important properties with other elements found in the same group. The chemical behavior of a given element is largely dictated by the configuration of its valence electrons. Many elements have a tendency to gain or lose electrons in order to achieve a more stable configuration. When a neutral atom gains or loses electrons, it becomes an ion. In this lesson, we will look at ways to predict what type of ion a given element is likely to form. Answer: it becomes an ion", "output": [ "What happens when a neutral atom gains or loses electrons?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ab764e67db8e4f5faa846a3a764817b9", "input": "Passage: The fetus is connected to the placenta through the umbilical cord. This is a long tube that contains two arteries and a vein. Blood from the fetus enters the placenta through the umbilical arteries. It exchanges gases and other substances with the mother’s blood. Then it travels back to the fetus through the umbilical vein. Answer: placenta", "output": [ "The umbilical cord connects the fetus to what structure?" ] }, { "id": "task594-108dfff73ec84ccc98d58802be856db8", "input": "Passage: The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number. This is also unique for each element. Answer: protons", "output": [ "The atomic number is the same as the number of what in an atom?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ee55b0a3540043b499c9049247405408", "input": "Passage: In the digestive system, food is digested and its nutrients are absorbed by the blood for transport around the body. The blood is part of the cardiovascular system. Answer: digestive", "output": [ "Nutrients from food are absorbed by the blood for transport around the body as part of what system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f2888405f9c642f6b816427006abc5fc", "input": "Passage: Cytokinins Promote cell division; prevent senescence. Answer: senescence", "output": [ "Cytokinins promote cell division and prevent what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a9cf87eb27e442169c974a6379e9b66a", "input": "Passage: Intrinsic Pathway The intrinsic pathway (also known as the contact activation pathway) is longer and more complex. In this case, the factors involved are intrinsic to (present within) the bloodstream. The pathway can be prompted by damage to the tissues, resulting from internal factors such as arterial disease; however, it is most often initiated when factor XII (Hageman factor) comes into contact with foreign materials, such as when a blood sample is put into a glass test tube. Within the body, factor XII is typically activated when it encounters negatively charged molecules, such as inorganic polymers and phosphate produced earlier in the series of intrinsic pathway reactions. Factor XII sets off a series of reactions that in turn activates factor XI (antihemolytic factor C or plasma thromboplastin antecedent) then factor IX (antihemolytic factor B or plasma thromboplasmin). In the meantime, chemicals released by the platelets increase the rate of these activation reactions. Finally, factor VIII (antihemolytic factor A) from the platelets and endothelial cells combines with factor IX (antihemolytic factor B or plasma thromboplasmin) to form an enzyme complex that activates factor X (Stuart–Prower factor or thrombokinase), leading to the common pathway. The events in the intrinsic pathway are completed in a few minutes. Answer: intrinsic pathway", "output": [ "What term is also known as the contact activation pathway?" ] }, { "id": "task594-16f8f4fc83a44312b9a35851a460d07d", "input": "Passage: Some organisms can reproduce sexually or asexually. Under what conditions might each type of reproduction be an advantage?. Answer: gene", "output": [ "The myod protein deserves its designation as a master regulatory what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c21169cd5bc94951a2207d6055ffae74", "input": "Passage: Stress is the force applied to a rock. There are four types of stresses:. Answer: four", "output": [ "How many different types of stresses are there?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b89ea14c654c4520ba6c1b181690e5de", "input": "Passage: Neutral amines are weak bases, because the lone pair on nitrogen can act as a proton acceptor. Many smaller amines have very strong and offensive odors. For example, the aptly-named compounds cadaverine and putrescine are foul-smelling amines, formed as a part of the decay process after death. Answer: cadaverine and putrescine", "output": [ "What are the names of foul-smelling amines, formed as a part of the decay process after death?" ] }, { "id": "task594-545fe86c8e6e4423a3e79a4a3b6c8520", "input": "Passage: for the period of a simple pendulum. This result is interesting because of its simplicity. The only things that affect the period of a simple pendulum are its length and the acceleration due to gravity. The period is completely independent of other factors, such as mass. As with simple harmonic oscillators, the period T for a pendulum is nearly independent of amplitude, especially if θ is less than about. Answer: mass", "output": [ "The only things that affect the period of a simple pendulum are its length and the acceleration due to gravity. the period is completely independent of other factors, such as this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-12a7079d18074f47a8ca7e5caf33069b", "input": "Passage: Volume is a measure of the amount of space that a substance or an object takes up. The basic SI unit for volume is the cubic meter (m 3 ), but smaller volumes may be measured in cm 3 , and liquids may be measured in liters (L) or milliliters (mL). How the volume of matter is measured depends on its state. Answer: volume", "output": [ "What is a measure of the amount of space that a substance or an object occupies?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a9f553c960484852825555954d6128b7", "input": "Passage: Matter typically exists in one of three states: solid , liquid , or gas . The state a given substance exhibits is also a physical property. Some substances exist as gases at room temperature (oxygen and carbon dioxide), while others, like water and mercury metal, exist as liquids. Most metals exist as solids at room temperature. All substances can exist in any of these three states. Answer: physical", "output": [ "The state of matter - solid, liquid, or gas - is also considered what type of property?" ] }, { "id": "task594-733d7430190d4c0397a336e191f2f0c3", "input": "Passage: Marsupials give birth to a tiny, immature embryo. The embryo then continues to grow and develop in a pouch on the mother’s belly. This is less risky for the mother. However, the embryo is fragile, so it may be less likely to survive than the fetus of a placental mammal. Answer: marsupials", "output": [ "What type of mammal gives birth to young that need to develop further in the mother's pouch after birth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1e2e567ad4a745c99d9da0a854a401e2", "input": "Passage: The Sun supports most of Earth's ecosystems. Plants create chemical energy from abiotic factors that include solar energy. The food energy created by producers is passed through the food chain. Answer: sun", "output": [ "What supports most of earth's ecosystems?" ] }, { "id": "task594-33ef786e6eca468f849a7108fb0080e7", "input": "Passage: Some types of candy, such as gummi bears or taffy, are amorphous solids. Table salt has a crystalline geometry. Answer: amorphous solids", "output": [ "What kind of solids are gummi bears or taffy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-22e38ef91f224ce0a217308c380c6670", "input": "Passage: The phagocytes that are part of the body’s second line of defense attack any pathogens they encounter. They provide a general defense. Some white blood cells attack only certain pathogens. They provide a specific defense. Answer: pathogens", "output": [ "The phagocytes that are part of the body’s second line of defense attack any of what that they encounter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1bf64506f45341508297d17148df54c5", "input": "Passage: Evaporation changes liquid water to water vapor. Energy from the Sun causes water to evaporate. Most evaporation is from the oceans because they cover so much area. The water vapor rises into the atmosphere. Answer: oceans", "output": [ "Where does most water evaporate from?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e850cd8520594d65b1e372bc8d5edc36", "input": "Passage: In other covalent bonds, electrons are shared equally. These bonds are called nonpolar covalent bonds. Neither atom attracts the shared electrons more strongly. As a result, the atoms remain neutral in charge. The oxygen (O 2 ) molecule in the Figure below has two nonpolar bonds. The two oxygen nuclei have an equal force of attraction for their four shared electrons. Answer: equally", "output": [ "How are electrons shared in covalent bonds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c48b22fed5344e2b8c8bd4a62c235d39", "input": "Passage: Radio waves are the broad range of electromagnetic waves with the longest wavelengths and lowest frequencies. They are used for radio and television broadcasts, microwave ovens, cell phone transmissions, and radar. Answer: radio", "output": [ "What waves are the broad range of electromagnetic waves with the longest wavelengths and lowest frequencies?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a3af5dd99f9c46b29c99730f6a0ba052", "input": "Passage: Metalloids are the smallest class of elements, containing just six elements. They fall between metals and nonmetals in the periodic table. Answer: metalloids", "output": [ "What is the smallest class of elements?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2db45cdafeb844b69189b46ba5898a61", "input": "Passage: The most basic division is between nonvascular plants and vascular plants . Vascular plants are further divided into those that reproduce without seeds and those that reproduce with seeds. Seed plants, in turn, are divided into those that produce seeds in cones and those that produce seeds in the ovaries of flowers. Seed plants are called gymnosperms . Seed plants called angiosperms produce seeds in the ovaries of flowers . Answer: gymnosperm", "output": [ "What is another word for seed plants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c823ef4f489642ef96f1634765aef204", "input": "Passage: Vascular tissue runs through the ground tissue inside a plant. It transports fluids throughout the plant. Vascular tissue actually consists of two types of tissues, called xylem and phloem. The two types of vascular tissue are packaged together in bundles. You can see them in the celery in Figure below . Answer: xylem and phloem", "output": [ "What are the two types of vascular tissues?" ] }, { "id": "task594-929d31d47c484b17b086efab695acaa7", "input": "Passage: The major types of radioactivity include alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays. Answer: radioactivity", "output": [ "Alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma particles are major types of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-44140c8b11db41738ef9ecce2ee21ac5", "input": "Passage: Basic Principles of Gas Exchange Gas exchange during respiration occurs primarily through diffusion. Diffusion is a process in which transport is driven by a concentration gradient. Gas molecules move from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. Blood that is low in oxygen concentration and high in carbon dioxide concentration undergoes gas exchange with air in the lungs. The air in the lungs has a higher concentration of oxygen than that of oxygen-depleted blood and a lower concentration of carbon dioxide. This concentration gradient allows for gas exchange during respiration. Partial pressure is a measure of the concentration of the individual components in a mixture of gases. The total pressure exerted by the mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of the components in the mixture. The rate of diffusion of a gas is proportional to its partial pressure within the total gas mixture. This concept is discussed further in detail below. Answer: diffusion", "output": [ "Gas exchange during respiration occurs primarily through what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8bc4c657bcec421a8b5faf293f33aeea", "input": "Passage: In harmonic motion there is always a restorative force , which acts in the opposite direction of the velocity. The restorative force changes during oscillation and depends on the position of the object. In a spring the force is the spring force; in a pendulum it is the component of gravity along the path. In both cases, the force on the oscillating object is directly opposite that of the direction of velocity. Answer: restorative force", "output": [ "In harmonic motion there is always what force, which acts in the opposite direction of the velocity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1ba5bc94bff14f8ab4611aace8d81744", "input": "Passage: Tropical climates are found around the Equator. As you'd expect, these climates have warm temperatures year round. The warm air rises at the Equator. As it rises, it cools, causing it to rain. Tropical climates may be very wet, or wet and dry. Answer: tropical", "output": [ "What type of climates are found around the equator?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d4f763617a9f42e19d4c0a981e414d0c", "input": "Passage: 12.4 Viscosity and Laminar Flow; Poiseuille’s Law Laminar Flow and Viscosity When you pour yourself a glass of juice, the liquid flows freely and quickly. But when you pour syrup on your pancakes, that liquid flows slowly and sticks to the pitcher. The difference is fluid friction, both within the fluid itself and between the fluid and its surroundings. We call this property of fluids viscosity. Juice has low viscosity, whereas syrup has high viscosity. In the previous sections we have considered ideal fluids with little or no viscosity. In this section, we will investigate what factors, including viscosity, affect the rate of fluid flow. The precise definition of viscosity is based on laminar, or nonturbulent, flow. Before we can define viscosity, then, we need to define laminar flow and turbulent flow. Figure 12.10 shows both types of flow. Laminar flow is characterized by the smooth flow of the fluid in layers that do not mix. Turbulent flow, or turbulence, is characterized by eddies and swirls that mix layers of fluid together. Answer: viscosity", "output": [ "What term refers to the friction of fluid, within itself and its surroundings?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fbb9c57da9cb4f32957208578b1b8414", "input": "Passage: Rutherford’s discoveries meant that Thomson’s plum pudding model was incorrect. Positive charge is not spread evenly throughout an atom. Instead, it is all concentrated in the tiny nucleus. The rest of the atom is empty space except for the electrons scattered through it. In Rutherford’s model of the atom, which is shown in the Figure below , the electrons move around the massive nucleus like planets orbiting the sun. That’s why his model is called the planetary model. Rutherford didn’t know exactly where or how electrons orbit the nucleus. That research would be undertaken by later scientists, beginning with Niels Bohr in 1913. New and improved atomic models would also be developed. Nonetheless, Rutherford’s model is still often used to represent the atom. You can see an animated version of the model at this URL: http://www. clickandlearn. org/gr9_sci/atoms/modelsoftheatom. html . Answer: nucleus", "output": [ "Positive charge is mostly found in what part of an atom?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9399cdaecde24903959066327c6d5757", "input": "Passage: A carrier protein is a transport protein that is specific for an ion, molecule, or group of substances. Carrier proteins \"carry\" the ion or molecule across the membrane by changing shape after the binding of the ion or molecule. Carrier proteins are involved in passive and active transport. A model of a channel protein and carrier proteins is shown in Figure below . Answer: across the membrane", "output": [ "Where do carrier proteins carry ions or molecules?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bba0b4d3b24644f69b0aea3c404c36c2", "input": "Passage: \"Dry ice,\" or solid carbon dioxide, is a substance that sublimes at atmospheric pressures. Dry ice is very cold (−78°C) and so is used as a coolant for goods such as ice cream that must remain frozen during shipment. Because the dry ice sublimes rather than melting, there is no liquid mess associated with its change of state as the dry ice warms. As you may have seen in demonstrations, dry ice merely transforms from a solid to a cold, steamy looking gas. Ferrocene (an iron-containing compound) is usually purified by sublimation by gentle warming at atmospheric pressure. In the Figure below , you can see the reddish ferrocene crystals deposited on the outside of that tube. Deposition is the change of state from a gas to a solid. Answer: dry ice", "output": [ "What is the common term for solid carbon dioxide, which is used as a coolant?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d5e4c4430c1a423e8c2b8989e4bd985d", "input": "Passage: Immovable joints allow no movement because the bones at these joints are held securely together by dense collagen . The bones of the skull are connected by immovable joints. Answer: dense collagen", "output": [ "What secures together immovable joints and prevents them from moving?" ] }, { "id": "task594-998fbb2e65d24a328949ba016ea34a66", "input": "Passage: Hypersecretion by an endocrine gland is often caused by a tumor. For example, a tumor of the pituitary gland can cause hypersecretion of growth hormone. If this occurs in childhood, it results in very long arms and legs and abnormally tall stature by adulthood. The condition is commonly known as gigantism (see Figure below ). Answer: pituitary gland", "output": [ "A tumor of what gland can cause hypersecretion of growth hormone?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f78c4782110e48f784c4c2d72f5676dc", "input": "Passage: Water is recycled constantly through the ecosystem. That means any water you drank today has been around for millions of years. You could be drinking water that was once drunk by George Washington, the first humans, or even the dinosaurs. Answer: the ecosystem", "output": [ "Water is recycled constantly through which system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a5589278326147c685a0a55e26f10335", "input": "Passage: Some bacteria depend on a host organism for energy and nutrients. These bacteria are known as parasites . If the host starts attacking the parasitic bacteria, the bacteria release a layer of slime that surrounds the cell wall. This slime offers an extra layer of protection. Answer: layer of slime", "output": [ "When a host attacks a parasitic bacteria, the bacteria release what to surround the cell wall?" ] }, { "id": "task594-76912e4b6fbe45e4a28a1b456ff213f1", "input": "Passage: An ideal engine, the most efficient theoretically possible, is called a Carnot Engine. Its efficiency is given by the following formula, where the temperatures are, respectively, the temperature of the exhaust environment and the temperature of the heat input, in Kelvins. In a Carnot engine heat is input and exhausted in isothermal cycles, and the efficiency is . In all real engines heat is lost to the environment, thus the ideal efficiency is never even close to being obtained. Answer: carnot engine", "output": [ "What is the name of the the most efficient possible engine?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1187dd9d2eed4b4d891eba85ef000279", "input": "Passage: Distribution of Molecular Speeds The motion of molecules in a gas is random in magnitude and direction for individual molecules, but a gas of many molecules has a predictable distribution of molecular speeds. This distribution is called the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution, after its originators, who calculated it based on kinetic theory, and has since been confirmed experimentally. (See Figure 13.23. ) The distribution has a long tail, because a few molecules may go several times the rms speed. The most probable speed v p is less than the rms speed. Answer: molecular speeds", "output": [ "The motion of molecules in a gas is random in magnitude and direction for individual molecules, but a gas of many molecules has a predictable distribution of what, which is called the maxwell-boltzmann distribution?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fbdafd38c05448ceb818389784c7e09b", "input": "Passage: Carbon has four valence electrons, so it can achieve a full outer energy level by forming four covalent bonds. When it bonds only with hydrogen, it forms compounds called hydrocarbons. Answer: four", "output": [ "How many valence electrons does carbon have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4173d2213e014c81abef5a08fc2279fe", "input": "Passage: Sunlight is turned into electricity at a solar power plant. A large group of mirrors focuses sunlight on one place. This place is called a receiver ( Figure below ). At the receiver, a liquid such as oil or water is heated to a high temperature. The liquid transfers its heat by conduction . In conduction, energy moves between two objects that are in contact. The warmer object transfers heat to the cooler object. At a solar power plant, the energy conducted by the heated liquid is used to make electricity. Answer: electricity", "output": [ "What does a solar power plant turn sunlight into?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c65f78ba9e0046d29cee79570bf5befd", "input": "Passage: The stirrup passes the amplified sound waves to the inner ear through the oval window (see Figure above ). When the oval window vibrates, it causes the cochlea to vibrate as well. The cochlea is a shell-like structure that is full of fluid and lined with nerve cells called hair cells. Each hair cell has tiny hair-like projections, as you can see in Figure below . When the cochlea vibrates, it causes waves in the fluid inside. The waves bend the \"hairs\" on the hair cells, and this triggers electrical impulses. The electrical impulses travel to the brain through nerves. Only after the nerve impulses reach the brain do we hear the sound. Answer: hair cells", "output": [ "The cochlea is a shell-like structure that is full of fluid and lined with nerve cells called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-31b0942fbd704a91bf98f79f8732a3ab", "input": "Passage: Learned behavior is any behavior that occurs only after experience or practice. The more intelligent a species is, the more it depends on learned behaviors, which have the advantage of being flexible. Ways in which animals learn behaviors include habituation, observational learning, conditioning, learning through play, and insight learning. Answer: learned behavior", "output": [ "What is the term for any behavior that occurs only after experience or practice?" ] }, { "id": "task594-194948b2e0c74bc089684e0e5e28ee39", "input": "Passage: A proton is one of three main particles that make up the atom. The other two particles are the neutron and electron. Protons are found in the nucleus of the atom. This is a tiny, dense region at the center of the atom. Protons have a positive electrical charge of one (+1) and a mass of 1 atomic mass unit (amu), which is about 1.67 × 10 -27 kilograms. Together with neutrons, they make up virtually all of the mass of an atom. For an excellent video on protons and other fundamental particles in atoms, go to this URL:. Answer: the proton", "output": [ "Which atomic particle has a positive charge?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a776b07779e047e5957dccc3e3183504", "input": "Passage: Plate tectonic processes explain why we see many types of geological activity where we do. Stresses build up in some locations. These stresses may cause folding or faulting. Earthquakes strike along all three types of plate boundaries. The most damaging earthquakes are shallow focus. People in earthquake-prone regions must be aware of the potential damage from earthquakes. Seismologists have scales for measuring earthquake intensity and magnitude. Cities in earthquake zones must build safe structures. They also have guidelines for being safe in earthquakes. Earthquakes are often associated with volcanoes. Volcanoes erupt at all types of plate boundaries except transform. Volcanic eruptions can be quiet or explosive. Volcanoes have a variety of shapes. The shapes range from large shields, to classic peaks, to small cones. Supervolcano eruptions are rare but extremely deadly. Volcanic activity creates unique landforms. Hot springs and geysers result when water meets hot rock below ground. Some geological activity, both earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, is located away from plate boundaries. Answer: plate tectonics", "output": [ "What causes a lot of geological activity on the earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-abe8e8ca00be4124b12a06a787496af7", "input": "Passage: Bacteria provide vital ecosystem services. They are important decomposers. They are also needed for the carbon and nitrogen cycles. There are billions of bacteria inside the human intestines. They help digest food, make vitamins, and play other important roles. Humans also use bacteria in many other ways, including:. Answer: bacteria", "output": [ "These microorganisms are abundant in the human digestive track and serve many roles. what are they?" ] }, { "id": "task594-820a5be2c9b745bdb08827613108180e", "input": "Passage: Lipids Lipids include a diverse group of compounds that are united by a common feature. Lipids are hydrophobic (“waterfearing”), or insoluble in water, because they are nonpolar molecules. This is because they are hydrocarbons that include only nonpolar carbon-carbon or carbon-hydrogen bonds. Lipids perform many different functions in a cell. Cells store energy for long-term use in the form of lipids called fats. Lipids also provide insulation from the environment for plants and animals (Figure 2.17). For example, they help keep aquatic birds and mammals dry because of their water-repelling nature. Lipids are also the building blocks of many hormones and are an important constituent of the plasma membrane. Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids. Answer: fat", "output": [ "In what form of lipids cells store energy for long-term use?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8560922dfea34d55998da0a867afb7a2", "input": "Passage: Electric generators convert mechanical energy to electric energy. Answer: electric generators", "output": [ "What devices convert mechanical energy to electric energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b725fd3b3d124e739f86ddfbea1a8210", "input": "Passage: A sand dune has a gentle slope on the side the wind blows from. The opposite side has a steep slope. This side is called the slip face. Answer: slip face", "output": [ "What is the term for the steep sloped side of a sand dune?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ce31e2f3210c416890e9eeccaab43fa9", "input": "Passage: The primary function of leaves is to collect sunlight and make food by photosynthesis. Specialized tissues in leaves work together to perform this function. In a deciduous plant, leaves seasonally turn color and fall off the plant. They are replaced with new leaves later in the year. An evergreen plant keeps its green leaves year-round. It may have needle-like leaves to reduce water loss. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "The primary function of leaves is to collect sunlight and make food by what process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-71ae744587474dd3aa6ea12b5bc22ac7", "input": "Passage: However, despite this secrecy several contributions were made to modern-day chemistry. Early acids and bases were discovered, and glassware for running chemical reactions was developed. Alchemy helped improve the study of metallurgy and the extraction of metals from ores. More systematic approaches to research were being developed, although the idea of orderly scientific experimentation was not yet well-established. The groundwork was being laid for the development of chemistry as a foundational science. Answer: alchemy", "output": [ "What was the early study of chemistry called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ca2e1bce34e6402a814d237d040b173d", "input": "Passage: If you are painting indoors, there are more important concerns than just getting messy. You should also be concerned about breathing in the fumes from the paints. Making sure to get plenty of fresh air while painting is very important. Paint fumes can have serious health effects. Paint fumes are just one example of indoor air pollution. Answer: paint fumes", "output": [ "Give an example of air pollution while painting indoors." ] }, { "id": "task594-88e03e5acbbd464bb39cf24ed05c55a6", "input": "Passage: Waves cause the rippled surface of the ocean. Answer: waves", "output": [ "What cause the rippled surface of the ocean?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2b23928ce38c4c199985cc1bf902ed7c", "input": "Passage: When homologous chromosomes form pairs during prophase I of meiosis I, crossing-over can occur. Crossing-over is the exchange of genetic material between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes. It results in new combinations of genes on each chromosome. Answer: meiosis", "output": [ "When do homologous chromosomes form pairs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0a12733e02714cb2b611f8e6ca4117c4", "input": "Passage: Chinook winds ( Figure below ) occur when air is forced over a mountain range. Warm air rises over the Sierra Nevada in California, for example, because it is pushed eastward by the westerly winds. The air cools as it rises and precipitates. The air is now dry. It sinks down the far side of the mountains and may create strong winds. These Chinook winds are relatively warm. If there is snow, the winds may melt it quickly. The dry sinking air creates a rainshadow effect . Rainshadow effect is responsible for many of the world's deserts. Answer: chinook winds", "output": [ "What type of winds occur when air is forced over a mountain range?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3cda5bf1fe62478bb64c73739479f67e", "input": "Passage: Symbiosis is a close relationship between two species in which at least one species benefits. Types of symbiosis include mutualism, parasitism, and commensalism. Answer: symbiosis", "output": [ "What is the term for a close relationship between two species in which at least one species benefits." ] }, { "id": "task594-f4077aa1d0714dfd89ece5c1d12bf6c0", "input": "Passage: The process of cell division is how multicellular organisms grow and repair themselves. It is also how many organisms produce offspring. For many single-celled organisms, asexual reproduction is a similar process. The parent cell simply divides to form two daughter cells that are identical to the parent. Asexual reproduction produces offspring that are genetically identical to the parent, whereas sexual reproduction produces a similar, but genetically unique offspring. In sexual reproduction, meiosis produces haploid gametes that fuse during fertilization to produce a diploid zygote ( Figure below ). In other words, a child inherits half of the genetic material from each parent. Look at the family in Figure below . The children resemble their parents, but they are not identical to them. Instead, each has a unique combination of characteristics inherited from both parents. The children, of course, result from sexual reproduction. Answer: cell division", "output": [ "What process of allows multicellular organisms to grow and repair themselves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e00dd0fe036846278a7aaf733596a109", "input": "Passage: As indicated in Section 12.4 \"Strong and Weak Acids and Bases and Their Salts\", weak acids are relatively common, even in the foods we eat. But we occasionally encounter a strong acid or base, such as stomach acid, which has a strongly acidic pH of 1.7. By definition, strong acids and bases can produce a relatively large amount of H+ or OH−ions and consequently have marked chemical activities. In addition, very small amounts of strong acids and bases can change the pH of a solution very quickly. If 1 mL of stomach acid [approximated as 0.1 M HCl(aq)] were added to the bloodstream and no correcting mechanism were present, the pH of the blood would decrease from about 7.4 to about 4.7—a pH that is not conducive to continued living. Fortunately, the body has a mechanism for minimizing such dramatic pH changes. The mechanism involves a buffer, a solution that resists dramatic changes in pH. Buffers do so by being composed of certain pairs of solutes: either a weak acid plus a salt derived from that weak acid or a weak base plus a salt of that weak base. For example, a buffer can be composed of dissolved HC2H3O2 (a weak acid) and NaC2H3O2 (the salt derived from that weak acid). Another example of a buffer is a solution containing NH3 (a weak base) and NH4Cl (a salt derived from that weak base). Let us use an HC2H3O2/NaC2H3O2 buffer to demonstrate how buffers work. If a strong base—a source of OH−(aq) ions—is added to the buffer solution, those OH− ions will react with the HC2H3O2 in an acid-base reaction:. Answer: buffer", "output": [ "What is the term for a solution that resists dramatic changes in ph?" ] }, { "id": "task594-93af2e364951454184a9c28c50d91680", "input": "Passage: Most human traits have more complex modes of inheritance than simple Mendelian inheritance. For example, the traits may be controlled by multiple alleles or multiple genes. Answer: mendelian", "output": [ "What type of simple inheritance is too simplified to explain most human traits?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e03f9cc95a9d44e8b8b1ce7bc027c5bc", "input": "Passage: Cephalochordata: Cephalochordates include the lancelets ( Figure below ), fish-like marine animals often found half-buried in the sand. Cephalochordates have a notochord and nerve cord but no backbone. Answer: backbone", "output": [ "Cephalochordates have a notochord and nerve cord but not a?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2d7e25614010484fa2f1ae7a683f3a99", "input": "Passage: Water molecules move about continuously due to their kinetic energy. When a crystal of sodium chloride is placed into water, the water’s molecules collide with the crystal lattice. Recall that the crystal lattice is composed of alternating positive and negative ions. Water is attracted to the sodium chloride crystal because water is polar and has both a positive and a negative end. The positively charged sodium ions in the crystal attract the oxygen end of the water molecules because they are partially negative. The negatively charged chloride ions in the crystal attract the hydrogen end of the water molecules because they are partially positive. The action of the polar water molecules takes the crystal lattice apart (see image below). Answer: kinetic", "output": [ "Water molecules move about continuously due to what type of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-989af72c25384f76813b36a1f71787c1", "input": "Passage: The answer depends on if the cell is prokaryotic or eukaryotic. The main difference between the two types of cells is the presence of a nucleus. And in eukaryotic cells, DNA lives in the nucleus. Answer: the presence of a nucleus", "output": [ "What is the main difference between prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells ?" ] }, { "id": "task594-03da3b7fedf14820975a7a2398b2fe97", "input": "Passage: Particles of a hypothetical ideal gas have no significant volume and do not attract or repel each other. In general, real gases approximate this behavior at relatively low pressures and high temperatures. However, at high pressures, the molecules of a gas are crowded closer together, and the amount of empty space between the molecules is reduced. At these higher pressures, the volume of the gas molecules themselves becomes appreciable relative to the total volume occupied by the gas (Figure 9.36). The gas therefore becomes less compressible at these high pressures, and although its volume continues to decrease with increasing pressure, this decrease is not proportional as predicted by Boyle’s law. Answer: closer together", "output": [ "At high pressures, how are the molecules of a gas crowded?" ] }, { "id": "task594-818d1b59435e400b9124c8174f1a3e73", "input": "Passage: The lowest latitudes get the most energy from the Sun. The highest latitudes get the least. Answer: lowest latitudes", "output": [ "Which latitudes get the most energy from the sun?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6340bbe504d248e194028ec209c05dc5", "input": "Passage: Sexual reproduction occurs in a cycle. Diploid parents produce haploid gametes that unite and develop into diploid adults, which repeat the cycle. This series of life stages and events that a sexually reproducing organism goes through is called its life cycle . Sexually reproducing organisms can have different types of life cycles. Three are described in the following sections. Answer: life cycle", "output": [ "This series of life stages and events that a sexually reproducing organism goes through is called its what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ca29db50047f4cc1ac6be222c117d38f", "input": "Passage: The Pauli Exclusion Principle An electron in an atom is completely described by four quantum numbers: n, l, ml, and ms. The first three quantum numbers define the orbital and the fourth quantum number describes the intrinsic electron property called spin. An Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli formulated a general principle that gives the last piece of information that we need to understand the general behavior of electrons in atoms. The Pauli exclusion principle can be formulated as follows: No two electrons in the same atom can have exactly the same set of all the four quantum numbers. What this means is that electrons can share the same orbital (the same set of the quantum numbers n, l, and ml), but only if their spin quantum numbers ms have different values. Since the spin quantum number can only have two values ⎛⎝± 1 ⎞⎠, no 2 more than two electrons can occupy the same orbital (and if two electrons are located in the same orbital, they must have opposite spins). Therefore, any atomic orbital can be populated by only zero, one, or two electrons. The properties and meaning of the quantum numbers of electrons in atoms are briefly summarized in Table 6.1. Answer: quantum numbers", "output": [ "An electron in an atom is completely described by four of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-65c24ad0202c40bab406069ce510dbfb", "input": "Passage: Condensation creates precipitation. Precipitation includes rain, snow, hail, and sleet. The precipitation allows the water to return again to the Earth’s surface. Answer: precipitation", "output": [ "What natural process allows water to return again to the earth’s surface?" ] }, { "id": "task594-78289c7932704322a8c178771de1a0c2", "input": "Passage: Gravity can pull soil, mud, and rocks down cliffs and hillsides. This is called mass movement. The most destructive types of mass movement are landslides and mudslides. They occur suddenly and without warming. They engulf everything in their path. Answer: mass movement", "output": [ "What is the term for when gravity pulls soil, mud, and rocks down cliffs and hillsides?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bbc2c47dba9b437bb6fdcc29df1110de", "input": "Passage: Scientists use the geologic time scale to illustrate the order in which events on Earth have happened. Answer: geologic time scale", "output": [ "Scientists use what scale to illustrate the order in which events on earth have happened?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f8e9bdfabfcf4f209e34558422542abd", "input": "Passage: Venus is the only planet that rotates clockwise as viewed from its North Pole. All of the other planets rotate counterclockwise. Venus turns slowly, making only one turn every 243 days. This is longer than a year on Venus! It takes Venus only 225 days to orbit the Sun. Answer: venus", "output": [ "What is the only planet that rotates clockwise as viewed from its north pole?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1d8005ac06a04481ba987a331a0d9db0", "input": "Passage: A solution is a mixture of two or more substances in which dissolved particles are distributed evenly throughout the solution. The substance that dissolves in a solution is called the solute, and the substance that does the dissolving is called the solvent. The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute in a given amount of solution. A solution with a lot of dissolved solute has a high concentration and is called a concentrated solution. A solution with little dissolved solute has a low concentration and is called a dilute solution. Answer: solution", "output": [ "What do you call a mixture of two or more substances in which dissolved particles are distributed evenly throughout?" ] }, { "id": "task594-71105e6551634e259b7fe7a8c35b702e", "input": "Passage: 22.11.5 Pyrrophytes Pyrrophytes are unicellular, photosynthetic, and mostly aquatic. They have protective coats composed of stiff cellulose. They are more easily identifiable, due to the presence of two flagellae. The longer flagellae propels the dinoflagellate, while the second shorter, flatter flagellae functions as a rudder. Some species of pyrrophytes are zooxanthellae. Since they lack cellulose plates, they make their home in coral reefs and animals, such as sea anemones, and molluscs. In returning the favour of sheltering them, dinoflagellates provide carbohydrates to their host through photosynthesis. This is why there are nutrient-rich coral reefs in malnutritions water. A negative aspect of pyrrophytes is that under certain conditions, species of dinoflagellates reproduce rapidly to form a harmful algal bloom (HAB), known as a red tide if dinoflagellates are the cause. Such pyrrophytes can produce toxins which may injure or kill wildlife, and additionally any consumers of contaminated wildlife. Answer: propels", "output": [ "What function does the longer flagellae perform in dinoflagellates?" ] }, { "id": "task594-183b1b5c624c4c588f8f3dabfdc00786", "input": "Passage: Waves interact with matter in several ways. The interactions occur when waves pass from one medium to another. The types of interactions are reflection, refraction, and diffraction. Each type of interaction is described in detail below. You can see animations of the three types at this URL: http://www. acoustics. salford. ac. uk/schools/teacher/lesson3/flash/whiteboardcomplete. swf . Answer: waves", "output": [ "Reflection, refraction, and diffraction are examples of what type of interaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-691a342936e24e7d927e23b00956dcf3", "input": "Passage: Figure 42.1 In this compound light micrograph purple-stained neutrophil (upper left) and eosinophil (lower right) are white blood cells that float among red blood cells in this blood smear. Neutrophils provide an early, rapid, and nonspecific defense against invading pathogens. Eosinophils play a variety of roles in the immune response. Red blood cells are about 7–8 µm in diameter, and a neutrophil is about 10–12µm. (credit: modification of work by Dr. David Csaba). Answer: neutrophils", "output": [ "What provides an early, rapid, and nonspecific defense against invading pathogens?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fd2f149be9ce46d3b2333f8f49875b49", "input": "Passage: Physical Therapist As muscle cells die, they are not regenerated but instead are replaced by connective tissue and adipose tissue, which do not possess the contractile abilities of muscle tissue. Muscles atrophy when they are not used, and over time if atrophy is prolonged, muscle cells die. It is therefore important that those who are susceptible to muscle atrophy exercise to maintain muscle function and prevent the complete loss of muscle tissue. In extreme cases, when movement is not possible, electrical stimulation can be introduced to a muscle from an external source. This acts as a substitute for endogenous neural stimulation, stimulating the muscle to contract and preventing the loss of proteins that occurs with a lack of use. Physiotherapists work with patients to maintain muscles. They are trained to target muscles susceptible to atrophy, and to prescribe and monitor exercises designed to stimulate those muscles. There are various causes of atrophy, including mechanical injury, disease, and age. After breaking a limb or undergoing surgery, muscle use is impaired and can lead to disuse atrophy. If the muscles are not exercised, this atrophy can lead to long-term muscle weakness. A stroke can also cause muscle impairment by interrupting neural stimulation to certain muscles. Without neural inputs, these muscles do not contract and thus begin to lose structural proteins. Exercising these muscles can help to restore muscle function and minimize functional impairments. Age-related muscle loss is also a target of physical therapy, as exercise can reduce the effects of age-related atrophy and improve muscle function. The goal of a physiotherapist is to improve physical functioning and reduce functional impairments; this is achieved by understanding the cause of muscle impairment and assessing the capabilities of a patient, after which a program to enhance these capabilities is designed. Some factors that are assessed include strength, balance, and endurance, which are continually monitored as exercises are introduced to track improvements in muscle function. Physiotherapists can also instruct patients on the proper use of equipment, such as crutches, and assess whether someone has sufficient strength to use the equipment and when they can function without it. Answer: muscles", "output": [ "What kinds of cells that are important to our physical functioning can atrophy when they are not used?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f74ae25301004031ad2846c3ee646936", "input": "Passage: Vertebrates have an excretory system that includes a pair of kidneys. Kidneys are organs that filter wastes from blood so they can be excreted from the body. Answer: kidneys", "output": [ "What organs filter wastes from blood so they can be excreted from the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c4d929382cc541b8b2822482f3f90604", "input": "Passage: Transport vesicles are able to move molecules between locations inside the cell. For example, transport vesicles move proteins from the rough endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus. Answer: transport vesicles", "output": [ "What cellular structure moves molecules between locations inside the cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dfcc480266314a2e9a53538e72009951", "input": "Passage: assigned a unique one-, two-, or three-letter symbol. The names of the elements are listed in the periodic table, along with their symbols, atomic numbers, and atomic masses. The chemistry of each element is determined by its number of protons and electrons. In a neutral atom, the number of electrons equals the number of protons. Answer: protons and electrons", "output": [ "The chemistry of each element is determined by its number of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-32f28099b1804bc781a69851ab74fc3a", "input": "Passage: A genetic disorder that is caused by a mutation can be inherited. Therefore, people with a genetic disorder in their family may be concerned about having children with the disorder. Professionals known as genetic counselors can help them understand the risks of their children being affected. If they decide to have children, they may be advised to have prenatal (“before birth”) testing to see if the fetus has any genetic abnormalities. One method of prenatal testing is amniocentesis. In this procedure, a few fetal cells are extracted from the fluid surrounding the fetus, and the fetal chromosomes are examined. Answer: children being affected", "output": [ "Professionals known as genetic counselors can help them understand the risks of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3bcabb2f5bf04c159fba4279acac46d8", "input": "Passage: Migration Migration is the long-range seasonal movement of animals. It is an evolved, adapted response to variation in resource availability, and it is a common phenomenon found in all major groups of animals. Birds fly south for the winter to get to warmer climates with sufficient food, and salmon migrate to their spawning grounds. The popular 2005 documentary March of the Penguins followed the 62-mile migration of emperor penguins through Antarctica to bring food back to their breeding site and to their young. Wildebeests (Figure 45.35) migrate over 1800 miles each year in search of new grasslands. Answer: migration", "output": [ "What evolved, adapted response to resource availability is the long-range seasonal movement of animals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-db0c53b997ad4964a7b28b7a3760574f", "input": "Passage: Somatic mutations occur in other cells of the body. These mutations may have little effect on the organism because they are confined to just one cell and its daughter cells. Somatic mutations cannot be passed on to offspring. Answer: somatic mutations", "output": [ "What type of mutations cannot be passed on to offspring?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e4c9cc93245b49b09a5da541bf85f851", "input": "Passage: • A lens that causes the light rays to bend away from its axis is called a diverging lens. • Ray tracing is the technique of graphically determining the paths that light rays take. • The image in which light rays from one point on the object actually cross at the location of the image and can be projected onto a screen, a piece of film, or the retina of an eye is called a real image. • Thin lens equations are. Answer: diverging lens", "output": [ "What do you call a lens that causes the light rays to bend away from its axis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d6bd2177b24945c4b34de7c485ef9efa", "input": "Passage: Breeding in birds is through internal fertilization, where the egg is fertilized inside the female. Answer: fertilization", "output": [ "Breeding in birds occurs through an internal type of what process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cf09975806eb418190f3ed81027aa7b4", "input": "Passage: Mollusks are divided into ten living classes, including the familiar gastropods, cephalopods, and bivalves. Answer: mollusks", "output": [ "Gastropods, cephalopods, and bivalves are examples of what class?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b0fe1f518e7e446c89bdf0a36df798dd", "input": "Passage: In other cases, individuals may appear similar although they are not members of the same species. For example, even though bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) and African fish eagles (Haliaeetus vocifer) are both birds and eagles, each belongs to a separate species group (Figure 18.10). If humans were to artificially intervene and fertilize the egg of a bald eagle with the sperm of an African fish eagle and a chick did hatch, that offspring, called a hybrid (a cross between two species), would probably be infertile—unable to successfully reproduce after it reached maturity. Different species may have different genes that are active in development; therefore, it may not be possible to develop a viable offspring with two different sets of directions. Thus, even though hybridization may take place, the two species still remain separate. Answer: infertile", "output": [ "If humans were to artificially intervene and fertilize the egg of a bald eagle with the sperm of an african fish eagle and a chick did hatch, that offspring, called a hybrid (a cross between two species), would probably be this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3dee51d2009e400397bc77be595e2c2a", "input": "Passage: Did you ever make a \"volcano,\" like the one in Figure below , using baking soda and vinegar? What happens when the two substances combine? They produce an eruption of foamy bubbles. This happens because of a chemical change. A chemical change occurs when matter changes chemically into an entirely different substance with different chemical properties. When vinegar and baking soda combine, they form carbon dioxide, a gas that causes the bubbles. It’s the same gas that gives soft drinks their fizz. Answer: chemical", "output": [ "What type of change occurs when matter changes chemically into an entirely different substance with different chemical properties?" ] }, { "id": "task594-78660298c348467fbde858d7ca550d09", "input": "Passage: A combination reaction is a reaction in which two or more substances combine to form a single new substance. Combination reactions can also be called synthesis reactions. The general form of a combination reaction is:. Answer: combination reaction", "output": [ "What kind of reaction is a reaction in which two or more substances combine to form a single new substance?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bcf7d41192974b30a94b70867c2e71ea", "input": "Passage: Saturated hydrocarbons contain only single bonds between carbon atoms. They are also called alkanes. They may form straight-chain, branched-chain, or cyclic molecules. Compounds with the same number of atoms but different shapes are called isomers. Answer: alkanes", "output": [ "What is another word for saturated hydrocarbons?" ] }, { "id": "task594-29f8767bf5774fcb893a3f666661fa52", "input": "Passage: The mechanical advantage of a machine is related to how it changes force. Explain this relationship. Answer: force", "output": [ "The mechanical advantage of a machine is related to how it changes what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-23f11ec8c0c54c12828fafc588a187d0", "input": "Passage: The female reproductive system consists of structures that produce eggs and secrete female sex hormones. They also provide a site for fertilization and enable the development and birth of a fetus. Answer: female reproductive system", "output": [ "What system consists of structures that produce eggs, secrete female sex hormones, and ultimately enable birth of a fetus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dcb623ac54e44990a13ed8cfbb6ff396", "input": "Passage: with only certain radii were allowed. Lines in the spectrum were due to transitions in which an electron moved from a higher-energy orbit with a larger radius to a lower-energy orbit with smaller radius. The orbit closest to the nucleus represented theground state of the atom and was most stable; orbits farther away were higher-energy excited states. Transitions from an excited state to a lower-energy state resulted in the emission of light with only a limited number of wavelengths. Bohr’s model could not, however, explain the spectra of atoms heavier than hydrogen. Most light is polychromatic and contains light of many wavelengths. Light that has only a single wavelength is monochromatic and is produced by devices called lasers, which use transitions between two atomic energy levels to produce light in a very narrow range of wavelengths. Atoms can also absorb light of certain energies, resulting in a transition from the ground state or a lower-energy excited state to a higher-energy excited state. This produces an absorption spectrum, which has dark lines in the same position as the bright lines in the emission spectrum of an element. Answer: monochromatic", "output": [ "What is light that has only a single wavelength called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bb21675f2d7b4820a456c0db836a0701", "input": "Passage: Chemical and solar cells are devices that change chemical or light energy to electrical energy. You can read about both types of cells and how they work below. Answer: electrical energy", "output": [ "Chemical and solar cells are devices that change chemical or light energy to what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9b1d853b206841e5a2fa486954b2ba28", "input": "Passage: An estuary is a partly enclosed coastal body of water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the ocean. Estuaries can be thought of as the most biologically productive regions on Earth, with very high biodiversity. Estuaries are zones where land and sea come together, and where fresh and salt water meet. Answer: estuaries", "output": [ "What can be thought of as the most biologically productive regions on earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-884d36c6447b45ba990b3dba92f3d84f", "input": "Passage: Refusing one meal won't stunt your growth. But lack of proper food over a period of time can lead to malnutrition. That means, the body is not getting enough nutrients to grow and stay healthy. Kids who are malnourished may not grow as tall as they would otherwise. Answer: malnutrition", "output": [ "Lack of proper food over a period of time can lead to what condition, where the body is not getting enough nutrients to grow and stay healthy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-910c6f27293047469efd90f07c3424fc", "input": "Passage: 24.3 Lipid Metabolism Lipids are available to the body from three sources. They can be ingested in the diet, stored in the adipose tissue of the body, or synthesized in the liver. Fats ingested in the diet are digested in the small intestine. The triglycerides are broken down into monoglycerides and free fatty acids, then imported across the intestinal mucosa. Once across, the triglycerides are resynthesized and transported to the liver or adipose tissue. Fatty acids are oxidized through fatty acid or β-oxidation into two-carbon acetyl CoA molecules, which can then enter the Krebs cycle to generate ATP. If excess acetyl CoA is created and overloads the capacity of the Krebs cycle, the acetyl CoA can be used to synthesize ketone bodies. When glucose is limited, ketone bodies can be oxidized and used for fuel. Excess acetyl CoA generated from excess glucose or carbohydrate ingestion can be used for fatty acid synthesis or lipogenesis. Acetyl CoA is used to create lipids, triglycerides, steroid hormones, cholesterol, and bile salts. Lipolysis is the breakdown of triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids, making them easier for the body to process. Answer: three", "output": [ "Lipids are available to the body from how many sources?" ] }, { "id": "task594-327175099ec04b6eaa943eb32a2600e5", "input": "Passage: 20.5 Alternating Current versus Direct Current Alternating Current Most of the examples dealt with so far, and particularly those utilizing batteries, have constant voltage sources. Once the current is established, it is thus also a constant. Direct current (DC) is the flow of electric charge in only one direction. It is the steady state of a constant-voltage circuit. Most well-known applications, however, use a time-varying voltage source. Alternating current (AC) is the flow of electric charge that periodically reverses direction. If the source varies periodically, particularly sinusoidally, the circuit is known as an alternating current circuit. Examples include the commercial and residential power that. Answer: current", "output": [ "\"direct\" and \"alternating\" are two kinds of what, which is associated with electricity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-646618b8bfad448d87ff209f0b0d7c34", "input": "Passage: A physical change is a change in one or more physical properties of matter without any change in chemical properties. In other words, matter doesn’t change into a different substance in a physical change. Examples of physical change include changes in the size or shape of matter. Changes of state—for example, from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas—are also physical changes. Some of the processes that cause physical changes include cutting, bending, dissolving, freezing, boiling, and melting. Four examples of physical change are pictured in the Figure below . You can learn more about physical changes and why they occur by watching the video at this URL:. Answer: physical change", "output": [ "A change in one or more physical properties of matter without any change in chemical properties is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ddecb217c886489898ab308db8866703", "input": "Passage: The area of a surface is how much space it covers. It’s easy to calculate the area of a surface if it has a regular shape, such as the blue rectangle in the sketch below. You simply substitute measurements of the surface into the correct formula. To find the area of a rectangular surface, use this formula:. Answer: area", "output": [ "How much space a surface covers is known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-114be7c3135048cd990487d161eb9faa", "input": "Passage: A period is a horizontal row of the periodic table. There are seven periods in the periodic table, with each one beginning at the far left. A new period begins when a new principal energy level begins filling with electrons. Period 1 has only two elements (hydrogen and helium), while periods 2 and 3 have 8 elements. Periods 4 and 5 have 18 elements. Periods 6 and 7 have 32 elements because the two bottom rows that are separated from the rest of the table belong to those periods. They are pulled out in order to make the table itself fit more easily onto a single page. Answer: periodic table", "output": [ "A period is a horizontal row of the what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4f18082e374b492eb830baed71d1d301", "input": "Passage: Water shortages are common in much of the world. People are most likely to run short of water during droughts. A drought is a period of unusually low rainfall. Human actions have increased how often droughts occur. One way people can help to bring on drought is by cutting down trees. Trees add a lot of water vapor to the air. With fewer trees, the air is drier and droughts are more common. Answer: drought", "output": [ "Because trees add water vapor to air, cutting down forests leads to longer periods of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e891349236744f16a643560fcb96d3d8", "input": "Passage: Lipids are biochemical compounds such as fats and oils. Organisms use lipids to store energy. In addition to carbon and hydrogen, lipids contain oxygen. Answer: oils", "output": [ "Lipids are biochemical compounds such as fats and?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7149ef791546477cb937c6f2c3fb2123", "input": "Passage: Scientists are searching for ways to create controlled nuclear fusion reactions in order to produce safe nuclear power. Fusion involves only harmless, plentiful elements but requires extremely high temperatures. Answer: protist diseases", "output": [ "What type of diseases in humans are caused by protozoa?" ] }, { "id": "task594-75bbea8d37bd4e4698a54aca52a8c9be", "input": "Passage: The second stage of photosynthesis takes place in the stroma surrounding the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast. The reactions of this stage can occur without light, so they are sometimes called light-independent or dark reactions. This stage of photosynthesis is also known as the Calvin cycle because its reactions were discovered by a scientist named Melvin Calvin. He won a Nobel Prize in 1961 for this important discovery. Answer: calvin cycle", "output": [ "Which cycle is named after the scientist melvin calvin?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ee47b1cb686e4e5e99e6e3f5a10eb21d", "input": "Passage: Gross Anatomy of the Lungs The lungs are pyramid-shaped, paired organs that are connected to the trachea by the right and left bronchi; on the inferior surface, the lungs are bordered by the diaphragm. The diaphragm is the flat, dome-shaped muscle located at the base of the lungs and thoracic cavity. The lungs are enclosed by the pleurae, which are attached to the mediastinum. The right lung is shorter and wider than the left lung, and the left lung occupies a smaller volume than the right. The cardiac notch is an indentation on the surface of the left lung, and it allows space for the heart (Figure 22.13). The apex of the lung is the superior region, whereas the base is the opposite region near the diaphragm. The costal surface of the lung borders the ribs. The mediastinal surface faces the midline. Answer: lungs", "output": [ "What are the pyramid-shaped, paired organs that are connected to the trachea by the right and left bronchi?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5c107d2a02dd4f39b705413042b95fe7", "input": "Passage: Within the microsporangium, the microspore mother cell divides by meiosis to give rise to four microspores, each of which will ultimately form a pollen grain (Figure 32.7). An inner layer of cells, known as the tapetum, provides nutrition to the developing microspores and contributes key components to the pollen wall. Mature pollen grains contain two cells: a generative cell and a pollen tube cell. The generative cell is contained within the larger pollen tube cell. Upon germination, the tube cell forms the pollen tube through which the generative cell migrates to enter the ovary. During its transit inside the pollen tube, the generative cell divides to form two male gametes (sperm cells). Upon maturity, the microsporangia burst, releasing the pollen grains from the anther. Answer: pollen grain", "output": [ "Within the microsporangium, the microspore mother cell divides by meiosis to give rise to four microspores, each of which will ultimately form this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a5589eee86d84a06b6eedf1c172abde7", "input": "Passage: Atomic emission spectra are produced when excited electrons return to ground state. Answer: ground state", "output": [ "Atomic emission spectra are produced when excited electrons return to what state?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2372c3058fbe43819a006a7956d959a5", "input": "Passage: Insects are capable of a surprising range of behaviors. Most of their behaviors, such as flying and mating, are instinctive. These are behaviors that don’t need to be learned. They are largely controlled by genes. However, some insect behaviors are learned. For example, ants and bees can learn where food is located and keep going back for more. Answer: instinctive behaviors like flying and mating", "output": [ "What types of incest behaviors are controlled by genes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0d1c697fe955482c9a77f63a01868ab0", "input": "Passage: Air temperature changes with altitude. This does not occur in the same way as pressure and density, which decrease with altitude. Changes in air temperature are not regular. A change in temperature with distance is called a temperature gradient . Answer: temperature gradient", "output": [ "A change in temperature with distance is called a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a4cbf47ec205431fbec0a3e12bec5a17", "input": "Passage: Unlike that of the Hexapoda, the head and thorax of most crustaceans is fused to form a cephalothorax (Figure 28.40), which is covered by a plate called the carapace, thus producing a body structure of two tagma. Crustaceans have a chitinous exoskeleton that is shed by molting whenever the animal increases in size. The exoskeletons of many species are also infused with calcium carbonate, which makes them even stronger than in other arthropods. Crustaceans have an open circulatory system where blood is pumped into the hemocoel by the dorsally located heart. Hemocyanin and hemoglobin are the respiratory pigments present in these animals. Answer: head and thorax", "output": [ "In most crustaceans, what two structures fuse to form a cephalothorax?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e645f64faeb040b69766b7790d5a76c4", "input": "Passage: Linnaean Classification System: Classification of the Human Species. This chart shows the taxa of the Linnaean classification system. Each taxon is a subdivision of the taxon below it in the chart. For example, a species is a subdivision of a genus. The classification of humans is given in the chart as an example. Answer: linnaean system", "output": [ "A species is a subdivision of a genus in what classification system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-56961fbaf156418ea344393043a6b34f", "input": "Passage: Cell division is how organisms grow and repair themselves. It is also how many organisms produce offspring. For many single-celled organisms, reproduction is a similar process. The parent cell simply divides to form two daughter cells that are identical to the parent. In many other organisms, two parents are involved, and the offspring are not identical to the parents. In fact, each offspring is unique. Look at the family in Figure below . The children resemble their parents, but they are not identical to them. Instead, each has a unique combination of characteristics inherited from both parents. Answer: cell division", "output": [ "How do organisms grow and repair themselves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8ef8682c4d6b45e68cc1dab6b900bfae", "input": "Passage: Amphibians are an important food source for animals such as birds, snakes, raccoons, and fish. Amphibians are also important predators. As larvae, they feed mainly on small aquatic animals such as water insects. They may also feed on algae. As adults, amphibians are completely carnivorous . They may catch and eat worms, snails, and insects, as the frog in Figure below is doing. Unlike other amphibians, caecilians are burrowers . They use their head to dig in the soil, and they feed on earthworms and other annelids. Caecilians can be found in moist soil near rivers and streams in tropical regions. Answer: carnivorous", "output": [ "As adults, amphibians are completely _______, meaning they feed on other animals." ] }, { "id": "task594-150ae8f5f62e4bcf929b28100a853d22", "input": "Passage: When a chemical reaction occurs, the atoms in the reactants rearrange their chemical bonds to make products. The new arrangement of bonds does not have the same total energy as the bonds in the reactants. Therefore, when chemical reactions occur, there will always be an accompanying energy change. In some reactions, the energy of the products is lower than the energy of the reactants. Thus, in the course of the reaction, the substances lose energy to the surrounding environment. Such reactions are exothermic and can be represented by an energylevel diagram like the one in http://catalog. flatworldknowledge. com/bookhub/reader/2547 gob-ch07_s04_f01. In most cases, the energy is given off as heat (although a few reactions give off energy as light). Figure 7.3 Exothermic Reactions. Answer: products", "output": [ "What do atoms make by rearranging their chemical bonds in a reactant?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ee92f894bf0b4db19c20dd6e6560ad59", "input": "Passage: Calcium fluoride is used to fluoridate drinking water to promote dental health. Crystalline CaF 2 (d = 3.1805 3. Answer: calcium fluoride", "output": [ "What is used to fluoridate drinking water to promote dental health" ] }, { "id": "task594-1eb72d030b724185a5c5a3e71d94b867", "input": "Passage: The process of generating electric current with a changing magnetic field is called electromagnetic induction . It occurs whenever a magnetic field and an electric conductor, such as a coil of wire, move relative to one another. As long as the conductor is part of a closed circuit, current will flow through it whenever it crosses magnetic field lines. One way this can happen is pictured in Figure below . It shows a magnet moving inside a wire coil. Another way is for the coil to move instead of the magnet. Answer: electric current", "output": [ "When you change a magnetic field through electromagnetic induction what do you create?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1464947cad224e0bad92c5160af4063d", "input": "Passage: Greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere are increasing. Global temperatures are increasing. Answer: greenhouse gas", "output": [ "What type of gas levels in the atmosphere are increasing?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4f8ea6d917224fe5ab07133a8bba370e", "input": "Passage: 39.2 Gas Exchange across Respiratory Surfaces The lungs can hold a large volume of air, but they are not usually filled to maximal capacity. Lung volume measurements include tidal volume, expiratory reserve volume, inspiratory reserve volume, and residual volume. The sum of these equals the total lung capacity. Gas movement into or out of the lungs is dependent on the pressure of the gas. Air is a mixture of gases; therefore, the partial pressure of each gas can be calculated to determine how the gas will flow in the lung. The difference between the partial pressure of the gas in the air drives oxygen into the tissues and carbon dioxide out of the body. Answer: lung volume", "output": [ "Tidal volume, expiratory reserve volume, inspiratory reserve volume, and residual volume are all types of what kind of measurement?" ] }, { "id": "task594-347b923c95584be997f550cab1d01bb0", "input": "Passage: Life probably began in the oceans. No one knows exactly how or when. Life may have originated more than once. If life began before the Moon formed, that impact would have wiped it out. Then life would have had to originate again. Eventually conditions on Earth became less violent. The planet could support life. Answer: oceans", "output": [ "Life probably began where?" ] }, { "id": "task594-07c38029eedf448791b1c02ec4926252", "input": "Passage: Visible Light Visible light is the narrow segment of the electromagnetic spectrum to which the normal human eye responds. Visible light is produced by vibrations and rotations of atoms and molecules, as well as by electronic transitions within atoms and molecules. The receivers or detectors of light largely utilize electronic transitions. We say the atoms and molecules are excited when they absorb and relax when they emit through electronic transitions. Figure 24.16 shows this part of the spectrum, together with the colors associated with particular pure wavelengths. We usually refer to visible light as having wavelengths of between 400 nm and 750 nm. (The retina of the eye actually responds to the lowest ultraviolet frequencies, but these do not normally reach the retina because they are absorbed by the cornea and lens of the eye. ) Red light has the lowest frequencies and longest wavelengths, while violet has the highest frequencies and shortest wavelengths. Blackbody radiation from the Sun peaks in the visible part of the spectrum but is more intense in the red than in the violet, making the Sun yellowish in appearance. Answer: electromagnetic spectrum", "output": [ "Visible light is the narrow segment of what, to which the normal human eye responds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2f4d24ec84ba432f89c8f0ed16a9c146", "input": "Passage: Evolution occurs in a population when its allele frequencies change over time. For example, the frequency of the A allele might change from 0.7 to 0.8. If that happens, evolution has occurred. What causes allele frequencies to change? The answer is forces of evolution. Answer: evolution", "output": [ "What occurs in a population when its allele frequencies change over time?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b38f3555a0c0432cb3e2c5cd8a4be962", "input": "Passage: The energy produced by a reactor fueled with enriched uranium results from the fission of uranium as well as from the fission of plutonium produced as the reactor operates. As discussed previously, the plutonium forms from the combination of neutrons and the uranium in the fuel. In any nuclear reactor, only about 0.1% of the mass of the fuel is converted into energy. The other 99.9% remains in the fuel rods as fission products and unused fuel. All of the fission products absorb neutrons, and after a period of several months to a few years, depending on the reactor, the fission products must be removed by changing the fuel rods. Otherwise, the concentration of these fission products would increase and absorb more neutrons until the reactor could no longer operate. Spent fuel rods contain a variety of products, consisting of unstable nuclei ranging in atomic number from 25 to 60, some transuranium elements, including plutonium and americium, and unreacted uranium isotopes. The unstable nuclei and the transuranium isotopes give the spent fuel a dangerously high level of radioactivity. The long-lived isotopes require thousands of years to decay to a safe level. The ultimate fate of the nuclear reactor as a significant source of energy in the United States probably rests on whether or not a politically and scientifically satisfactory technique for processing and storing the components of spent fuel rods can be developed. Answer: thousands of years", "output": [ "How long do the long-lived isotopes require to decay to a safe level in a nuclear reactor?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c434a1ee965148a1a57be9eafddd2164", "input": "Passage: Temperature decreases in the mesosphere with altitude. This is because the heat source is the stratosphere. Answer: stratosphere", "output": [ "What part of the atmosphere is the heat source?" ] }, { "id": "task594-de68ca953d2d4492be888d048b684489", "input": "Passage: All reptiles have a cloaca , a single exit and entrance for sperm, eggs, and waste, located at the base of the tail. Most reptiles lay amniotic eggs covered with leathery or hard shell. These eggs can be placed anywhere as they don't have to be in a moist environment, like the eggs of amphibians. However, not all species lay eggs, as certain species of squamates can give birth to live young. Answer: amniotic", "output": [ "Most reptiles lay what kind of eggs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-774bd357500146feaada03e220ad3699", "input": "Passage: The lithosphere is made of the rigid, brittle, solid crust and uppermost mantle. Answer: lithosphere", "output": [ "Which part of the earth is made of the rigid, brittle, solid crust and uppermost mantle?" ] }, { "id": "task594-67c989f426f24e6e85b1b721a60f5899", "input": "Passage: Red Blood Cells Red blood cells, or erythrocytes (erythro- = “red”; -cyte = “cell”), are specialized cells that circulate through the body delivering oxygen to cells; they are formed from stem cells in the bone marrow. In mammals, red blood cells are small biconcave cells that at maturity do not contain a nucleus or mitochondria and are only 7–8 µm in size. In birds and nonavian reptiles, a nucleus is still maintained in red blood cells. The red coloring of blood comes from the iron-containing protein hemoglobin, illustrated in Figure 40.6a. The principal job of this protein is to carry oxygen, but it also transports carbon dioxide as well. Hemoglobin is packed into red blood cells at a rate of about 250 million molecules of hemoglobin per cell. Each hemoglobin molecule binds four oxygen molecules so that each red blood cell carries one billion molecules of oxygen. There are approximately 25 trillion red blood cells in the five liters of blood in the human body, which could carry up to 25 sextillion (25 × 1021) molecules of oxygen in the body at any time. In mammals, the lack of organelles in erythrocytes leaves more room for the hemoglobin molecules, and the lack of mitochondria also prevents use of the oxygen for metabolic respiration. Only mammals have anucleated red blood cells, and some mammals (camels, for instance) even have nucleated red blood cells. The advantage of nucleated red blood cells is that these cells can undergo mitosis. Anucleated red blood cells metabolize anaerobically (without oxygen), making use of a primitive metabolic pathway to produce ATP and increase the efficiency of oxygen transport. Not all organisms use hemoglobin as the method of oxygen transport. Invertebrates that utilize hemolymph rather than blood use different pigments to bind to the oxygen. These pigments use copper or iron to the oxygen. Invertebrates have a variety of other respiratory pigments. Hemocyanin, a blue-green, copper-containing protein, illustrated in Figure 40.6b is found in mollusks, crustaceans, and some of the arthropods. Chlorocruorin, a green-colored, iron-containing pigment is found in four families of polychaete tubeworms. Hemerythrin, a red, iron-containing protein is found in some polychaete worms and annelids and is illustrated in Figure 40.6c. Despite the name, hemerythrin does not contain a heme group and its oxygen-carrying capacity is poor compared to hemoglobin. Answer: red blood cells", "output": [ "What is the common term for erythrocytesare, specialized cells that circulate delivering oxygen to cells and are formed from stem cells in the bone marrow?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5df9217e8f1d43c3b569224ec99e8a00", "input": "Passage: Solids can be divided into amorphous solids and crystalline solids. Answer: crystalline solids", "output": [ "Solids can be divided into amorphous solids and which other group?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6660e752e0164d07a2f52aa339881dcd", "input": "Passage: Protists Practice Questions 3. Found in many products, such as Petri dishes, agar is made from mucilagnious material in seaweed. Of the six phyla of algae, which phyllum/phyla would agar be made from? 4. Which of the following adjectives describe the major food source of Euglenophytes without an eyespot? a) photoautotrophic b) photoheterotrophic c) chemoautotrophic d) chemoheterotrophic e) B or C f) C or D 5. Can coral reefs exist in nutrient-poor areas? Explain. Answer: seaweed", "output": [ "Found in many products, such as petri dishes, agar is made from mucilagnious material in this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e3481bf36d4246b0a9e4b5d5b9c6e9bf", "input": "Passage: From the small intestine, any remaining food wastes pass into the large intestine. The large intestine is a relatively wide tube that connects the small intestine with the anus. Like the small intestine, the large intestine also consists of three parts: the cecum (or caecum), colon, and rectum. Follow food as it moves through the digestive system at http://www. youtube. com/watch?v=Uzl6M1YlU3w (1:37). Answer: 3", "output": [ "The large and small intestine are both divided into how many parts?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fde3362589054b9a8cce7e2634f95673", "input": "Passage: The basic components of nucleic acids are nucleotides. A nucleotide is a molecule that contains a five-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen containing base. The five-carbon sugar is either ribose, in the case of RNA, or deoxyribose, in the case of DNA. The only difference between the two molecules is the presence of a hydroxyl group attached to one member of the carbon ring in RNA. In DNA, that same carbon atom is attached only to a hydrogen atom (see Figure below ). Note that in drawing the structure of organic molecules, the single hydrogen atoms are not shown in the structure but are understood to be attached at each carbon point unless another molecule is shown. Answer: nucleiotides", "output": [ "What molecules with a nitrogen base are the basic components of nucleic acids?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7e2d37baab9d4091aadce026a808ff52", "input": "Passage: Ammonia is a colorless gas with a sharp, pungent odor. Smelling salts utilize this powerful odor. Gaseous ammonia readily liquefies to give a colorless liquid that boils at −33 °C. Due to intermolecular hydrogen bonding, the enthalpy of vaporization of liquid ammonia is higher than that of any other liquid except water, so ammonia is useful as a refrigerant. Ammonia is quite soluble in water (658 L at STP dissolves in 1 L H2O). The chemical properties of ammonia are as follows: 1. Ammonia acts as a Brønsted base, as discussed in the chapter on acid-base chemistry. The ammonium ion is. Answer: ammonia", "output": [ "What is the colorless gas with a sharp, pungent odor used in smelling salts?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4d6a562a41064179838fd5abf1606695", "input": "Passage: Like all chordates, vertebrates are animals with four defining traits, at least during the embryonic stage. The four traits are:. Answer: embryonic", "output": [ "Like all chordates, vertebrates are animals with four defining traits, at least during which stage?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f8bb692107244f17884d94ff8bac7a79", "input": "Passage: Catalysts are not reactants, but they help reactants come together so they can react. You can see one way this happens in the animation at the URL below. By helping reactants come together, a catalyst decreases the activation energy needed to start a chemical reaction. This speeds up the reaction. Answer: activation energy", "output": [ "A catalyst decreases the amount of what resource that is required in order to begin a chemical reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-81aea2bb2bc94f82805c12c090e78492", "input": "Passage: The Tyndall effect is the scattering of visible light by colloidal particles. Answer: visible light", "output": [ "The tyndall effect refers to the scattering of what by colloidal particles?" ] }, { "id": "task594-aab527e028a7458fa4450cec8b657130", "input": "Passage: Velocity is a measure of both speed and direction of motion. Velocity is a vector, which is a measurement that includes both size and direction. Answer: velocity", "output": [ "What is a measure of both speed and direction of motion?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e818a1e7414d48da87fef92a897e24b4", "input": "Passage: Nitrogen dioxide is a toxic gas with a sharp odor. It can irritate the eyes and throat and trigger asthma attacks. It is a major air pollutant. Answer: nitrogen dioxide", "output": [ "What common air pollutant is characterized by its sharp odor and often triggers asthma attacks?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fdc77fa28b784538b879f8b9a4f5cb45", "input": "Passage: Each organism has the ability to survive in a specific environment. Dry desert environments are difficult to live in. Desert plants have special stems and leaves to conserve water. Animals have other ways to live in the desert. The Namib Desert receives only 1.5 inches of rainfall each year. The Namib Desert beetle lives there. How do the beetles get enough water to survive? Early morning fog deposits water droplets. The droplets collect on a beetle's wings and back. The beetle tilts its rear end up. When the droplet is heavy enough, it slides forward. It lands in the beetle’s mouth. There are many other environments that need unique approaches for survival ( Figure below ). Answer: water", "output": [ "Desert plants have special stems and leaves to conserve what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e6fe1aa8306246c1b229a35ba71e361a", "input": "Passage: The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped organs just above the waist. They are important organs with many functions in the body, including producing hormones, absorbing minerals, and filtering blood and producing urine. Answer: kidneys", "output": [ "What is the pair of bean-shaped organs that filters blood and produces urine?" ] }, { "id": "task594-429b4866933e404da27b1a3617122761", "input": "Passage: Flagella ( flagellum , singular) are long, thin structures that protrude from the cell membrane. Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells can have flagella. Flagella help single-celled organisms move or swim towards food. The flagella of eukaryotic cells are normally used for movement too, such as in the movement of sperm cells, which have only a single flagellum. The flagella of either group are very different from each other. Prokaryotic flagella, shown in Figure below , are spiral-shaped and stiff. They spin around in a fixed base much like a screw does, which moves the cell in a tumbling fashion. Eukaryotic flagella are made of microtubules that bend and flex like a whip. Answer: flagella", "output": [ "What are the long, thin structures that protrude from the cell membrane and help single-celled organisms move or swim towards food?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7be92d8773904dbbb0c5949173d1dcd3", "input": "Passage: Carolus (Carl) Linnaeus (1707-1778) ( Figure below ) built on Aristotle’s work to create his own classification system. He invented the way we name organisms today, with each organism having a two word name. Linnaeus is considered the inventor of modern taxonomy , the science of naming and grouping organisms. Answer: taxonomy", "output": [ "What is the name of the science that is concerned with naming and grouping organisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-99e15d672fe34a2eab0dc7ebf082cb3f", "input": "Passage: Animal behavior is any way that animals interact with each other or their environment. Many animal behaviors promote fitness by increasing the chances of surviving or reproducing. If such behaviors are controlled by genes, they evolve by natural selection. Answer: animal behavior", "output": [ "What term is used to describe the way that animals interact with each other or their environment?" ] }, { "id": "task594-04f7c4d5f71b4df2a575aabdfa475492", "input": "Passage: Some fossils are created when minerals replace the organic material. This is called permineralization. Answer: permineralization", "output": [ "What is it called when minerals replace the organic material to create fossils?" ] }, { "id": "task594-92310a7735244839bf42ba1865e1b0a4", "input": "Passage: The right atrium receives all of the systemic venous return. Most of the blood flows into either the superior vena cava or inferior vena cava. If you draw an imaginary line at the level of the diaphragm, systemic venous circulation from above that line will generally flow into the superior vena cava; this includes blood from the head, neck, chest, shoulders, and upper limbs. The exception to this is that most venous blood flow from the coronary veins flows directly into the coronary sinus and from there directly into the right atrium. Beneath the diaphragm, systemic venous flow enters the inferior vena cava, that is, blood from the abdominal and pelvic regions and the lower limbs. Answer: inferior vena cava", "output": [ "The right atrium receives all of the systemic venous return. most of the blood flows into either the superior vena cava or this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1aead77a463f4e4ca49d9de23f3592da", "input": "Passage: Ecologists look at many factors that help to describe a population. First, ecologists can measure the number of individuals that make up the population, known as population size . They can then determine the population density , which is the number of individuals of the same species in an area. Population density can be expressed as number per area , such as 20 mice/acre, or 50 rabbits/square mile. Answer: number per area", "output": [ "How is population density expressed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-316026ccf4c44bbca7a0667874332eb4", "input": "Passage: An acid is an ionic compound that produces positive hydrogen ions when dissolved in water. Acids taste sour and turn blue litmus paper red. Answer: acid", "output": [ "What is the term for an ionic compound that produces positive hydrogen ions when dissolved in water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ab714239d7f14322a1cb76861ea258fb", "input": "Passage: Waves may reflect off an obstacle that they are unable to pass through. When waves are reflected straight back from an obstacle, the reflected waves interfere with the original waves and create standing waves . These are waves that appear to be standing still. Standing waves occur because of a combination of constructive and destructive interference. You can see animations of standing waves at the URLs below. Answer: reflect off", "output": [ "What do waves do when they are unable to pass through an object?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fcb5296c9b8140978db9dc1315bcfb1e", "input": "Passage: Urethra The urethra transports urine from the bladder to the outside of the body for disposal. The urethra is the only urologic organ that shows any significant anatomic difference between males and females; all other urine transport structures are identical (Figure 25.3). Answer: bladder", "output": [ "The urethra transports urine from what organ to the outside of the body for disposal?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6dadf8be29634ba2b32a937bc687731b", "input": "Passage: Some mammals are strictly herbivores or strictly carnivores . However, most mammals will eat other foods if necessary. Some mammals are omnivores . They routinely eat a variety of both plant and animal foods. Most mammals also feed on a variety of other species. The few exceptions include koalas, which feed only on eucalyptus plants, and giant pandas, which feed only on bamboo. Types of mammalian diets and examples of mammals that eat them are given in Table below . How would you classify your own diet?. Answer: omnivores", "output": [ "Mammals are either herbivores, carnivores or what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e36bcc998dae4355beb82a38ab736386", "input": "Passage: The disintegration of unstable nuclei does not occur all at once. The rate of disintegration is a statistical process. The most convenient way to consider it is by a concept known as half-life . The time required for half of the atoms in any given quantity of a radioactive substance to decay is the half-life of that element. Each particular isotope has its own half-life. For example, the half-life of radium-226 is 1600 years. That is, beginning with 1.00 gram of radium-226, it would take 1600 years for half of it to decay and leave 0.50 gram remaining. After another 1600 years, only 0.25 gram would remain. In each half-life, exactly half of the beginning amount decays. Answer: half-life", "output": [ "What is the time it takes for radioactive substance to decay?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cb0aa85dd67245199de3240869840819", "input": "Passage: Some people think that gravity moves food through the esophagus. If that were true, food would move through the esophagus only when you are sitting or standing upright. In fact, because of peristalsis, food can move through the esophagus no matter what position you are in—even upside down! Just don’t try to swallow food when you are upside down—you could choke!. Answer: peristalsis", "output": [ "What process moves food through the esophagus no matter which position the body is in?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9d5a02eef842452fb193ed439476b94b", "input": "Passage: The goal of technology is to solve people’s problems. Therefore, the problems of society generally set the direction that technology takes. Technology, in turn, affects society. It may make people’s lives easier or healthier. Two examples are described in Figure below . Answer: problems of society", "output": [ "What generally sets the direction that technology takes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e99463833e2f4736a626b4ff630275a7", "input": "Passage: The dipeptide has a free amino group on one end of the molecule and a free carboxyl group on the other end. Each is capable of extending the chain through the formation of another peptide bond. The particular sequence of amino acids in a longer chain is called an amino acid sequence. By convention, the amino acid sequence is listed in the order such that the free amino group is on the left end of the molecule and the free carboxyl group is on the right end of the molecule. For example, suppose that a sequence of the amino acids glycine, tryptophan, and alanine is formed with the free amino group as part of the glycine and the free carboxyl group as part of the alanine. The amino acid sequence can be easily written using the abbreviations as Gly-Trp-Ala. This is a different sequence from Ala-Trp-Gly because the free amino and carboxyl groups would be on different amino acids in that case. Answer: amino acid sequence", "output": [ "What is the particular sequence of amino acids in a longer chain called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b2e2493c9a5e43828298ec4ebfbd83a6", "input": "Passage: Cold air is dense, so it sinks. This creates a center of high pressure. Warm air is less dense so it rises. This creates a center of low pressure. Air always flows from higher to lower pressure. As the air flows, Earth’s surface rotates below it causing Coriolis effect. So while the wind blows into the low pressure, it revolves in a circular pattern. This wind pattern forms a cyclone. The same happens while the wind blows out of a high pressure. This forms an anticyclone. Both are shown in Figure below . Answer: high to low", "output": [ "How does air always flow?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5baf4b00ed3e478ba9eea81dc268788c", "input": "Passage: Local winds are winds that blow over a limited area. They are influenced by local geography, such as nearness to an ocean. They include land and sea breezes as well as monsoons. Answer: local winds", "output": [ "What type of winds blow over a limited area?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8b5664cf570d4b378e9b6299ec309438", "input": "Passage: Magnetic Field Produced by a Current-Carrying Solenoid A solenoid is a long coil of wire (with many turns or loops, as opposed to a flat loop). Because of its shape, the field inside a solenoid can be very uniform, and also very strong. The field just outside the coils is nearly zero. Figure 22.40 shows how the field looks and how its direction is given by RHR-2. Answer: solenoid", "output": [ "What current-carrying long coil of wire acts as a magnet?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a81f5d12814f4b3ea88f89b137289583", "input": "Passage: Reproduction Reproduction in prokaryotes is asexual and usually takes place by binary fission. Recall that the DNA of a prokaryote exists as a single, circular chromosome. Prokaryotes do not undergo mitosis. Rather the chromosome is replicated and the two resulting copies separate from one another, due to the growth of the cell. The prokaryote, now enlarged, is pinched inward at its equator and the two resulting cells, which are clones, separate. Binary fission does not provide an opportunity for genetic recombination or genetic diversity, but prokaryotes can share genes by three other mechanisms. Answer: mitosis", "output": [ "Prokaryotes divide via binary fission and do not undergo what process of cell division?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5ebd201f822748ee93821ceecdf6d454", "input": "Passage: Ethers are good solvents for other organic compounds because of their low reactivity. They readily dissolve non-polar molecules. Diethyl ether is perhaps the best known ether. It is widely used as a solvent and has been used as an inhalable anesthetic. Answer: non-polar", "output": [ "Ethers readily dissolve what type of molecules?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d734e9598b5045c38d31be5a4eec0f54", "input": "Passage: Immunologist The variations in peripheral proteins and carbohydrates that affect a cell’s recognition sites are of prime interest in immunology. These changes are taken into consideration in vaccine development. Many infectious diseases, such as smallpox, polio, diphtheria, and tetanus, were conquered by the use of vaccines. Immunologists are the physicians and scientists who research and develop vaccines, as well as treat and study allergies or other immune problems. Some immunologists study and treat autoimmune problems (diseases in which a person’s immune system attacks his or her own cells or tissues, such as lupus) and immunodeficiencies, whether acquired (such as acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, or AIDS) or hereditary (such as severe combined immunodeficiency, or SCID). Immunologists are called in to help treat organ transplantation patients, who must have their immune systems suppressed so that their bodies will not reject a transplanted organ. Some immunologists work to understand natural immunity and the effects of a person’s environment on it. Others work on questions about how the immune system affects diseases such as cancer. In the past, the importance of having a healthy immune system in preventing cancer was not at all understood. To work as an immunologist, a PhD or MD is required. In addition, immunologists undertake at least 2–3 years of training in an accredited program and must pass an examination given by the American Board of Allergy and Immunology. Immunologists must possess knowledge of the functions of the human body as they relate to issues beyond immunization, and knowledge of pharmacology and medical technology, such as medications, therapies, test materials, and surgical procedures. Answer: immunologists", "output": [ "What is the term for physicians and scientists who research and develop vaccines and treat and study conditions ranging from allergies to aids?" ] }, { "id": "task594-002858ce692347fca3692f4f13c2ac53", "input": "Passage: In a fullerene, carbon atoms are bonded to three other atoms in a soccer ball pattern. The bonds are weak, so fullerenes can dissolve and form solutions. Answer: carbon", "output": [ "In a fullerene, what atoms are bonded to three other atoms in a soccer ball pattern?" ] }, { "id": "task594-408f1e1b55f74cf5971cd8cd4426ac40", "input": "Passage: Fog ( Figure below ) is a cloud on the ground. Fog forms when humid air near the ground cools below its dew point. Each type of fog forms in a different way. Answer: fog", "output": [ "What is formed when humid air near the ground cools below its dew point?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b4695c9fb30b4bcb8b2c9bd628fb6bc0", "input": "Passage: Convergent plate boundaries also produce strong, deadly earthquakes. Earthquakes mark the motions of colliding plates and the locations where plates plunge into the mantle. These earthquakes can be shallow, intermediate or deep focus. Answer: the mantle", "output": [ "Earthquakes mark the motions of colliding plates and the locations where plates plunge into what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1aaa981544464878b78d53bf4b554e10", "input": "Passage: pressure and maintaining blood flow. Ultimately, however, blood volume will need to be restored, either through physiological processes or through medical intervention. In response to blood loss, stimuli from the baroreceptors trigger the cardiovascular centers to stimulate sympathetic responses to increase cardiac output and vasoconstriction. This typically prompts the heart rate to increase to about 180–200 contractions per minute, restoring cardiac output to normal levels. Vasoconstriction of the arterioles increases vascular resistance, whereas constriction of the veins increases venous return to the heart. Both of these steps will help increase blood pressure. Sympathetic stimulation also triggers the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine, which enhance both cardiac output and vasoconstriction. If blood loss were less than 20 percent of total blood volume, these responses together would usually return blood pressure to normal and redirect the remaining blood to the tissues. Additional endocrine involvement is necessary, however, to restore the lost blood volume. The angiotensin-reninaldosterone mechanism stimulates the thirst center in the hypothalamus, which increases fluid consumption to help restore the lost blood. More importantly, it increases renal reabsorption of sodium and water, reducing water loss in urine output. The kidneys also increase the production of EPO, stimulating the formation of erythrocytes that not only deliver oxygen to the tissues but also increase overall blood volume. Figure 20.21 summarizes the responses to loss of blood volume. Answer: vasoconstriction", "output": [ "Sympathetic stimulation also triggers the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine, which enhance both cardiac output and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-193e6a8c4a564ccdb2a5595575b22ebe", "input": "Passage: The atmosphere contains small amounts of carbon dioxide. Climatologists have found that humans are putting a lot of extra carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. This is mostly from burning fossil fuels. The extra carbon dioxide traps heat from the Sun. Trapped heat causes the atmosphere to heat up. We call this global warming ( Figure below ). Answer: carbon dioxide", "output": [ "Which gas is responsible for global warming?" ] }, { "id": "task594-09064c5dc2a7451b88f309da51e1ce1d", "input": "Passage: How fast a chemical reaction occurs is called the reaction rate . Several factors affect the rate of a given chemical reaction. They include the:. Answer: reaction rate", "output": [ "What term is used to describe how fast a chemical reaction occurs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-71e59119cfd6404f87aef24a3bbedf12", "input": "Passage: tension causes liquids to form spheres in free fall or zero gravity (see - ball-ch10_s02_f01: the “floating” water isn’t in the shape of a sphere by accident; it is the result of surface tension). Surface tension is also responsible for the fact that small insects can “walk” on water. Because of surface tension, it takes energy to break the surface of a liquid, and if an object (such as an insect) is light enough, there is not enough force due to gravity for the object to break through the surface, so the object stays on top of the water ( ball-ch10_s03_f07). Carefully done, this phenomenon can also be illustrated with a thin razor blade or a paper clip. The fact that small droplets of water bead up on surfaces does not mean that water—or any other liquid— does not interact with other substances. Sometimes the attraction can be very strong. Adhesion is the tendency of a substance to interact with other substances because of intermolecular forces, while cohesion is the tendency of a substance to interact with itself. If cohesive forces within a liquid are stronger than adhesive forces between a liquid and another substance, then the liquid tends to keep to itself; it will bead up. However, if adhesive forces between a liquid and another substance are stronger than cohesive forces, then the liquid will spread out over the other substance, trying to maximize the interface between the other substance and the liquid. We say that the liquid wets the other substance. Adhesion and cohesion are important for other phenomena as well. In particular, if adhesive forces are strong, then when a liquid is introduced to a small-diameter tube of another substance, the liquid moves up or down in the tube, as if ignoring gravity. Because tiny tubes are called capillaries, this phenomenon is called capillary action. For example, one type of capillary action—capillary rise—is seen when water or water-based liquids rise up in thin glass tubes (like the capillaries sometimes used in blood tests), forming an upwardly curved surface called a meniscus. Capillary action is also responsible for the “wicking” effect that towels and sponges use to dry wet objects; the matting of fibers forms tiny capillaries that have good adhesion with water. Cotton is a good material for this; polyester and other synthetic fabrics do not display similar capillary action, which is why you seldom find rayon bath towels. A similar effect is observed with liquid fuels or melted wax and their wicks. Capillary action is thought to be at least partially responsible for transporting water from the roots to the tops of trees, even tall ones. On the other hand, some liquids have stronger cohesive forces than adhesive forces. In this case, in the presence of a capillary, the liquid is forced down from its surface; this is an example of a type of capillary. Answer: walk", "output": [ "Surface tension is responsible for the fact that small insects can do this on water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5d0f037eb5fb4d04b3c47c98f2e7a3e4", "input": "Passage: Viewing distant stars is looking back in time. The stars we see are many thousands of light years away, which means the light takes many thousands of years to reach us. Thus the stars we see in the sky are how they looked thousands of years ago. Answer: light years", "output": [ "The distance of stars is measured in what terms, meaning the light takes many thousands of years to reach us?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c6f7dcaa85c74845851baa7f122236f9", "input": "Passage: Renewable resources can be replaced at the rate they are being used. Answer: renewable", "output": [ "What do you call resources that can be replaced at the rate they are being used?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6096765853b94312b679fc8944696703", "input": "Passage: Living in a large colony requires good communication. Ants communicate with chemicals called pheromones . For example, an ant deposits pheromones on the ground as it returns to the nest from a food source. It is marking the path so other ants can find the food. Honeybees communicate by doing a “waggle dance. ”. Answer: pheromones", "output": [ "Living in a large colony requires good communication. ants communicate with chemicals called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-891dd5a849974e6dbad7ffa5e575e595", "input": "Passage: Diseases of the cardiovascular system are common and may be life threatening. Examples include atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease. A healthy lifestyle can reduce the risk of such diseases developing. This includes avoiding smoking, getting regular physical activity, and maintaining a healthy percent of body fat. Answer: cardiovascular system", "output": [ "Atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease are examples of what type of body system disease?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1a587e0478274ed5a36e3707c161c576", "input": "Passage: The bodies of organisms can make a sedimentary rock. Plant bodies are lithified to become coal. When shells are cemented together they make a type of limestone. So limestone can be considered chemical or organic. Answer: coal", "output": [ "What is formed when plant bodies are lithified?" ] }, { "id": "task594-056c31f31e5c45fc9ab7f94ca96ea01c", "input": "Passage: Compare fractures and faults and define how they are related to earthquakes. Answer: earthquakes", "output": [ "Fractures and faults are terms you hear when talking about?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e1eaa81c8c6248a8ad52a2cf98f1c6b8", "input": "Passage: Solstice refers to the position of the Sun when it is closest to one of the poles. At equinox, the Sun is directly over the Equator. Answer: equinox", "output": [ "When is the sun directly over the equator?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6ff9b324756c4ce38b5ef945002a0bac", "input": "Passage: An acid also produces negative ions, and a base also produces positive ions. For example, the acid hydrogen chloride (HCl), when dissolved in water, produces negative chloride ions (Cl - ) as well as hydrogen ions. The base sodium hydroxide (NaOH) produces positive sodium ions (Na + ) in addition to hydroxide ions. These other ions also combine when the acid and base react. They form sodium chloride (NaCl). This is represented by the equation:. Answer: positive", "output": [ "When dissolved in water, the base sodium hydroxide (naoh) produces sodium ions with what charge?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c00b5395a86744e4a546fac110a4a959", "input": "Passage: The ears are also responsible for the sense of balance. Balance is the ability to sense and maintain body position. The semicircular canals inside the ear (see Figure above ) contain fluid that moves when the head changes position. Tiny hairs lining the semicircular canals sense movement of the fluid. In response, they send nerve impulses to the vestibular nerve, which carries the impulses to the brain. The brain interprets the impulses and sends messages to the peripheral nervous system. This system maintains the body’s balance by triggering contractions of skeletal muscles as needed. Answer: ears", "output": [ "What external feature in human beings is responsible for balance?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fe0b78f78e4648beb425376e7c795751", "input": "Passage: Deer ticks are vectors for the bacteria that cause Lyme disease. The ticks are actually very small and may go unnoticed. Answer: lyme", "output": [ "Deer ticks are vectors for the bacteria that cause what disease?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f4a5f8960a3048828b70919e1797885c", "input": "Passage: Figure 24.17 Digestive Enzymes and Hormones Enzymes in the stomach and small intestine break down proteins into amino acids. HCl in the stomach aids in proteolysis, and hormones secreted by intestinal cells direct the digestive processes. Answer: amino acids", "output": [ "Enzymes in the stomach and small intestine break down proteins into what components?" ] }, { "id": "task594-927004e5c8934c73989ccfcf094f57dc", "input": "Passage: Gingkophytes The single surviving species of the gingkophytes group is the Gingko biloba (Figure 26.11). Its fan-shaped leaves—unique among seed plants because they feature a dichotomous venation pattern—turn yellow in autumn and fall from the tree. For centuries, G. biloba was cultivated by Chinese Buddhist monks in monasteries, which ensured its preservation. It is planted in public spaces because it is unusually resistant to pollution. Male and female organs are produced on separate plants. Typically, gardeners plant only male trees because the seeds produced by the female plant have an off-putting smell of rancid butter. Answer: resistant to pollution", "output": [ "Why is gingko biloba planted in public spaces?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bc5459ad143849e3a490348ae6456bea", "input": "Passage: All types of radioactive decay pose risks to living things, but alpha decay is the least dangerous. That’s because alpha particles are relatively heavy, so they can travel only a few centimeters through the air. They also are not very penetrating. For example, they can’t pass through a sheet of paper or thin layer of clothing. They may burn the skin, but they can’t penetrate to the tissues underneath the skin. However, if alpha particles are emitted inside the body, they can do more damage. One way this can happen is by inhaling cigarette smoke. People who smoke actually inhale the radioactive element polonium-210. It undergoes alpha decay in the lungs. Over time, exposure to alpha particles may cause lung cancer. Answer: alpha decay", "output": [ "What type of radioactive decay is generally only dangerous when emitted inside the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-91c62ebeed0e4c05acf31917e57ded69", "input": "Passage: After ovulation occurs, the moving “fingers” of the nearby fallopian tube sweep the egg into the tube. Fertilization may occur if sperm reach the egg while it is passing through the fallopian tube. If this happens, the egg finally completes meiosis. This results in two daughter cells that differ in size. The smaller cell is called a polar body. It soon breaks down and disappears. The larger cell is the fertilized egg, which will develop into a new human being. Answer: fallopian tube", "output": [ "After ovulation occurs, the moving “fingers” of what nearby structure sweep the egg into its tube?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6052fc4bbd064b1c9ecf2f760d3c7e6f", "input": "Passage: Keeping the rate of metabolism high takes a constant and plentiful supply of oxygen. That’s because cellular respiration, which produces energy, requires oxygen. The lungs and heart of mammals are adapted to meet their oxygen needs. Answer: metabolism", "output": [ "A constant and plentiful supply of oxygen is required in order to maintain a high rate of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-94443442510b4e7e8aec0c26526824fe", "input": "Passage: The cecum is the first part of the large intestine, where wastes enter from the small intestine. The wastes are in a liquid state. As they passes through the colon, which is the second part of the large intestine, excess water is absorbed. The remaining solid wastes are called feces . Feces accumulate in the rectum, which is the third part of the large intestine. As the rectum fills, the feces become compacted. After a certain amount of feces accumulate, they are eliminated from the body. A sphincter controls the anus and opens to let feces pass through. Answer: the cecum", "output": [ "What is the first part of the large intestine, where wastes enter from the small intestine?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4a8fd4562f8b4e1d93ea4e4ad7098a4d", "input": "Passage: 30.1 | The Plant Body By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Describe the shoot organ system and the root organ system • Distinguish between meristematic tissue and permanent tissue • Identify and describe the three regions where plant growth occurs • Summarize the roles of dermal tissue, vascular tissue, and ground tissue • Compare simple plant tissue with complex plant tissue Like animals, plants contain cells with organelles in which specific metabolic activities take place. Unlike animals, however, plants use energy from sunlight to form sugars during photosynthesis. In addition, plant cells have cell walls, plastids, and a large central vacuole: structures that are not found in animal cells. Each of these cellular structures plays a specific role in plant structure and function. Answer: animal cells", "output": [ "Cell walls, plastids, and a large central vacuole distinguish plant cells from what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-273c2af6dd4745ec8be18d5f7549c15a", "input": "Passage: Plants are complex organisms with tissues organized into organs. Answer: organs", "output": [ "Plants are complex organisms with tissues organized into what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c454cd3b9d384657a8cb67af50209ffc", "input": "Passage: The difference between the daily high and the daily low is the tidal range. Answer: tidal change", "output": [ "What is the difference between the daily high and the daily low?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2699e072c35d4118b462499bc3d58b24", "input": "Passage: An atom that gains or loses electrons is an ion. Answer: ion", "output": [ "An atom that gains or loses electrons is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d163b19250fb4573af44fc243daea5f3", "input": "Passage: Restriction enzymes or restriction endonucleases are prokaryotic enzymes that recognize and cut DNA at specific sequences, called restriction sites. It is believed that they evolved as a defense mechanism against foreign DNA, such as viral DNA. Over 3,000 restriction enzymes have been identified. Some of the more common restriction enzymes are shown in the table below, where up and down arrows show the sites of cleavage. Restriction enzymes are named based on the prokaryotic organism they are isolated from. For example, those isolated from Escherichia coli would begin with Eco. As the Table below shows, digestion with the restriction enzymes will result in overlapping or blunt ends. EcoRI produces overlapping \"sticky\" ends: the enzyme cleaves between the G and A on both strands. On the other hand, SmaII restriction enzyme cleavage produces \"blunt\" ends. The enzyme cleaves between the G and C on both strands. Answer: dna", "output": [ "Restriction enzymes or restriction endonucleases are prokaryotic enzymes that recognize and cut what at specific sequences?" ] }, { "id": "task594-41f9a9460c5a4bd386c1b014b02bd587", "input": "Passage: Population size is the number of individuals in a population. For example, a population of insects might consist of 100 individual insects, or many more. Population size influences the chances of a species surviving or going extinct. Generally, very small populations are at greatest risk of extinction. However, the size of a population may be less important than its density. Answer: extinction", "output": [ "Population size influences the chances of a species surviving, with very small populations generally at greatest risk of what fate?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ae57f7eb7c044449a7cf2de24c467ba5", "input": "Passage: A meteoroid is dragged toward Earth by gravity and enters the atmosphere. Friction with the atmosphere heats the object quickly, so it starts to vaporize. As it flies through the atmosphere, it leaves a trail of glowing gases. The object is now a meteor. Most meteors vaporize in the atmosphere. They never reach Earth’s surface. Large meteoroids may not burn up entirely in the atmosphere. A small core may remain and hit Earth’s surface. This is called a meteorite . Answer: friction with atmosphere", "output": [ "What causes a meteoroid to vaporize after it enters the atmosphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3e7f63b11045441eb35327a2357536d9", "input": "Passage: Rain dissolves fertilizer in the soil. Runoff carries it away. The fertilizer ends up in bodies of water, from ponds to oceans. Nitrogen is a fertilizer in the water. Since there is a lot of nitrogen, it causes algae to grow out of control. Pictured below is a pond covered with algae ( Figure below ). Algae use up carbon dioxide in the water. After the algae die, decomposers break down the dead tissue. The decomposers use up all the oxygen in the water. This creates a dead zone. A dead zone is an area in a body of water where nothing grows because there is too little oxygen. There is a large dead zone in the Gulf of Mexico ( Figure below ). The U. S. states outlined on the map have rivers that drain into the Gulf of Mexico. The rivers drain vast agricultural lands. The water carries fertilizer from these areas into the Gulf. Answer: runoff?", "output": [ "Rain dissolves fertilizer in the soil, what carries it away?" ] }, { "id": "task594-84cae9f212994c7494c8922cb4734382", "input": "Passage: Although the speed of light is constant in a vacuum, light travels at different speeds in different kinds of matter. For example, light travels more slowly in glass than in air. Therefore, when light passes from air to glass, it slows down. If light strikes a sheet of glass straight on, or perpendicular to the glass, it slows down but passes straight through. However, if light enters the glass at an angle other than 90°, the wave refracts, or bends. This is illustrated in Figure below . How much light bends when it enters a new medium depends on how much it changes speed. The greater the change in speed, the more light bends. Answer: vacuum", "output": [ "While light travels at different speeds in different kinds of matter, the speed of light is constant in what condition?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1aee9638dc414e9aa467d3da13910b32", "input": "Passage: Semen is the fluid that carries sperm through the urethra and out of the body. In addition to sperm, it contains secretions from the glands. The secretions control pH and provide sperm with nutrients for energy. Answer: semen", "output": [ "What is the fluid that carries sperm through the urethra and out of the body, and provides it with nutrients?" ] }, { "id": "task594-14f325cd7b8c488b83871bd7ade2ac32", "input": "Passage: The process in which a liquid boils and changes to a gas is called vaporization . The temperature at which a liquid boils is its boiling point. The boiling point of water is 100°C (212°F). Other types of matter may have higher or lower boiling points. For example, the boiling point of table salt is 1413°C. The boiling point of nitrogen is -196°C. Answer: vaporization", "output": [ "What is the process in which a liquid boils and changes to a gas?" ] }, { "id": "task594-612c0024edf547d2bbd48ce54d12e91e", "input": "Passage: 10.2 The Cell Cycle The cell cycle is an orderly sequence of events. Cells on the path to cell division proceed through a series of precisely timed and carefully regulated stages. In eukaryotes, the cell cycle consists of a long preparatory period, called interphase. Interphase is divided into G1, S, and G2 phases. The mitotic phase begins with karyokinesis (mitosis), which consists of five stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. The final stage of the mitotic phase is cytokinesis, during which the cytoplasmic components of the daughter cells are separated either by an actin ring (animal cells) or by cell plate formation (plant cells). Answer: interphase", "output": [ "In eukaryotes, the cell cycle consists of a long preparatory period, called __________ before undergoing cell division." ] }, { "id": "task594-04aad3d5a1124bb1a4515bd32cff35a6", "input": "Passage: General Cnidarian Life Cycle. Cnidarians may reproduce both asexually and sexually. Answer: asexually and sexually", "output": [ "What are two ways cnidarians are able to reproduce?" ] }, { "id": "task594-efedc46c77d54cc99c38333e91a1149d", "input": "Passage: The water cycle includes the ocean, atmosphere, ground, and living things. During the water cycle, water keeps changing state by processes such as evaporation, transpiration, condensation, and precipitation. Answer: water cycle", "output": [ "Precipitation, evaporation, transpiration, and condensation are part of what cycle?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c96549df355447268d0f1710be7ec9b9", "input": "Passage: Estuaries: Where the Ocean Meets Fresh Water Estuaries are biomes that occur where a river, a source of fresh water, meets the ocean. Therefore, both fresh water and salt water are found in the same vicinity; mixing results in a diluted (brackish) salt water. Estuaries form protected areas where many of the offspring of crustaceans, mollusks, and fish begin their lives. Salinity is an important factor that influences the organisms and the adaptations of the organisms found in estuaries. The salinity of estuaries varies and is based on the rate of flow of its freshwater sources. Once or twice a day, high tides bring salt water into the estuary. Low tides occurring at the same frequency reverse the current of salt water (Figure 20.30). Answer: estuaries", "output": [ "What are biomes that occur where a river, a source of fresh water, meets the ocean called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ce88baf538c3486d8255d28c22a53b4c", "input": "Passage: An object will not change its state of motion (i. e. , accelerate) unless a net force acts on it. Equal and oppositely directed forces do not produce acceleration. Answer: no acceleration", "output": [ "Equal and oppositely directed forces produce what kind of acceleration?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c90302f0d6a44d4ba3a6b8fe2765da03", "input": "Passage: Cartilage Cartilage is a connective tissue with a large amount of the matrix and variable amounts of fibers. The cells, called chondrocytes, make the matrix and fibers of the tissue. Chondrocytes are found in spaces within the tissue called lacunae. A cartilage with few collagen and elastic fibers is hyaline cartilage, illustrated in Figure 33.14. The lacunae are randomly scattered throughout the tissue and the matrix takes on a milky or scrubbed appearance with routine histological stains. Sharks have cartilaginous skeletons, as does nearly the entire human skeleton during a specific pre-birth developmental stage. A remnant of this cartilage persists in the outer portion of the human nose. Hyaline cartilage is also found at the ends of long bones, reducing friction and cushioning the articulations of these bones. Answer: cartilage", "output": [ "Like sharks, nearly the entire human skeleton during a specific pre-birth developmental stage is made of what connective tissue?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e9166363aa284d1bab4f1f81b699bafa", "input": "Passage: Measuring Biodiversity The technology of molecular genetics and data processing and storage are maturing to the point where cataloguing the planet’s species in an accessible way is close to feasible. DNA barcoding is one molecular genetic method, which takes advantage of rapid evolution in a mitochondrial gene present in eukaryotes, excepting the plants, to identify species using the sequence of portions of the gene. Plants may be barcoded using a combination of chloroplast genes. Rapid mass sequencing machines make the molecular genetics portion of the work relatively inexpensive and quick. Computer resources store and make available the large volumes of data. Projects are currently underway to use DNA barcoding to catalog museum specimens, which have already been named and studied, as well as testing the method on less studied groups. As of mid 2012, close to 150,000 named species had been barcoded. Early studies suggest there are significant numbers of undescribed species that looked too much like sibling species to previously be recognized as different. These now can be identified with DNA barcoding. Numerous computer databases now provide information about named species and a framework for adding new species. However, as already noted, at the present rate of description of new species, it will take close to 500 years before the complete catalog of life is known. Many, perhaps most, species on the planet do not have that much time. There is also the problem of understanding which species known to science are threatened and to what degree they are threatened. This task is carried out by the non-profit IUCN which, as previously mentioned, maintains the Red List—an online listing of endangered species categorized by taxonomy, type of threat, and other criteria (Figure 47.16). The Red List is supported by scientific research. In 2011, the list contained 61,000 species, all with supporting documentation. Answer: dna barcoding", "output": [ "What method uses a retailer's coding method to catalog biological specimens in museums?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4479eeac1e7d421a92fc41c54cd5109c", "input": "Passage: Scientists are using telescopes to search for other planets that may have conditions favorable for life. The places they can look are near our solar system in our galaxy. Answer: telescopes", "output": [ "What do scientists use to search other planets suitable for living?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a47c2439803d428a8f66d4d4bd7e179a", "input": "Passage: Denitrifying bacteria turn nitrate back into gaseous nitrogen. Answer: denitrifying bacteria", "output": [ "What causes nitrate to go back to its gaseous nitrogen state?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eff5f464cd784b43aa66a68b4610ec9b", "input": "Passage: Triglycerides are the main form of stored energy in animals. This type of lipid is commonly called fat. Triglycerides are composed of a glycerol and three fatty acid chains. An example is shown in Figure below . In humans, triglycerides are a mechanism for storing unused calories, and their high concentration in blood correlates with the consumption of excess starches and other carbohydrate-rich foods. Answer: triglycerides", "output": [ "What stored form of energy is made up of glycerol and three fatty acid chains?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2a3b990d55ef41a4aab9de075b480c18", "input": "Passage: Dialysis Technician Dialysis is a medical process of removing wastes and excess water from the blood by diffusion and ultrafiltration. When kidney function fails, dialysis must be done to artificially rid the body of wastes. This is a vital process to keep patients alive. In some cases, the patients undergo artificial dialysis until they are eligible for a kidney transplant. In others who are not candidates for kidney transplants, dialysis is a life-long necessity. Dialysis technicians typically work in hospitals and clinics. While some roles in this field include equipment development and maintenance, most dialysis technicians work in direct patient care. Their on-the-job duties, which typically occur under the direct supervision of a registered nurse, focus on providing dialysis treatments. This can include reviewing patient history and current condition, assessing and responding to patient needs before and during treatment, and monitoring the dialysis process. Treatment may include taking and reporting a patient’s vital signs and preparing solutions and equipment to ensure accurate and sterile procedures. Answer: dialysis", "output": [ "What is the medical process of removing wastes and excess water from the blood by diffusion and ultrafiltration called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9be5e45732bb46ebb86d1f07417bb25c", "input": "Passage: Figure 27.15 Hormone Levels in Ovarian and Menstrual Cycles The correlation of the hormone levels and their effects on the female reproductive system is shown in this timeline of the ovarian and menstrual cycles. The menstrual cycle begins at day one with the start of menses. Ovulation occurs around day 14 of a 28-day cycle, triggered by the LH surge. Answer: ovulation", "output": [ "What process occurs around day 14 of a 28-day menstrual cycle, triggered by the lh surge?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4fe8ce05d7ef437882ff18ab80eaa7b1", "input": "Passage: The only obvious difference between boys and girls at birth is their reproductive organs. However, even the reproductive organs start out the same in both sexes. Answer: reproductive", "output": [ "The only obvious difference between boys and girls at birth is what type of organs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4554268073e249bb9a525d09b762c079", "input": "Passage: Inside the atom, two types of subatomic particles have electric charge: electrons, which have an electric charge of -1, and protons, which have an opposite but equal electric charge of +1. The model of an atom in the Figure below shows both types of charged particles. Protons are found inside the nucleus at the center of the atom, and they give the nucleus a positive charge. (There are also neutrons in the nucleus, but they have no electric charge. ) Negative electrons stay in the area surrounding the positive nucleus because of the electromagnetic force of attraction between them. Answer: positive", "output": [ "What kind of charges do protons give the nucleus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-00ef6b1d46f9413ea7c465c05e8b11a9", "input": "Passage: The different feeding positions in a food chain or web are called trophic levels. Generally, there are no more than four trophic levels because energy and biomass decrease from lower to higher levels. Answer: trophic levels", "output": [ "What are the different feeding positions in a food chain or web called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c8ae3f37fc34428399b07ee35ba404b2", "input": "Passage: Mercury is very close to the Sun, so it can get very hot. Mercury also has virtually no atmosphere. As the planet rotates very slowly, the temperature varies tremendously. In direct sunlight, the surface can be as hot as 427°C (801°F). On the dark side, the surface can be as cold as –183°C (–297°F)! The coldest temperatures may be on the insides of craters. Most of Mercury is extremely dry. Scientists think that there may be a small amount of water, in the form of ice, at the planet's poles. The poles never receive direct sunlight. Answer: mercury", "output": [ "What planet is closest to our sun?" ] }, { "id": "task594-62f32d41d3bb4c52bd5e6772b017f5f8", "input": "Passage: Anaerobic prokaryotes do not need oxygen. They use fermentation or other methods of respiration that don’t require oxygen. In fact, some cannot tolerate oxygen. An example is a bacterium that infects wounds and kills tissues, causing a condition called gangrene. Answer: anaerobic", "output": [ "What do you call prokaryotes that do not need oxygen for respiration?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e91165e889be4925809d6b5d6d010a85", "input": "Passage: a) The water forms the bottom of the tube and thus where the node of the wave will be. Thus the air column is where the sound wave can exist. The larger the air column, the larger the wavelength. Frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength, thus the tube with the smallest air column will have the highest frequency. So the answer is tube C. Answer: wavelength", "output": [ "In frequency, the larger the air column, the larger the what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-88f327d6a54b45de9dbc48bdd6c9ef1a", "input": "Passage: Gases are compressible, meaning that when put under high pressure, the particles are forced closer to one another. This decreases the amount of empty space and reduces the volume of the gas. Gas volume is also affected by temperature. When a gas is heated, its molecules move faster and the gas expands. Because of the variation in gas volume due to pressure and temperature changes, the comparison of gas volumes must be done at one standard temperature and pressure. Standard temperature and pressure (STP) is defined as 0°C (273.15 K) and 1 atm pressure. The molar volume of a gas is the volume of one mole of a gas at STP. At STP, one mole (6.02 × 10 23 representative particles) of any gas occupies a volume of 22.4 L ( Figure below ). Answer: they move faster", "output": [ "How do molecules react when a gas is heated?" ] }, { "id": "task594-717d6ba73fbb4a929bcd9def3a4e7e83", "input": "Passage: Electroplating In a process called electroplating, a layer of a second metal is deposited on the metal electrode that acts as the cathode during electrolysis. Electroplating is used to enhance the appearance of metal objects and protect them from corrosion. Examples of electroplating include the chromium layer found on many bathroom fixtures or (in earlier days) on the bumpers and hubcaps of cars, as well as the thin layer of precious metal that coats silver-plated dinnerware or jewelry. In all cases, the basic concept is the same. A schematic view of an apparatus for electroplating silverware and a photograph of a commercial electroplating cell are shown in Figure 19.24 \"Electroplating\". Answer: electroplating", "output": [ "What is the process in which a layer of a second metal is deposited on the metal electrode that acts as the cathode during electrolysis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5df4b72664c1435ba014a55bf96fe047", "input": "Passage: Looking at the magnetism of the seafloor, scientists discovered something astonishing. Many times in Earth’s history, the magnetic poles have switched positions. North becomes south, and south becomes north! When the north and south poles are aligned as they are now, geologists say it is normal polarity . When they are in the opposite position, they say that it is reversed polarity . Answer: reversed polarity", "output": [ "What is it called when poles are in opposite positions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e1a0f709cc224af1bed96cc9f72449b1", "input": "Passage: Blood Pressure Regulation Due to osmosis, water follows where Na+ leads. Much of the water the kidneys recover from the forming urine follows the reabsorption of Na+. ADH stimulation of aquaporin channels allows for regulation of water recovery in the collecting ducts. Normally, all of the glucose is recovered, but loss of glucose control (diabetes mellitus) may result in an osmotic dieresis severe enough to produce severe dehydration and death. A loss of renal function means a loss of effective vascular volume control, leading to hypotension (low blood pressure) or hypertension (high blood pressure), which can lead to stroke, heart attack, and aneurysm formation. The kidneys cooperate with the lungs, liver, and adrenal cortex through the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (see Figure 25.14). The liver synthesizes and secretes the inactive precursor angiotensinogen. When the blood pressure is low, the kidney synthesizes and releases renin. Renin converts angiotensinogen into angiotensin I, and ACE produced in the lung converts angiotensin I into biologically active angiotensin II (Figure 25.23). The immediate and short-term effect of angiotensin II is to raise blood pressure by causing widespread vasoconstriction. angiotensin II also stimulates the adrenal. Answer: osmosis", "output": [ "Water follows where sodium ions lead, due to what process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6f1a01c94bd54fd7aee95283f7426627", "input": "Passage: Annelids are segmented invertebrates in Phylum Annelida. They include earthworms, polychaete worms, and leeches. Annelids have a coelom and several organ systems. Their body segments may have a variety of different structures such as tentacles or suckers. Annelids may be predators, parasites, filter feeders, or decomposers. Answer: annelids", "output": [ "What are are segmented invertebrates in phylum annelida called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6ec5e4e4d9144351b8ab7af8d74e361f", "input": "Passage: Producers are organisms that produce food for themselves and other organisms. They use energy and simple inorganic molecules to make organic compounds. The stability of producers is vital to ecosystems because all organisms need organic molecules. Producers are also called autotrophs. There are two basic types of autotrophs: photoautotrophs and chemoautotrophs. Answer: autotrophs", "output": [ "What is another name for producers?" ] }, { "id": "task594-004dceb2e15b411b895c1c27892adf6b", "input": "Passage: Proteins play many important roles in living things. Some proteins help cells keep their shape, and some make up muscle tissues. Many proteins speed up chemical reactions in cells. Other proteins are antibodies, which bind to foreign substances such as bacteria and target them for destruction. Still other proteins carry messages or materials. For example, human red blood cells contain a protein called hemoglobin, which binds with oxygen. Hemoglobin allows the blood to carry oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. A model of the hemoglobin molecule is shown in Figure below . Answer: antibodies", "output": [ "What type of proteins bind to foreign substances and attempt destruction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d84781ab133e46b1a7ef1b3ff6d9c46d", "input": "Passage: Electrical energy is useful to us mostly because it is easy to transport and can be easily converted to or from other forms of energy. Of course, conversion involves wast, typically as heat. Answer: electrical", "output": [ "What type of energy is useful to humans because it's ease of transport and conversion to other forms of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-993573f0a0f445a096fe04260467b06e", "input": "Passage: Convection is the transfer of thermal energy by particles moving through a fluid. Particles transfer energy by moving from warmer to cooler areas. That’s how energy is transferred in the soup in Figure above . Particles of soup near the bottom of the pot get hot first. They have more energy so they spread out and become less dense. With lower density, these particles rise to the top of the pot (see Figure below ). By the time they reach the top of the pot they have cooled off. They have less energy to move apart, so they become denser. With greater density, the particles sink to the bottom of the pot, and the cycle repeats. This loop of moving particles is called a convection current . Answer: fluid", "output": [ "Convection is the transfer of thermal energy by particles moving through what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4aae8f9c0c8647838b8d3cc1164bb571", "input": "Passage: Evidence is a direct, physical observation of something or a process. Answer: evidence", "output": [ "In a scientific investigation, what do you call a direct, physical observation of something or a process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1dd93fe7e11541ca9beddeca893a3830", "input": "Passage: A change in the sequence of bases in DNA or RNA is called a mutation . Does the word mutation make you think of science fiction and bug-eyed monsters? Think again. Everyone has mutations. In fact, most people have dozens or even hundreds of mutations in their DNA. Mutations are essential for evolution to occur. They are the ultimate source of all new genetic material - new alleles - in a species. Although most mutations have no effect on the organisms in which they occur, some mutations are beneficial. Even harmful mutations rarely cause drastic changes in organisms. Answer: mutation", "output": [ "What is a change in the sequence of bases in dna or rna called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7ec8ebfc04ff4712ba3dbb1c7ad4b074", "input": "Passage: The stomach is a sac-like organ at the end of the esophagus. It has thick muscular walls. The muscles contract and relax. This moves the food around and helps break it into smaller pieces. Mixing the food around with the enzyme pepsin and other chemicals helps digest proteins. Answer: stomach", "output": [ "What is the sac-like organ at the end of the esophagus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-840bbf7c821543e0bf326d0ea38b060a", "input": "Passage: Burning of fossil fuels, such as oil, releases carbon into the atmosphere. This carbon must be cycled - removed from the atmosphere - back into living organisms, or it stays in the atmosphere. Increased carbon in the atmosphere contributes to the greenhouse effect on Earth. Answer: greenhouse effect", "output": [ "Carbon released by burning fossil fuels contributes to what effect in the atmosphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a2722295bb0e4bbda22717e0adb4eb92", "input": "Passage: 9.2 Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to pyruvate. Answer: pyruvate", "output": [ "Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4cf47300389f443487640e6ebe3320b6", "input": "Passage: Making Connections: Cosmology and Particle Physics There are many connections of cosmology—by definition involving physics on the largest scale—with particle physics—by definition physics on the smallest scale. Among these are the dominance of matter over antimatter, the nearly perfect uniformity of the cosmic microwave background, and the mere existence of galaxies. Matter versus antimatter We know from direct observation that antimatter is rare. The Earth and the solar system are nearly pure matter. Space probes and cosmic rays give direct evidence—the landing of the Viking probes on Mars would have been spectacular explosions of mutual annihilation energy if Mars were antimatter. We also know that most of the universe is dominated by matter. This is proven by the lack of annihilation radiation coming to us from space, particularly the relative absence of 0.511-MeV γ rays created by the mutual annihilation of electrons and positrons. It seemed possible that there could be entire solar systems or galaxies made of antimatter in perfect symmetry with our matter-dominated systems. But the interactions between stars and galaxies would sometimes bring matter and antimatter together in large amounts. The annihilation + radiation they would produce is simply not observed. Antimatter in nature is created in particle collisions and in β decays, but only in small amounts that quickly annihilate, leaving almost pure matter surviving. Particle physics seems symmetric in matter and antimatter. Why isn’t the cosmos? The answer is that particle physics is not quite perfectly symmetric in this regard. The decay of one of the neutral K -mesons, for example, preferentially creates more matter than antimatter. This is caused by a fundamental small asymmetry in the basic forces. This small asymmetry produced slightly. Answer: matter", "output": [ "The lack of annihilation radiation coming to us from space proves that the universe is dominated by what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ce98c8f78b544744abc9750732af5156", "input": "Passage: The magnetic field produced by a current in a wire moves around the wire in concentric circles. More current creates a stronger magnetic field, and the direction of the current determines the direction of the magnetic field. Answer: in concentric circles", "output": [ "How does the magnetic field produced by a current in a wire move?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f32b40c4ae7d4fcebc0fcef2ec7a9960", "input": "Passage: Note the Pattern Ionic compounds contain both cations and anions in a ratio that results in zero electrical charge. In covalent compounds, electrons are shared between bonded atoms and are simultaneously attracted to more than one nucleus. In contrast, ionic compounds contain cations and anions rather than discrete neutral molecules. Ionic compounds are held together by the attractive electrostatic interactions between cations and anions. In an ionic compound, the cations and anions are arranged in space to form an extended three-dimensional array that maximizes the number of attractive electrostatic interactions and minimizes the number of repulsive electrostatic interactions (Figure 2.5 \"Covalent and Ionic Bonding\"). As shown in Equation 2.1, the electrostatic energy of the interaction between two charged particles is proportional to the product of the charges on the particles and inversely proportional to the distance between them: Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: discrete neutral molecules", "output": [ "Ionic compounds contain cations and anions rather than what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2f688a7f15c94e41805245191b114fba", "input": "Passage: Following ventricular repolarization, the ventricles begin to relax, and pressure within the ventricles drops. When the pressure falls below that of the atria, blood moves from the atria into the ventricles, opening the atrioventricular valves and marking one complete heart cycle. 35 Afterload represents the resistance within the arteries to the flow of blood ejected from the ventricles. If uncompensated, if afterload increases, flow will decrease. In order for the heart to maintain adequate flow to overcome increasing afterload, it must pump more forcefully. This is one of the negative consequences of high blood pressure or hypertension. 37 After fusion of the two endocardial tubes into the single primitive heart, five regions quickly become visible. From the head, these are the truncus arteriosus, bulbus cordis, primitive ventricle, primitive atrium, and sinus venosus. Contractions propel the blood from the sinus venosus to the truncus arteriosus. About day 23, the heart begins to form an S-shaped structure within the pericardium. The bulbus cordis develops into the right ventricle, whereas the primitive ventricle becomes the left ventricle. The interventricular septum separating these begins to form about day 28. The atrioventricular valves form between weeks five to eight. At this point, the heart ventricles resemble the adult structure. Answer: right ventricle", "output": [ "During fetal development of the heart, what does the bulbus cordis develop into?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ab42a919cec247fe92cd39c370f6384b", "input": "Passage: The image above is of a copper plate that was made in 1893. The utensil has a great deal of elaborate decoration and the item is very useful. What would have happened if we decided that copper (I) chloride was just as good a material (well, it does have copper in it). The CuCl would end up as a powder when we pounded on it to shape it. Metals behave in unique ways. The bonding that occurs in a metal is responsible for its distinctive properties: luster, malleability, ductility, and excellent conductivity. Answer: metals", "output": [ "Luster, malleability, ductility, and conductivity are all properties of which kind of material?" ] }, { "id": "task594-236a17589a7c47b59d14ac1bf47c63b3", "input": "Passage: Outcomes of Glycolysis Glycolysis starts with glucose and ends with two pyruvate molecules, a total of four ATP molecules and two molecules of NADH. Two ATP molecules were used in the first half of the pathway to prepare the six-carbon ring for cleavage, so the cell has a net gain of two ATP molecules and 2 NADH molecules for its use. If the cell cannot catabolize the pyruvate molecules further, it will harvest only two ATP molecules from one molecule of glucose. Mature mammalian red blood cells are not capable of aerobic respiration—the process in which organisms convert energy in the presence of oxygen—and glycolysis is their sole source of ATP. If glycolysis is interrupted, these cells lose their ability to maintain their sodium-potassium pumps, and eventually, they die. The last step in glycolysis will not occur if pyruvate kinase, the enzyme that catalyzes the formation of pyruvate, is not available in sufficient quantities. In this situation, the entire glycolysis pathway will proceed, but only two ATP molecules will be made in the second half. Thus, pyruvate kinase is a rate-limiting enzyme for glycolysis. Answer: glycolysis", "output": [ "What process starts with glucose and ends with two pyruvate molecules, a total of four atp molecules and two molecules of nadh?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ced65512514444108ab6eb7568206855", "input": "Passage: The Menstrual Cycle Now that we have discussed the maturation of the cohort of tertiary follicles in the ovary, the build-up and then shedding of the endometrial lining in the uterus, and the function of the uterine tubes and vagina, we can put everything together to talk about the three phases of the menstrual cycle—the series of changes in which the uterine lining is shed, rebuilds, and prepares for implantation. The timing of the menstrual cycle starts with the first day of menses, referred to as day one of a woman’s period. Cycle length is determined by counting the days between the onset of bleeding in two subsequent cycles. Because the average length of a woman’s menstrual cycle is 28 days, this is the time period used to identify the timing of events in the cycle. However, the length of the menstrual cycle varies among women, and even in the same woman from one cycle to the next, typically from 21 to 32 days. Just as the hormones produced by the granulosa and theca cells of the ovary “drive” the follicular and luteal phases of the ovarian cycle, they also control the three distinct phases of the menstrual cycle. These are the menses phase, the proliferative phase, and the secretory phase. Answer: 28 days", "output": [ "The average length of a woman’s menstrual cycle is what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c5aaf59db0394be2a210883ae9208884", "input": "Passage: Most substances have three distinct phases: gas, liquid, and solid. Phase changes among the various phases of matter depend on temperature and pressure. The existence of the three phases with respect to pressure and temperature can be described in a phase diagram. Two phases coexist (i. , they are in thermal equilibrium) at a set of pressures and temperatures. These are described as a line on a phase diagram. The three phases coexist at a single pressure and temperature. This is known as the triple point and is described by a single point on a phase diagram. A gas at a temperature below its boiling point is called a vapor. Vapor pressure is the pressure at which a gas coexists with its solid or liquid phase. Partial pressure is the pressure a gas would create if it existed alone. Dalton’s law states that the total pressure is the sum of the partial pressures of all of the gases present. Answer: matter", "output": [ "Temperature and pressure affect changes in phases or states of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-67df3d1f1ff54b8d9505c01307fa6bca", "input": "Passage: Note the Pattern Few binary molecular compounds of nitrogen are formed by the direct reaction of the elements. At elevated temperatures, nitrogen reacts with highly electropositive metals to formionic nitrides, such as Li3N and Ca3N2. These compounds consist of ionic lattices formed by M n+ and N3− ions. Just as boron forms interstitial borides and carbon forms interstitial carbides, with less electropositive metals nitrogen forms a range ofinterstitial nitrides, in which nitrogen occupies holes in a close-packed metallic structure. Like the interstitial carbides and borides, these substances are typically very hard, high-melting materials that have metallic luster and conductivity. Nitrogen also reacts with semimetals at very high temperatures to produce covalent nitrides, such as Si3N4 and BN, which are solids with extended covalent network structures similar to those of graphite or diamond. Consequently, they are usually high melting and chemically inert materials. Ammonia (NH3) is one of the few thermodynamically stable binary compounds of nitrogen with a nonmetal. It is not flammable in air, but it burns in an O2 atmosphere: Equation 22.30. Answer: ammonia", "output": [ "What (nh3) is one of the few thermodynamically stable binary compounds of nitrogen with a nonmetal?" ] }, { "id": "task594-683f36d2e6814666ad3bc22643b44263", "input": "Passage: Starvation When the body is deprived of nourishment for an extended period of time, it goes into “survival mode. ” The first priority for survival is to provide enough glucose or fuel for the brain. The second priority is the conservation of amino acids for proteins. Therefore, the body uses ketones to satisfy the energy needs of the brain and other glucose-dependent organs, and to maintain proteins in the cells (see Figure 24.2). Because glucose levels are very low during starvation, glycolysis will shut off in cells that can use alternative fuels. For example, muscles will switch from using glucose to fatty acids as fuel. Answer: glucose", "output": [ "When the body goes into survival mode, it's first priority is to produce enough of which substance for the brain?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d9566861901d46fcb5abc1e1cf7f94fa", "input": "Passage: Chemical reactions follow the laws of thermodynamics. Answer: thermodynamics", "output": [ "Chemical reactions follow the laws of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c733575927d8499885f0ad9313eb5ed3", "input": "Passage: Nonrenewable resources are natural resources that can’t be remade or else take too long to remake to keep up with human use. Examples of nonrenewable resources are coal, oil, and natural gas, all of which are fossil fuels. Fossil fuels form from the remains of plants and animals over hundreds of millions of years. We are using them up far faster than they can be replaced. At current rates of use, oil and natural gas will be used up in just a few decades, and coal will be used up in a couple of centuries. Answer: nonrewable resources", "output": [ "What are resources that can not be remade, or would take too long to remake to keep up wiht human use called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-21526c6635ad43e09d4c517e235383e1", "input": "Passage: Did you ever wonder what happens to a candle when it burns? A candle burning is a chemical change in matter. In a chemical change, one type of matter changes into a different type of matter, with different chemical properties. Chemical changes occur because of chemical reactions. You can see more examples of chemical changes at this URL: http://www. youtube. com/watch?v=66kuhJkQCVM . Answer: chemical reactions", "output": [ "Chemical changes occur because of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-302484d5b5ee4a88b5ec9df01b49db03", "input": "Passage: Watch this video (http://openstaxcollege. org/l/rotating_DNA) that animates the three-dimensional structure of the DNA molecule shown in Figure 1.15. Some cells contain aggregates of macromolecules surrounded by membranes; these are called organelles. Organelles are small structures that exist within cells. Examples of organelles include mitochondria and chloroplasts, which carry out indispensable functions: mitochondria produce energy to power the cell, while chloroplasts enable green plants to utilize the energy in sunlight to make sugars. All living things are made of cells; the cell itself is the smallest fundamental unit of structure and function in living organisms. (This requirement is why viruses are not considered living: they are not made of cells. To make new viruses, they have to invade and hijack the reproductive mechanism of a living cell; only then can they obtain the materials they need to reproduce. ) Some organisms consist of a single cell and others are multicellular. Cells are classified as prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Prokaryotes are single-celled or colonial organisms that do not have membranebound nuclei; in contrast, the cells of eukaryotes do have membrane-bound organelles and a membrane-bound nucleus. In larger organisms, cells combine to make tissues, which are groups of similar cells carrying out similar or related functions. Organs are collections of tissues grouped together performing a common function. Organs are present not only. Answer: prokaryotes", "output": [ "What are single-celled or colonial organisms that do not have membranebound nuclei?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dcc2615eff0d433f91b9559fe1fcb03f", "input": "Passage: Linnaeus classified organisms based on obvious physical traits. Basically, organisms were grouped together if they looked alike. After Darwin published his theory of evolution in the 1800s, scientists looked for a way to classify organisms that showed phylogeny. Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a group of related organisms. It is represented by a phylogenetic tree , like the one in Figure below . Answer: phylogeny", "output": [ "What is the evolutionary history of a group of related organisms called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7183e93d0efb4eadb5416a524543f07b", "input": "Passage: There are six types of quarks . In ordinary matter, virtually all quarks are of the types called up and down quarks. All quarks have mass, and they have an electric charge of either +2/3 or -1/3. For example, up quarks have a charge of +2/3, and down quarks have a charge of -1/3. Quarks also have a different type of charge, called color charge, although it has nothing to do with the colors that we see. Quarks are never found alone but instead always occur in groups of two or three quarks. Answer: color charge", "output": [ "Quarks also have a different type of charge, called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-383f137297b648a98249edbd03e7f033", "input": "Passage: 7. Compare and contrast the ecosystem concepts of niche and habitat. Answer: ecosystem", "output": [ "Niche and habitat are concepts related to what broader term?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ace420358ad44c9e91a2cd55bbea2805", "input": "Passage: Contact Between Sperm and Oocyte Upon ovulation, the oocyte released by the ovary is swept into—and along—the uterine tube. Fertilization must occur in the distal uterine tube because an unfertilized oocyte cannot survive the 72-hour journey to the uterus. As you will recall from your study of the oogenesis, this oocyte (specifically a secondary oocyte) is surrounded by two protective layers. The corona radiata is an outer layer of follicular (granulosa) cells that form around a developing oocyte in the ovary and remain with it upon ovulation. The underlying zona pellucida (pellucid = “transparent”) is a transparent, but thick, glycoprotein membrane that surrounds the cell’s plasma membrane. As it is swept along the distal uterine tube, the oocyte encounters the surviving capacitated sperm, which stream toward it in response to chemical attractants released by the cells of the corona radiata. To reach the oocyte itself, the sperm must penetrate the two protective layers. The sperm first burrow through the cells of the corona radiata. Then, upon contact with the zona pellucida, the sperm bind to receptors in the zona pellucida. This initiates a process called the acrosomal reaction in which the enzyme-filled “cap” of the sperm, called the acrosome, releases its stored digestive enzymes. These enzymes clear a path through the zona pellucida that allows sperm to reach the oocyte. Finally, a single sperm makes contact with sperm-binding receptors on the oocyte’s plasma membrane (Figure 28.2). The plasma membrane of that sperm then fuses with the oocyte’s plasma membrane, and the head and mid-piece of the “winning” sperm enter the oocyte interior. How do sperm penetrate the corona radiata? Some sperm undergo a spontaneous acrosomal reaction, which is an acrosomal reaction not triggered by contact with the zona pellucida. The digestive enzymes released by this reaction digest the extracellular matrix of the corona radiata. As you can see, the first sperm to reach the oocyte is never the one to fertilize it. Rather, hundreds of sperm cells must undergo the acrosomal reaction, each helping to degrade the corona radiata and. Answer: uterine tube", "output": [ "Upon ovulation, the oocyte released by the ovary is swept into where?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9518626648cd492a9320694e2341e3a3", "input": "Passage: Athletics are very competitive these days at all levels, from school sports to the pros. Everybody is looking for that edge that will make them faster, stronger, more physically fit. One approach taken by many athletes is the use of amino acid supplements. The theory is that the increase in amino acids in the diet will lead to increased protein for muscles. However, the only real benefit comes to the people who make and sell the pills. Studies have not showed any advantage obtained by the athletes themselves. You’re much better off just maintaining a healthy diet. Answer: a healthy diet", "output": [ "Which is the best way to maintain a strong, fit body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3ebeaac0a5394141be5247d8eec4a4ee", "input": "Passage: Volume is another way of measuring material. Gases cannot be easily weighed, but their volume can be determined quickly and accurately. Liquid chemicals as well as foods and beverages are also sold by volume. Gasoline for our cars and trucks is sold by the gallon. At the grocery store, we can buy a gallon of milk or a two-liter bottle of soda pop. Answer: material", "output": [ "Volume is another way of measuring what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c12623b7aecf4f338c61e006fd3160cb", "input": "Passage: The vagina is a tube-like structure about 9 centimeters (3.5 inches) long. It begins at the vulva and extends upward to the uterus. It has muscular walls lined with mucous membranes. The vagina has two major reproductive functions. It receives sperm during sexual intercourse, and it provides a passageway for a baby to leave the mother’s body during birth. Answer: the uterus", "output": [ "The vagina starts at the vulva and ends where?" ] }, { "id": "task594-985f70d102fa4889b091a0be825aacc7", "input": "Passage: Hinge Joint. The knee joint is a hinge joint. Like a door hinge, a hinge joint allows backward and forward movement. Answer: hinge joint", "output": [ "What type of joint is the knee joint?" ] }, { "id": "task594-165b5e3b882e4f059063e9ed7784c66d", "input": "Passage: A colloid is a homogeneous mixture with medium-sized particles. Examples include homogenized milk and gelatin. The particles of a colloid are large enough to reflect light, so you can see them. But they are too small to settle or filter out of the mixture. Answer: particles", "output": [ "A colloid is a homogeneous mixture with medium-sized what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-47b1fa864b9e4a1cb8fe2798d786d01c", "input": "Passage: 12.7 Molecular Transport Phenomena: Diffusion, Osmosis, and Related Processes Diffusion There is something fishy about the ice cube from your freezer—how did it pick up those food odors? How does soaking a sprained ankle in Epsom salt reduce swelling? The answer to these questions are related to atomic and molecular transport phenomena—another mode of fluid motion. Atoms and molecules are in constant motion at any temperature. In fluids they move about randomly even in the absence of macroscopic flow. This motion is called a random walk and is illustrated in Figure 12.20. Diffusion is the movement of substances due to random thermal molecular motion. Fluids, like fish fumes or odors entering ice cubes, can even diffuse through solids. Diffusion is a slow process over macroscopic distances. The densities of common materials are great enough that molecules cannot travel very far before having a collision that can scatter them in any direction, including straight backward. It can be shown that the average distance x rms that a molecule travels is proportional to the square root of time:. Answer: diffusion", "output": [ "What is the term for the movement of substances due to random thermal molecular motion?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4d107304a26f40d0b70b72b7d8addfe6", "input": "Passage: The continent of Antarctica is covered with an ice cap. Answer: antarctica", "output": [ "Which continent is covered with an ice cap?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e9ea55a9965c441a918c7e94d8e32977", "input": "Passage: Estimation, as used in measurement, is the process of referencing a physical quantity in terms of a calibration or reference point. All measurement devices have reference marks of some kind. Answer: estimation", "output": [ "A reference point is used in measurement to make what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cfc6ba8f0d994d30ae539ad56c9a1e92", "input": "Passage: Atoms are neither created nor destroyed during a chemical change, but are instead rearranged to yield. Answer: atoms", "output": [ "What basic units are neither created nor destroyed during a chemical change, but are instead rearranged?" ] }, { "id": "task594-00d9b953ef2b48fa956c5ed9e2eea8e2", "input": "Passage: Cancer treatments vary depending on the disease’s type and stage. Traditional approaches, including surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, and hormonal therapy, aim to remove or kill rapidly dividing cancer cells, but these strategies have their limitations. Depending on a tumor’s location, for example, cancer surgeons may be unable to remove it. Radiation and chemotherapy are difficult, and it is often impossible to target only the cancer cells. The treatments inevitably destroy healthy tissue as well. To address this, researchers are working on pharmaceuticals that can target specific proteins implicated in cancer-associated molecular pathways. Answer: healthy cells", "output": [ "Depending on a tumor’s location, for example, cancer surgeons may be unable to remove it. radiation and chemotherapy are difficult, and it is often impossible to target only the cancer cells. the treatments inevitably destroy this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9fded8a8ea974badbf3b005c2381d205", "input": "Passage: Skeletal system problems include fractures, osteoarthritis, and rickets. Answer: skeletal system", "output": [ "Fractures, osteoarthritis, and rickets are problems of which body system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-322acec9c9794227909c90419d2b72a4", "input": "Passage: One of the most familiar ocean zones is the intertidal zone. This is the narrow strip along a coastline that is covered by water at high tide and exposed to air at low tide. You can see an example of an intertidal zone in Figure below . There are plenty of nutrients and sunlight in the intertidal zone. Producers here include phytoplankton and algae. Other organisms include barnacles, snails, crabs, and mussels. They must have adaptations for the constantly changing conditions in this zone. Answer: intertidal zone", "output": [ "Which ocean zone is the narrow strip along a coastline that is covered by water at high tide and exposed to air at low tide?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2cb01b93f638451cadfe72320c91ff3b", "input": "Passage: Geologists look for oil in folded layers of rock called anticlines. Oil moves through permeable rock and is trapped by the impermeable cap rock. Answer: anticlines", "output": [ "What do you call the folded layers of rock where geologists look for oil?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2b5192ebfd034224b79753d99098b18e", "input": "Passage: Within seconds of birth, the umbilical cord is cut. Without this connection to the placenta, the baby can’t exchange gases, so carbon dioxide quickly builds up in the baby’s blood. This stimulates the baby’s brain to trigger breathing, and the newborn takes her first breath. Answer: umbilical cord", "output": [ "What structure connects the fetus to the placenta, allowing the exchange of gases?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dd05eb14aadf4a14b5c948a004c4209a", "input": "Passage: An embryo is an organism in the earliest stages of development. Embryos of different species may look quite similar, even when the adult forms look very different. Look at the drawings of embryos in Figure below . They represent very early life stages of a chicken, turtle, pig, and human being. The embryos look so similar that it’s hard to tell them apart. Such similarities provide evidence that all four types of animals are related. They help document that evolution has occurred. Answer: an embryo", "output": [ "What is defined as an organism in the earliest stages of development?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ee0f9085d64d477aa571770356d9d6e9", "input": "Passage: A drumlin is a long, low hill of sediments deposited by a glacier. Drumlins often occur in groups called drumlin fields. The narrow end of each drumlin points in the direction the glacier was moving when it dropped the sediments. Answer: a drumlin", "output": [ "What is the name of a long and low hill of sediments which have been deposited by a glacier?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c17a01a8134c4be6bf82f852971e0edd", "input": "Passage: Jupiter is the largest planet in our solar system. Jupiter is named for the king of the gods in Roman mythology. The Romans named the largest planet for their most important god. They followed the tradition of the Greeks, who had similarly named the planet Zeus. The Romans built a temple to Jupiter on the hill. Answer: jupiter", "output": [ "What is the largest planet in our solar system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ac94aa69cfd4434bb869d38e44ee31a1", "input": "Passage: Summary The concentration of a substance is the quantity of solute present in a given quantity of solution. Concentrations are usually expressed as molarity, the number of moles of solute in 1 L of solution. Solutions of known concentration can be prepared either by dissolving a known mass of solute in a solvent and diluting to a desired final volume or by diluting the appropriate volume of a more concentrated solution (a stock solution) to the desired final volume. Answer: solution", "output": [ "The concentration of a substance is the quantity of solute present in a given quantity of ___________?" ] }, { "id": "task594-36dc2cee091548c6abe517e01c501818", "input": "Passage: Courtship behaviors occur in many other species. For example, males in some species of whales have special mating songs to attract females as mates. Frogs croak for the same reason. Male deer clash antlers to court females. Male jumping spiders jump from side to side to attract mates. Answer: courtship", "output": [ "What type of behavior is frogs croaking or deer clashing antlers an example of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2f821b7f5d6e4859bb75cc7bbe98397e", "input": "Passage: A rate is a measure of how some property varies with time. Speed is a familiar rate that expresses the distance traveled by an object in a given amount of time. Wage is a rate that represents the amount of money earned by a person working for a given amount of time. Likewise, the rate of a chemical reaction is a measure of how much reactant is consumed, or how much product is produced, by the reaction in a given amount of time. The rate of reaction is the change in the amount of a reactant or product per unit time. Reaction rates are therefore determined by measuring the time dependence of some property that can be related to reactant or product amounts. Rates of reactions that consume or produce gaseous substances, for example, are conveniently determined by measuring changes in volume or pressure. For reactions involving one or more colored substances, rates may be monitored via measurements of light absorption. For reactions involving aqueous electrolytes, rates may be measured via changes in a solution’s conductivity. For reactants and products in solution, their relative amounts (concentrations) are conveniently used for purposes of expressing reaction rates. If we measure the concentration of hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, in an aqueous solution, we find that it changes slowly over time as the H2O2 decomposes, according to the equation: 2H 2 O 2(aq) ⟶ 2H 2 O(l) + O 2(g) The rate at which the hydrogen peroxide decomposes can be expressed in terms of the rate of change of its concentration, as shown here: change in concentration of reactant time interval ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ − ⎣H 2 O 2⎦ t ⎣H 2 O 2⎦ t 1 2 = − t2 − t1. Answer: property to time", "output": [ "What kind of variation does a rate measure?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a77d288043ad442588d901bda5724ad7", "input": "Passage: All life relies on a relatively narrow range of pH, or acidity. That’s because protein structure and function are very sensitive to pH. Air pollution can cause precipitation to become acidic. Nitrogen and sulfur oxides, mainly from motor vehicle exhaust and coal burning, create acids when they combine with water in the air. The acids lower the pH of precipitation, forming acid rain . If acid rain falls on the ground, it may damage soil and soil organisms. If it falls on plants, it may kill them (see Figure below ). If it falls into lakes, it lowers the pH of the water and kills aquatic organisms. Answer: acid rain", "output": [ "When the ph of precipitation is lowered because of air pollution, what results?" ] }, { "id": "task594-04af6b2aa1054b22bde8600b7703932f", "input": "Passage: All materials have some resistance, but certain materials resist the flow of electric current more or less than other materials do. Materials such as plastics have high resistance to electric current. They are called electric insulators. Materials such as metals have low resistance to electric current. They are called electric conductors. Answer: electric conductors", "output": [ "Materials such as metals have low resistance to electric current, what are they called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ea6a1d93a3f841339bc804620a70579b", "input": "Passage: The pancreas is located near the stomach. Its hormones include insulin and glucagon. These two hormones work together to control the level of glucose in the blood. Insulin causes excess blood glucose to be taken up by the liver, which stores the glucose as glycogen. Glucagon stimulates the liver to break down glycogen into glucose and release it back into the blood. The pancreas also secretes digestive enzymes into the digestive tract. Answer: insulin and glucagon", "output": [ "Which hormones work together to control the level of glucose in the blood?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f2b4091f777941d88def059ff4daf159", "input": "Passage: You have learned that a covalent bond forms when the electron clouds of two atoms overlap with each other. In a simple H 2 molecule, the single electron in each atom becomes attracted to the nucleus of the other atom in the molecule as the atoms come closer together. An optimum distance, equal to the bond length, is eventually attained, and the potential energy reaches a minimum. A stable, single covalent bond has formed between the two hydrogen atoms. Other covalent bonds form in the same way as unpaired electrons from two atoms “match up” to form the bond. In a fluorine atom, there is an unpaired electron in one of the 2p orbitals. When a F 2 molecule forms, the 2p orbitals from each of the two atoms overlap to produce the F−F covalent bond. The overlapping orbitals do not have to be of the same type. In a molecule of HF, the 1s orbital of the hydrogen atom overlaps with the 2p orbital of the fluorine atom (see Figure below ). Answer: covalent bond", "output": [ "What type of bond forms by unpaired electrons from two atoms \"matching up\"?" ] }, { "id": "task594-434d0052e67c461bbfa7d993b15bd9e5", "input": "Passage: Chemicals that are applied to farm fields include fertilizers and pesticides. Excess chemicals can be picked up by rainwater. The chemicals can end up in streams, ponds, lakes, or the ocean. Dissolved fertilizer causes tremendous numbers of water plants and algae to grow. This can lead to dead zones where nothing can live in lakes or the coastal oceans. Answer: dead zone", "output": [ "Dissolved fertilizer can ultimately lead to the creation of what in lakes or coastal oceans, which means a place where nothing can live?" ] }, { "id": "task594-65ccc1f3fc44441f8780f682f4c21714", "input": "Passage: Urea Cycle The urea cycle is a set of biochemical reactions that produces urea from ammonium ions in order to prevent a toxic level of ammonium in the body. It occurs primarily in the liver and, to a lesser extent, in the kidney. Prior to the urea cycle, ammonium ions are produced from the breakdown of amino acids. In these reactions, an amine group, or ammonium ion, from the amino acid is exchanged with a keto group on another molecule. This transamination event creates a molecule that is necessary for the Krebs cycle and an ammonium ion that enters into the urea cycle to be eliminated. In the urea cycle, ammonium is combined with CO2, resulting in urea and water. The urea is eliminated through the kidneys in the urine (Figure 24.18). Answer: liver", "output": [ "The urea cycle, a set of biochemical reactions that produces urea from ammonium ions to prevent toxicity, occurs to some extent in the kidney, but primarily in what organ?" ] }, { "id": "task594-29bc4a9b68ea405ab4d91f4c44e35cd9", "input": "Passage: The suprahyoid muscles raise the hyoid bone, the floor of the mouth, and the larynx during deglutition. These include the digastric muscle, which has anterior and posterior bellies that work to elevate the hyoid bone and larynx when one swallows; it also depresses the mandible. The stylohyoid muscle moves the hyoid bone posteriorly, elevating the larynx,. Answer: suprahyoid", "output": [ "Which muscles raise the hyoid bone, the floor of the mouth, and the larynx during deglutition?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c50e9537efc344f7a331584a5a3096ce", "input": "Passage: Chemists need to be concerned with the rates at which chemical reactions occur. Rate is another word for speed. If a sprinter takes 11.0 s to run a 100 m dash, his rate or speed is given by the distance traveled divided by the time. Answer: rate", "output": [ "Distance traveled divided by time yields what measurement, which is another word used to describe the speed of a chemical reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1705c06b68b54bf9b4fd30c26a7a2870", "input": "Passage: Animals and most plants have two special chromosomes. They are called sex chromosomes . These are chromosomes that determine the sex of the organism. All of the other chromosomes are called autosomes . Genes on sex chromosomes may be inherited differently than genes on autosomes. Answer: autsomes", "output": [ "What term describes all but the sex chromosomes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-04008f66e68347148486b47f806a2ec5", "input": "Passage: Stems are needed for transport and storage. Their vascular tissue carries water and minerals from roots to leaves. It carries dissolved sugar from the leaves to the rest of the plant. Without this connection between roots and leaves, plants could not survive high above the ground in the air. In many plants, ground tissue in stems also stores food or water during cold or dry seasons. Answer: stems", "output": [ "What part of the plant, in general, is responsible for transport and storage of water and minerals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c69749cfbf77434cb051fe38b02ad729", "input": "Passage: A heat wave over the United States as indicated by heat radiated from the ground. The bright yellow areas are the hottest, and the blue and white are coolest. Answer: bright yellow", "output": [ "In a heat map, what color represents the hottest temperatures?" ] }, { "id": "task594-43b1136e07684f8f9c4c770bd389356f", "input": "Passage: Carbon dioxide molecules consist of a central carbon atom bonded to 2 oxygen atoms. Answer: two", "output": [ "Carbon dioxide molecules consist of a central carbon atom bonded to how many oxygen atoms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-34ad56d2f3a945358b8eddc76ea6f97d", "input": "Passage: Solubility There is usually a limit to how much solute will dissolve in a given amount of solvent. This limit is called the solubility of the solute. Some solutes have a very small solubility, while other solutes are soluble in all proportions. Table 9.2 \"Solubilities of Various Solutes in Water at 25°C (Except as Noted)\" lists the solubilities of various solutes in water. Solubilities vary with temperature, so Table 9.2 \"Solubilities of Various Solutes in Water at 25°C (Except as Noted)\" includes the temperature at which the solubility was determined. Table 9.2 Solubilities of Various Solutes in Water at 25°C (Except as Noted). Answer: solubility", "output": [ "The limit to how much solute will dissolve in a given amount of solvent is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-24612d8a6c9045b4a9d6ef0d8cd8fb0f", "input": "Passage: Habitats Although fungi are primarily associated with humid and cool environments that provide a supply of organic matter, they colonize a surprising diversity of habitats, from seawater to human skin and mucous membranes. Chytrids are found primarily in aquatic environments. Other fungi, such as Coccidioides immitis, which causes pneumonia when its spores are inhaled, thrive in the dry and sandy soil of the southwestern United States. Fungi that parasitize coral reefs live in the ocean. However, most members of the Kingdom Fungi grow on the forest floor, where the dark and damp environment is rich. Answer: fungi", "output": [ "Most members of what kingdom of spore-making organisms grow on the forest floor, where the dark and damp environment is rich?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fe141abcf2174ce189b5d56868473412", "input": "Passage: There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum. They are called rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). Both types are shown in Figure below . Answer: rough & smooth", "output": [ "What are the two types of endoplasmic reticulum?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e132b9f564f84f4d96e2dd1947c9a9e5", "input": "Passage: Bacteria are often used to make cheese from milk. But making foods is not the only beneficial role of bacteria. For example, they also play an essential role in your gut!. Answer: milk", "output": [ "Bacteria are often used to make cheese from what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7c16fcfafebd40adb9777bf51b89860f", "input": "Passage: Summary The atoms in chemical compounds are held together by attractive electrostatic interactions known as chemical bonds. Ionic compounds contain positively and negatively charged ions in a ratio that results in an overall charge of zero. The ions are held together in a regular spatial arrangement by electrostatic forces. Mostcovalent compounds consist of molecules, groups of atoms in which one or more pairs of electrons are shared by at least two atoms to form a covalent bond. The atoms in molecules are held together by the electrostatic attractionbetween the positively charged nuclei of the bonded atoms and the negatively charged electrons shared by the nuclei. The molecular formula of a covalent compound gives the types and numbers of atoms present. Compounds that contain predominantly carbon and hydrogen are called organic compounds, whereas compounds that consist primarily of elements other than carbon and hydrogen areinorganic compounds. Diatomic molecules contain two atoms, andpolyatomic molecules contain more than two. A structural formula indicates the composition and approximate structure and shape of a molecule. Single bonds, double bonds, and triple bonds are covalent bonds in which one, two, and three pairs of electrons, respectively, are shared between two Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: ionic compounds", "output": [ "What kind of compounds contain positively and negatively charged ions in a ratio that results in an overall charge of zero?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d7e9ebf8e5a0489cab63e27707d4eaf7", "input": "Passage: Dislocations, Deformations, and Work Hardening Inserting an extra plane of atoms into a crystal lattice produces an edge dislocation. A familiar example of an edge dislocation occurs when an ear of corn contains an extra row of kernels between the other rows (). An edge dislocation in a crystal causes the planes of atoms in the lattice to deform where the extra plane of atoms begins (). The edge dislocation frequently determines whether the entire solid will deform and fail under stress. Deformation occurs when a dislocation moves through a crystal. To illustrate the process, suppose you have a heavy rug that is lying a few inches off-center on a nonskid pad. To move the rug to its proper place, you could pick up one end and pull it. Because of the large area of contact between the rug and the pad, however, they will probably move as a unit. Alternatively, you could pick up the rug and try to set it back down exactly where you want it, but that requires a great deal of effort (and probably at least one extra person). An easier solution is to create a small wrinkle at one end of the rug (an edge dislocation) and gradually push the wrinkle across, resulting in a net movement of the rug as a whole (part (a) in ). Moving the wrinkle requires only a small amount of energy because only a small part of the rug is actually moving at any one time. Similarly, in a solid, the contacts between layers are broken in only one place at a time, which facilitates the deformation process. Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: edge dislocation", "output": [ "Inserting an extra plane of atoms into a crystal lattice produces what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6bf7a276cc4c49158f29e71199e5f686", "input": "Passage: Protein A large part of protein digestion takes place in the stomach. The enzyme pepsin plays an important role in the digestion of proteins by breaking down the intact protein to peptides, which are short chains of four to nine amino acids. In the duodenum, other enzymes— trypsin, elastase, and chymotrypsin—act on the peptides reducing them to smaller peptides. Trypsin elastase, carboxypeptidase, and chymotrypsin are produced by the pancreas and released into the duodenum where they act on the chyme. Further breakdown of peptides to single amino acids is aided by enzymes called peptidases (those that break down peptides). Specifically, carboxypeptidase, dipeptidase, and aminopeptidase play important roles in reducing the peptides to free amino acids. The amino acids are absorbed into the bloodstream through the small intestines. The steps in protein digestion are summarized in Figure 34.17 and Table 34.6. Answer: peptides", "output": [ "The enzyme pepsin plays an important role in the digestion of proteins by breaking down intact protein to what short-chain amino acids?" ] }, { "id": "task594-29bb7776e19b4ba4b0ee1d0f6ab1528f", "input": "Passage: Vectors that are in two dimensions are added geometrically. Answer: geometrically", "output": [ "How do you add two dimensional vectors?" ] }, { "id": "task594-df0eb07fb7354feda0ba6ba171014f1e", "input": "Passage: Oxidation-reduction reactions are of central importance in organic chemistry and biochemistry. The burning of fuels that provides the energy to maintain our civilization and the metabolism of foods that furnish the energy that keeps us alive both involve redox reactions. All combustion reactions are also redox reactions. A typical combustion reaction is the burning of methane, the principal component of natural gas (Figure 5.5 \"The Burning of Natural Gas\"). CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O In respiration, the biochemical process by which the oxygen we inhale in air oxidizes foodstuffs to carbon dioxide and water, redox reactions provide energy to living cells. A typical respiratory reaction is the oxidation of glucose (C6H12O6), the simple sugar we encountered in the chapter-opening essay that makes up the diet of yeast: C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O Organic chemists use a variety of redox reactions. For example, potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) is a common oxidizing agent that can be used to oxidize alcohols (symbolized. Answer: potassium dichromate", "output": [ "Which common oxidizing agent can be used to oxidize alcohols?" ] }, { "id": "task594-26107b04d31a456f967509fe3b279c50", "input": "Passage: Gluons ( g ) are the proposed carrier particles for the strong nuclear force, although they are not directly observed. Like quarks, gluons may be confined to systems having a total color of white. Less is known about gluons than the fact that they are the carriers of the weak and certainly of the electromagnetic force. QCD theory calls for eight gluons, all massless and all spin 1. Six of the gluons carry a color and an anticolor, while two do not carry color, as illustrated in Figure 33.22(a). There is indirect evidence of the existence of gluons in nucleons. When high-energy electrons are scattered from nucleons and evidence of quarks is seen, the momenta of the quarks are smaller than they would be if there were no gluons. That means that the gluons carrying force between quarks also carry some momentum, inferred by the already indirect quark momentum measurements. At any rate, the gluons carry color charge and can change the colors of quarks when exchanged, as seen in Figure 33.22(b). In the figure, a red down quark interacts with a green strange quark by sending it a gluon. That gluon carries red away from the down. Answer: white", "output": [ "Like quarks, gluons may be confined to systems having a total color of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b6eb17b0504047d0ae9c115d5f1f1882", "input": "Passage: The mouth is the first digestive organ that food enters. The sight, smell, or taste of food stimulates the release of digestive enzymes by salivary glands inside the mouth. The major salivary enzyme is amylase. It begins the chemical digestion of carbohydrates by breaking down starch into sugar. Answer: amylase", "output": [ "The major salivary enzyme is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7f0242428f004ecf8a06e5c22449b494", "input": "Passage: Early induced Proteins Early induced proteins are those that are not constitutively present in the body, but are made as they are needed early during the innate immune response. Interferons are an example of early induced proteins. Cells infected with viruses secrete interferons that travel to adjacent cells and induce them to make antiviral proteins. Thus, even though the initial cell is sacrificed, the surrounding cells are protected. Other early induced proteins specific for bacterial cell wall components are mannose-binding protein and C-reactive protein, made in the liver, which bind specifically to polysaccharide components of the bacterial cell wall. Phagocytes such as macrophages have receptors for these proteins, and they are thus able to recognize them as they are bound to the bacteria. This brings the phagocyte and bacterium into close proximity and enhances the phagocytosis of the bacterium by the process known as opsonization. Opsonization is the tagging of a pathogen for phagocytosis by the binding of an antibody or an antimicrobial protein. Answer: interferons", "output": [ "Cells infected with viruses secrete what example of early induced proteins, which travel to adjacent cells and induce them to make antiviral proteins, a sacrifice that protects the surrounding cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-80f87e3ebb1941b3ad619607956bbb6b", "input": "Passage: Because of the link between high levels of cholesterol and heart disease, it is commonly seen by the general public as a “bad” molecule. However, cholesterol plays a vital role in the body, as both a structural component of cell membranes and a metabolic precursor to various steroid hormones. Only about 30% of the cholesterol in our bodies comes from our diet; the rest is synthesized in the liver, intestines, adrenal glands, and reproductive organs. The same acetyl CoA molecule that provides biochemical energy can also be used by the body to synthesize cholesterol. There are approximately twenty-two steps involved in the formation of cholesterol from acetyl CoA. Answer: acetyl coa", "output": [ "What molecule can be used by the body to synthesize cholesterol ?" ] }, { "id": "task594-15324ec16598489eb8d3cbbaa65dc5c6", "input": "Passage: As a child, you may have made suspensions such as mixtures of mud and water, flour and water, or a suspension of solid pigments in water, known as tempera paint. These suspensions are heterogeneous mixtures composed of relatively large particles that are visible (or that can be seen with a magnifying glass). They are cloudy, and the suspended particles settle out after mixing. On the other hand, when we make a solution, we prepare a homogeneous mixture in which no settling occurs and in which the dissolved species are molecules or ions. Solutions exhibit completely different behavior from suspensions. A solution may be colored, but it is transparent, the molecules or ions are invisible, and they do not settle out on standing. A group of mixtures called colloids (or colloidal dispersions) exhibit properties intermediate between those of suspensions and solutions (Figure 11.30). The particles in a colloid are larger than most simple molecules; however, colloidal particles are small enough that they do not settle out upon standing. Answer: homogeneous", "output": [ "Distinct from a suspension, a solution is considered what type of mixture?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6cb2dbd8b8fe4a4ba4bf629279f08587", "input": "Passage: The model of an atom in Figure below has six energy levels. The level with the least energy is the one closest to the nucleus. As you go farther from the nucleus, the levels have more and more energy. Electrons can jump from one energy level to another. If an atom absorbs energy, some of its electrons can jump to a higher energy level. If electrons jump to a lower energy level, the atom emits, or gives off, energy. You can see an animation at this happening at the URL below. Answer: nucleus", "output": [ "In a model of an atom, the level with the least energy is the one closest to what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5fef5ba767af49efaf0bf8f99d895628", "input": "Passage: When compounds are synthesized, they often have contaminating materials mixed in with them. The process of recrystallization can be used to remove these impurities. The crystals are dissolved in a hot solvent, forming a solution. When the solvent is cooled the compound is no longer as soluble and will precipitate out of solution, leaving other materials still dissolved. Answer: contaminants", "output": [ "Recrystallization is a process that can remove what, which result when compounds are synthesized?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ea650481834046049bd904e0683c82fd", "input": "Passage: The human brain is an amazing organ. It is the most complex organ in the human body. By adulthood, the brain weighs about 3 pounds and consists of billions of neurons. All those cells need a lot of energy. In fact, the adult brain uses almost a quarter of the total energy used by the body!. Answer: brain", "output": [ "What is the most complex organ in the human body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-00d940e5187a4a4fa533333b0844003e", "input": "Passage: Earth is a round, three-dimensional ball. In a small area, Earth looks flat, so it is not hard to make accurate maps of a small place. When mapmakers want to map the round Earth on flat paper, they use projections. What happens if you try to flatten out the skin of a peeled orange? Or if you try to gift wrap a soccer ball? To flatten out, the orange peel must rip, and its shape must become distorted. To wrap a round object with flat paper requires lots of extra cuts and folds. A projection is a way to represent Earth’s curved surface on flat paper ( Figure below ). Answer: projections", "output": [ "What method is used to map the earth on flat paper?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f47895dfbc064160be150cf686edd2f5", "input": "Passage: Energy is absorbed in the process of converting a liquid at its boiling point into a gas. As with the melting of a solid, the temperature of a boiling liquid remains constant and the input of energy goes into changing the state. The molar heat of vaporization of a substance is the heat absorbed by one mole of that substance as it is converted from a liquid to a gas. As a gas condenses to a liquid, heat is released. The molar heat of condensation of a substance is the heat released by one mole of that substance as it is converted from a gas to a liquid. Since vaporization and condensation of a given substance are the exact opposite processes, the numerical value of the molar heat of vaporization is the same as the numerical value of the molar heat of condensation, but opposite in sign. In other words, . Answer: gas", "output": [ "Energy is absorbed in the process of converting a liquid at its boiling point into a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-38c33821887c415faa62b44c276736f0", "input": "Passage: Non-steroid hormones are made of amino acids. They are not fat soluble, so they cannot diffuse across the plasma membrane of target cells. Instead, a non-steroid hormone binds to a receptor on the cell membrane (see Figure below ). The binding of the hormone triggers an enzyme inside the cell membrane. The enzyme activates another molecule, called the second messenger, which influences processes inside the cell. Most endocrine hormones are non-steroid hormones, including insulin and thyroid hormones. Answer: amino acids", "output": [ "What are non-steroid hormones made of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6e3419b5dcb9437db4ffc9a4a8454d37", "input": "Passage: 22.4 Bacterial Diseases in Humans Devastating diseases and plagues have been among us since early times. There are records about microbial diseases as far back as 3000 B. Infectious diseases remain among the leading causes of death worldwide. Emerging diseases are those rapidly increasing in incidence or geographic range. They can be new or re-emerging diseases (previously under control). Many emerging diseases affecting humans, such as brucellosis, are zoonoses. The WHO has identified a group of diseases whose re-emergence should be monitored: Those caused by bacteria include bubonic plague, diphtheria, and cholera. Biofilms are considered responsible for diseases such as bacterial infections in patients with cystic fibrosis, Legionnaires’ disease, and otitis media. They produce dental plaque; colonize catheters, prostheses, transcutaneous, and orthopedic devices; and infect contact lenses, open wounds, and burned tissue. Biofilms also produce foodborne diseases because they colonize the surfaces of food and food-processing equipment. Biofilms are resistant to most of the methods used to control microbial growth. The excessive use of antibiotics has resulted in a major global problem, since resistant forms of bacteria have been selected over time. A very dangerous strain, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), has wreaked havoc recently. Foodborne diseases result from the consumption of contaminated food, pathogenic bacteria, viruses, or parasites that contaminate food. Answer: foodborne diseases", "output": [ "What results from the consumption of pathogenic bacteria, viruses, or parasites that contaminate food?" ] }, { "id": "task594-82cee6682f264770a3f0f412bce77a88", "input": "Passage: Freely available amino acids are used to create proteins. If amino acids exist in excess, the body has no capacity or mechanism for their storage; thus, they are converted into glucose or ketones, or they are decomposed. Amino acid decomposition results in hydrocarbons and nitrogenous waste. However, high concentrations of nitrogen are toxic. The urea cycle processes nitrogen and facilitates its excretion from the body. Answer: nitrogen", "output": [ "What does the urea cycle process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e3399201d12d4193a471cb1672167bf4", "input": "Passage: Interspecific competition happens when individuals of different species strive for a limited resource in the same area. Since any two species have different traits, one species will be able to out-compete the other. One species will be better adapted to its environment, and essentially \"win\" the competition. The other species will have lower reproductive success and lower population growth, resulting in a lower survival rate. For example, cheetahs and lions feed on similar prey. If prey is limited, then lions may catch more prey than cheetahs. This will force the cheetahs to either leave the area or suffer a decrease in population. Answer: interspecific competition", "output": [ "What occurs when individuals of different species strive for a limited resource in the same area?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a083cb8cebdc42e4a06776c8429d1dd4", "input": "Passage: Your body’s first line of defense is like a castle’s moat and walls. It keeps most pathogens out of your body. The first line of defense includes physical, chemical, and biological barriers. Answer: to keep out pathogens", "output": [ "What is the purpose of your body's first line of defense?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a4416db6507f4acdbcdb3e3efc67b6fc", "input": "Passage: Nonliving things can also be damaged by radiation. For example, high levels of radiation can remove electrons from metals. This may weaken metals in nuclear power plants and space vehicles, both of which are exposed to very high levels of radiation. Answer: metals", "output": [ "High levels of radiation can remove electrons from?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9e0385c4d4a047ac8fbc0643c93d1af7", "input": "Passage: To see an animation of the lifecycle of a fern and to test your knowledge, go to the website (http://openstaxcollege. org/ l/fern_life_cycle) . Most ferns produce the same type of spores and are therefore homosporous. The diploid sporophyte is the most conspicuous stage of the lifecycle. On the underside of its mature fronds, sori (singular, sorus) form as small clusters where sporangia develop (Figure 25.23). Answer: homosporous", "output": [ "Most ferns produce the same type of spores and are therefore called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2b1869ff9a5244c1abbc83e9292946c5", "input": "Passage: Structures in the dermis include hair follicles and sebaceous glands, which produce sebum. Answer: sebum", "output": [ "What is produced by the sebaceous glands?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f7b31cd1dd5f4d2da8238c5d963722df", "input": "Passage: Communication is any way that animals share information. For animals that live in social groups, communication is essential. Animals may use a range of senses for communicating. The most important way that humans communicate is with language. Answer: information", "output": [ "Communication is any way that animals share what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-505ea1eb06e0476b9cb0217a58dc489b", "input": "Passage: Your heart pumps blood around your body. But how does your heart get blood to and from every cell in your body? Your heart is connected to blood vessels such as veins and arteries. Organs that work together form an organ system . Together, your heart, blood, and blood vessels form your cardiovascular system . Answer: cardiovascular system", "output": [ "What organ system is comprised of your heart, blood, and blood vessels all working together?" ] }, { "id": "task594-003e65208c48431cbdcab5956a5585ce", "input": "Passage: Science is a process of knowing about the natural universe through observation and experiment. Answer: observation and experimentation", "output": [ "Science is a process of knowing about the natural universe through what two actions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f0bae24eba1641f6944609c426b22fb5", "input": "Passage: Lignin is a tough carbohydrate molecule that is hydrophobic (“water fearing”). It adds support to vascular tissues in stems. It also waterproofs the tissues so they don’t leak, which makes them more efficient at transporting fluids. Because most other organisms cannot break down lignin, it helps protect plants from herbivores and parasites. Answer: water", "output": [ "Things that are hydrophobic repel or otherwise don't really mix with what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6051293face04d76a2fc1cfce46cbb2a", "input": "Passage: All of the land drained by a river system is called its basin, or watershed. One river system’s basin is separated from another river system’s basin by a divide. The divide is created by the highest points between the two river basins. Precipitation that falls within a river basin always flows toward that river. Precipitation that falls on the other side of the divide flows toward a different river. Answer: watershed", "output": [ "All of the land drained by a river system is called its basin, or what \"wet\" term?" ] }, { "id": "task594-899aa2b074bb4a0babdc99095c0ab520", "input": "Passage: 22.0.6 Phylogeny, Cladistics & Cladogram Modern taxonomy is based on many hypotheses' of the evolutionary history of organisms, known as phylogeny. As with the Scientific Method, scientists develop a hypothesis on the history of an animal and utilise modern science and technology to prove the phylogeny. Cladistics is a classification system which is based on phylogeny. Expanding on phylogeny, cladistics is based on the assumption that each group of related species has one common ancestor and would therefore retain some ancestral characteristics. Moreover, as these related species evolve and diverge from their common ancestor, they would develop unique characteristics. Such characteristics are known as derived characteristics The principles of phylogeny and cladistics can be expressed visually as a cladogram, a branching diagram which acts as a family (phylogenetic) tree for similar species. A cladogram can also be used to test alternative hypotheses for an animal's phylogeny. In order to determine the most likely cladogram, the derived characteristics of similar species are matched and analysed. Answer: phylogeny", "output": [ "Modern taxonomy is based on many hypotheses' of the evolutionary history of organisms, known as this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-46279a7a50474a1f9e18421660362fbb", "input": "Passage: The digestive system has three main functions: digestion of food, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of solid food waste. Digestion is the process of breaking down food into components the body can absorb. It consists of two types of processes: mechanical digestion and chemical digestion. Answer: digestion", "output": [ "What is the process of breaking down food into components the body can absorb called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d20bd3a0db454736b63fe549747d5a98", "input": "Passage: Visit this website (http://openstaxcollege. org/l/embryo_fetus2) to see the stages of human fetal development. Labor is the muscular contractions to expel the fetus and placenta from the uterus. Toward the end of the third trimester, estrogen causes receptors on the uterine wall to develop and bind the hormone oxytocin. At this time, the baby reorients, facing forward and down with the back or crown of the head engaging the cervix (uterine opening). This causes the cervix to stretch and nerve impulses are sent to the hypothalamus, which signals the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary. Oxytocin causes smooth muscle in the uterine wall to contract. At the same time, the placenta releases prostaglandins into the uterus, increasing the contractions. A positive feedback relay occurs between the uterus, hypothalamus, and the posterior pituitary to assure an adequate supply of oxytocin. As more smooth muscle cells are recruited, the contractions increase in intensity and force. There are three stages to labor. During stage one, the cervix thins and dilates. This is necessary for the baby and placenta to be expelled during birth. The cervix will eventually dilate to about 10 cm. During stage two, the baby is expelled from the uterus. The uterus contracts and the mother pushes as she compresses her abdominal muscles to aid the delivery. The last stage is the passage of the placenta after the baby has been born and the organ has completely disengaged from the uterine wall. If labor should stop before stage two is reached, synthetic oxytocin, known as Pitocin, can be administered to restart and maintain labor. Answer: uterus", "output": [ "Labor is the muscular contractions to expel the fetus and placenta from where?" ] }, { "id": "task594-08c13837644a443cab6d5216f289c7fe", "input": "Passage: To prepare coal for use, the coal is first crushed into powder and burned in a furnace. Like other fuels, coal releases most of its energy as heat when it burns. The heat from the burning coal is used to boil water. This makes steam. The steam spins turbines, which creates electricity. Answer: when burning", "output": [ "When does coal release most of its energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3a4f23e219504aca80d4b26c57002440", "input": "Passage: Plants are a large and varied group of organisms. There are close to 300,000 species of catalogued plants. Of these, about 260,000 are plants that produce seeds. Mosses, ferns, conifers, and flowering plants are all members of the plant kingdom. The plant kingdom contains mostly photosynthetic organisms; a few parasitic forms have lost the ability to photosynthesize. The process of photosynthesis uses chlorophyll, which is located in organelles called chloroplasts. Plants possess cell walls containing cellulose. Most plants reproduce sexually, but they also have diverse methods of asexual reproduction. Plants exhibit indeterminate growth, meaning they do not have a final body form, but continue to grow body mass until they die. Answer: chloroplasts", "output": [ "The process of photosynthesis uses chlorophyll, which is located in organelles called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c07ce53e37854371ab23ab4ec55a398b", "input": "Passage: There are two major types of seismic waves. Body waves travel through the Earth’s interior. Surface waves travel along the ground surface. In an earthquake, body waves are responsible for the sharp jolts. Surface waves are responsible for the rolling motions that do most of the damage in an earthquake. Answer: surface waves", "output": [ "What are the rolling motions during an earthquake called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e9cbd1c44b1247599e1f49ebe25ccbbf", "input": "Passage: Development of the Vertebral Column and Thoracic cage Development of the vertebrae begins with the accumulation of mesenchyme cells from each sclerotome around the notochord. These cells differentiate into a hyaline cartilage model for each vertebra, which then grow and eventually ossify into bone through the process of endochondral ossification. As the developing vertebrae grow, the notochord largely disappears. However, small areas of notochord tissue persist between the adjacent vertebrae and this contributes to the formation of each intervertebral disc. The ribs and sternum also develop from mesenchyme. The ribs initially develop as part of the cartilage model for each vertebra, but in the thorax region, the rib portion separates from the vertebra by the eighth week. The cartilage model of the rib then ossifies, except for the anterior portion, which remains as the costal cartilage. The sternum initially forms as paired hyaline cartilage models on either side of the anterior midline, beginning during the fifth week of development. The cartilage models of the ribs become attached to the lateral sides of the developing sternum. Eventually, the two halves of the cartilaginous sternum fuse together along the midline and then ossify into bone. The manubrium and body of the sternum are converted into bone first, with the xiphoid process remaining as cartilage until late in life. Answer: mesenchyme cells", "output": [ "The accumulation of what cells begin the development of the vertebral column and thoracic cage?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0495d695c801416db632b3c3ecab113c", "input": "Passage: Plaque buildup in an artery reduces blood flow through the vessel. Answer: plaque", "output": [ "What builds up in an artery and reduces blood flow?" ] }, { "id": "task594-08bf163c1ac34e5a915262e8ae6caed2", "input": "Passage: Some elements have been known for centuries (gold, silver, iron, copper, among others) while others have been created in the lab only within the last several years. Most elements do not exist as such in nature. They are so reactive that they can be found only in combination with other materials. Answer: condensation", "output": [ "What is the term for the process in which water vapor changes to tiny droplets of liquid water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4a9105a2f2ef467ead37173c58cdd67a", "input": "Passage: carbon fiber–epoxy and boron fiber–epoxy composites. Compared with metals, these materials are 25%– 50% lighter and thus reduce operating costs. Similarly, the space shuttle payload bay doors and panels are made of a carbon fiber–epoxy composite. The structure of the Boeing 787 has been described as essentially one giant macromolecule, where everything is fastened through cross-linked chemical bonds reinforced with carbon fiber. Metal-matrix composites consist of metals or metal alloys reinforced with fibers. They offer significant advantages for high-temperature applications but pose major manufacturing challenges. For example, obtaining a uniform distribution and alignment of the reinforcing fibers can be difficult, and because organic polymers cannot survive the high temperatures of molten metals, only fibers composed of boron, carbon, or ceramic (such as silicon carbide) can be used. Aluminum alloys reinforced with boron fibers are used in the aerospace industry, where their strength and lightweight properties make up for their relatively high cost. The skins of hypersonic aircraft and structural units in the space shuttle are made of metal-matrix composites. Ceramic-matrix composites contain ceramic fibers in a ceramic matrix material. A typical example is alumina reinforced with silicon carbide fibers. Combining the two very high-melting-point materials results in a composite that has excellent thermal stability, great strength, and corrosion resistance, while the SiC fibers reduce brittleness and cracking. Consequently, these materials are used in very hightemperature applications, such as the leading edge of wings of hypersonic airplanes and jet engine parts. They are also used in the protective ceramic tiles on the space shuttle, which contain short fibers of pure SiO2 mixed with fibers of an aluminum–boron–silicate ceramic. These tiles are excellent thermal insulators and extremely light (their density is only about 0.2 g/cm3). Although their surface reaches a temperature of about 1250°C during reentry into Earth’s atmosphere, the temperature of the underlying aluminum alloy skin stays below 200°C. Answer: carbon fiber", "output": [ "The structure of the boeing 787 has been described as essentially one giant macromolecule, where everything is fastened through cross-linked chemical bonds reinforced with this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-013abce5e270439a8068f35dbd505120", "input": "Passage: Pressure is given in units of millimeters of mercury. We can either convert this to atmospheres or use the value of the ideal gas constant that includes the mmHg unit. We will take the second option. Substituting into the ideal gas law,. Answer: pressure", "output": [ "What property of certain states of matter can be given in units of millimeters of mercury?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c748b41a85c940f7aa9e0503c7c697fc", "input": "Passage: Hadrons and Leptons Particles can also be revealingly grouped according to what forces they feel between them. All particles (even those that are massless) are affected by gravity, since gravity affects the space and time in which particles exist. All charged particles are affected by the electromagnetic force, as are neutral particles that have an internal distribution of charge (such as the neutron with its magnetic moment). Special names are given to particles that feel the strong and weak nuclear forces. Hadrons are particles that feel the strong nuclear force, whereas leptons are particles that do not. The proton, neutron, and the pions are examples of hadrons. The electron, positron, muons, and neutrinos are examples of leptons, the name meaning low mass. Leptons feel the weak nuclear force. In fact, all particles feel the weak nuclear force. This means that hadrons are distinguished by being able to feel both the strong and weak nuclear forces. Table 33.2 lists the characteristics of some of the most important subatomic particles, including the directly observed carrier particles for the electromagnetic and weak nuclear forces, all leptons, and some hadrons. Several hints related to an underlying substructure emerge from an examination of these particle characteristics. Note that the carrier particles are called gauge bosons. First mentioned in Patterns in Spectra Reveal More Quantization, a boson is a particle with zero or an integer value of intrinsic spin (such as s = 0, 1, 2, . ), whereas a fermion is a particle with a half-integer value of intrinsic spin (. Answer: hadrons", "output": [ "What are particles that feel the strong nuclear force called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-65a7001421ac477db7153be73a6ccedc", "input": "Passage: An electromagnetic wave is a wave that consists of vibrating electric and magnetic fields. A familiar example will help you understand the fields that make up an electromagnetic wave. Think about a common bar magnet. It exerts magnetic force in an area surrounding it, called the magnetic field. You can see the magnetic field of a bar magnet in Figure below . Because of this force field, a magnet can exert force on objects without touching them. They just have to be in its magnetic field. An electric field is similar to a magnetic field (see Figure below ). An electric field is an area of electrical force surrounding a charged particle. Like a magnetic field, an electric field can exert force on objects over a distance without actually touching them. Answer: electromagnetic wave", "output": [ "A wave that consists of vibrating electric and magnetic fields is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d21e3de2887243df9c8b942879ce9f35", "input": "Passage: Lipids are one of four classes of biochemical compounds, which are compounds that make up living things and carry out life processes. (The other three classes of biochemical compounds are carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids. ) Living things use lipids to store energy. Lipids are also the major components of cell membranes in living things. Types of lipids include fats and oils. Answer: lipids", "output": [ "Name the missing call of biochemical compound: carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids." ] }, { "id": "task594-245b57cc54a4413f9f381c97150b6b30", "input": "Passage: Waves also move sand from the beaches on shore to bars of sand offshore as the seasons change. In the summer, waves have lower energy so they bring sand up onto the beach. In the winter, higher energy waves bring the sand back offshore. Answer: low energy", "output": [ "What causes waves to bring sand up onto the beach during summers?" ] }, { "id": "task594-df0128b14c0342d19c17e130a7a12f51", "input": "Passage: The second major step is cytokinesis. As in prokaryotic cells, the cytoplasm must divide. Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells, resulting in two genetically identical daughter cells. Answer: cytokinesis", "output": [ "What is the name for the division of the cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells, resulting in two genetically identical daughter cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b7edcc7b043e4fedb223e6675d9eddd2", "input": "Passage: Introduction Since the rediscovery of Mendel’s work in 1900, the definition of the gene has progressed from an abstract unit of heredity to a tangible molecular entity capable of replication, expression, and mutation (Figure 15.1). Genes are composed of DNA and are linearly arranged on chromosomes. Genes specify the sequences of amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins. In turn, proteins are responsible for orchestrating nearly every function of the cell. Both genes and the proteins they encode are absolutely essential to life as we know it. Answer: amino acids", "output": [ "What are known as the building blocks of proteins?" ] }, { "id": "task594-25da04248042432da5fca72f7c95b099", "input": "Passage: Additional Land Plant Adaptations As plants adapted to dry land and became independent of the constant presence of water in damp habitats, new organs and structures made their appearance. Early land plants did not grow above a few inches off the ground, and on these low mats, they competed for light. By evolving a shoot and growing taller, individual plants captured more light. Because air offers substantially less support than water, land plants incorporated more rigid molecules in their stems (and later, tree trunks). The evolution of vascular tissue for the distribution of water and solutes was a necessary prerequisite for plants to evolve larger bodies. The vascular system contains xylem and phloem tissues. Xylem conducts water and minerals taken from the soil up to the shoot; phloem transports food derived from photosynthesis throughout the entire plant. The root system that evolved to take up water and minerals also anchored the increasingly taller shoot in the soil. In land plants, a waxy, waterproof cover called a cuticle coats the aerial parts of the plant: leaves and stems. The cuticle also prevents intake of carbon dioxide needed for the synthesis of carbohydrates through photosynthesis. Stomata, or pores, that open and close to regulate traffic of gases and water vapor therefore appeared in plants as they moved into drier habitats. Plants cannot avoid predatory animals. Instead, they synthesize a large range of poisonous secondary metabolites: complex organic molecules such as alkaloids, whose noxious smells and unpleasant taste deter animals. These toxic compounds can cause severe diseases and even death. Additionally, as plants coevolved with animals, sweet and nutritious metabolites were developed to lure animals into providing valuable assistance in dispersing pollen grains, fruit, or seeds. Plants have been coevolving with animal associates for hundreds of millions of years (Figure 14.6). Answer: stomata", "output": [ "What are the pores in plants that keep certain gases and liquids in and out called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-933249947398498987ea464f0f7076af", "input": "Passage: Compounds can also react with oxygen, possibly creating oxides of more than one element. When methane burns, carbon dioxide and water are produced. Answer: water", "output": [ "When methane burns, what is produced along with carbon dioxide?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ef17c75ee69d440aab955c88c6d547a2", "input": "Passage: Modern Amphibians Amphibia comprises an estimated 6,770 extant species that inhabit tropical and temperate regions around the world. Amphibians can be divided into three clades: Urodela (“tailed-ones”), the salamanders; Anura (“tail-less ones”), the frogs; and Apoda (“legless ones”), the caecilians. Urodela: Salamanders Salamanders are amphibians that belong to the order Urodela. Living salamanders (Figure 29.16) include approximately 620 species, some of which are aquatic, other terrestrial, and some that live on land only as adults. Adult salamanders usually have a generalized tetrapod body plan with four limbs and a tail. They move by bending their bodies from side to side, called lateral undulation, in a fish-like manner while “walking” their arms and legs fore and aft. It is thought that their gait is similar to that used by early tetrapods. Respiration differs among different species. The majority of salamanders are lungless, and respiration occurs through the skin or through external gills. Some terrestrial salamanders have primitive lungs; a few species have both gills and lungs. Unlike frogs, virtually all salamanders rely on internal fertilization of the eggs. The only male amphibians that possess copulatory structures are the caecilians, so fertilization among salamanders typically involves an elaborate and often prolonged courtship. Such a courtship allows the successful transfer of sperm from male to female via a spermatophore. Development in many of the most highly evolved salamanders, which are fully terrestrial, occurs during a prolonged egg stage, with the eggs guarded by the mother. During this time, the gilled larval stage is found only within the egg capsule, with the gills being resorbed, and metamorphosis being completed, before hatching. Hatchlings thus resemble tiny adults. Answer: lungs", "output": [ "The majority of salamanders lack what organs, so respiration occurs through the skin or through external gills?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f06ec9833ca9438abb4f9451eb0036c2", "input": "Passage: Clearing land for agriculture and development is a major cause of habitat destruction. Within the past 100 years, the amount of total land used for agriculture has almost doubled. Land used for grazing cattle has more than doubled. Agriculture alone has cost the United States half of its wetlands ( Figure below ) and almost all of its tallgrass prairies. Native prairie ecosystems, with their thick fertile soils, deep-rooted grasses, diversity of colorful flowers, burrowing prairie dogs, and herds of bison and other animals, have virtually disappeared ( Figure below ). Answer: habitat destruction", "output": [ "Clearing land for agriculture and development is a major cause of what negative result?" ] }, { "id": "task594-28ddc08e094046cba2ab12a5b986169e", "input": "Passage: The girls in the picture above make up a small sample—there are only four of them. In scientific investigations, samples may include hundreds or even thousands of people or other objects of study. Especially when samples are very large, it’s important to be able to summarize their overall characteristics with a few numbers. That’s where descriptive statistics come in. Descriptive statistics are measures that show the central tendency, or center, of a sample or the variation in a sample. Answer: samples", "output": [ "In scientific investigations, descriptive statistics are useful for summarizing the characteristics of large what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4458db9f7bb84ab38176b18d75f0882b", "input": "Passage: Tropical climates are found at or near the Equator. Because warm air rises at the Equator, there is a lot of rain. Answer: tropical climates", "output": [ "What kind of climates are found at or near the equator?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0041349cdb644810bb12e61025ae1a34", "input": "Passage: In an anticline, rocks arch upward. A three-dimensional anticline is a dome. Answer: dome", "output": [ "What is a three-dimensional anticline called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f7c88485d7a840a09332c9b6496d73f1", "input": "Passage: The bacterium in Figure above is a prokaryote. Prokaryotes are microscopic organisms that have neither a membrane-bound nucleus nor membrane-bound organelles. Some cell biologists consider the term \"organelle\" to describe membrane-bound structures only, whereas other cell biologists define organelles as discrete structures that have a specialized function. Prokaryotes have ribosomes, which are not surrounded by a membrane but do have a specialized function, and could therefore be considered organelles. All metabolic functions carried out by a prokaryote take place in the plasma membrane or the cytosol. Answer: cytosol", "output": [ "All metabolic functions carried out by a prokaryote take place in the plasma membrane or where else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-24ec97204baf4e48ac867071c0df8f83", "input": "Passage: Electronic components are the parts used in electronic devices. They are made of p-type and n-type semiconductors. Examples of electronic components include diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits (microchips). Answer: electronic components", "output": [ "What are diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits examples of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-73c30254ed31496cb61b2a497415f240", "input": "Passage: Figure above shows the accumulation of radioactive compounds that bind to dopamine receptors. The non-addicted individuals have large numbers of receptors for dopamine. The addicted persons show less binding to these receptors, indicating that fewer receptors are present. Answer: dopamine receptors", "output": [ "Addiction affects what type of chemical receptors within the brain?" ] }, { "id": "task594-697c14ad90e1454dbba99d7eee292522", "input": "Passage: Precision describes how close estimates are to one another. Estimates that are relatively close to one another are precise. Let’s assume that ten different students made an estimate of the volume shown in Figure above , and the values were: 52.9, 52.8, 52.9, 52.9, 53.3, 52.0, 52.8, 52.9, 53.0, 52.8. We can determine how precise these data by analyzing how close they are to an average. The average could be the mean, median or mode. The most common understanding of the average is the mean. This value is calculated by adding up all the numbers and then dividing by the total number of values. Other terms that can refer to the average are the median and the mode. The median is the middle value in a numerically ordered list of numbers. The mode is the value that occurs most often in a set of numbers. If no number is repeated, there is no mode for the list. Here are the calculated averages:. Answer: precision", "output": [ "What term describes how close estimates are to one another?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5b3b95beb72b4af2ab851f22cf3726b6", "input": "Passage: The first continents were small but they grew over time. Supercontinents have formed at least five times in Earth history. Answer: five", "output": [ "Supercontinents have formed at least how many times in earth history?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9974cc9a2aaa44e6970e5437a61de662", "input": "Passage: Skeletal Muscles. Skeletal muscles enable the body to move. Answer: move", "output": [ "What do skeletal muscles enable the body to do?" ] }, { "id": "task594-80a9244251ee45cfaadfcf2b955e0dee", "input": "Passage: Muscles are the main organs of the muscular system. Muscles are composed primarily of cells called muscle fibers. A muscle fiber is a very long, thin cell, as you can see in Figure below . It contains multiple nuclei and many mitochondria, which produce ATP for energy. It also contains many organelles called myofibrils. Myofibrils allow muscles to contract, or shorten. Muscle contractions are responsible for virtually all the movements of the body, both inside and out. Answer: muscle fibers", "output": [ "Muscles are composed mostly of cells called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1279796507b5447e97376e834d647216", "input": "Passage: Like all living things, plants detect and respond to stimuli in their environment. Unlike animals, plants can't run, fly, or swim toward food or away from danger. They are usually rooted firmly in the soil, like the tree in Figure below . Answer: soil", "output": [ "Where are most plants firmly rooted?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c410d5d10a3147439eb252e2bbf23a5d", "input": "Passage: Summary 12.1 Chemical Reaction Rates The rate of a reaction can be expressed either in terms of the decrease in the amount of a reactant or the increase in the amount of a product per unit time. Relations between different rate expressions for a given reaction are derived directly from the stoichiometric coefficients of the equation representing the reaction. 12.2 Factors Affecting Reaction Rates The rate of a chemical reaction is affected by several parameters. Reactions involving two phases proceed more rapidly when there is greater surface area contact. If temperature or reactant concentration is increased, the rate of a given reaction generally increases as well. A catalyst can increase the rate of a reaction by providing an alternative pathway that causes the activation energy of the reaction to decrease. 12.3 Rate Laws Rate laws provide a mathematical description of how changes in the amount of a substance affect the rate of a chemical reaction. Rate laws are determined experimentally and cannot be predicted by reaction stoichiometry. The order of reaction describes how much a change in the amount of each substance affects the overall rate, and the overall order of a reaction is the sum of the orders for each substance present in the reaction. Reaction orders are typically first order, second order, or zero order, but fractional and even negative orders are possible. 12.4 Integrated Rate Laws Differential rate laws can be determined by the method of initial rates or other methods. We measure values for the initial rates of a reaction at different concentrations of the reactants. From these measurements, we determine the order of the reaction in each reactant. Integrated rate laws are determined by integration of the corresponding differential. Answer: reactant", "output": [ "The rate of a reaction can be expressed either in terms of the decrease in the amount of what or the increase in the amount of a product per unit time?" ] }, { "id": "task594-97a31939afd44231a21446bf3de5278b", "input": "Passage: 30.4 | Leaves By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Identify the parts of a typical leaf • Describe the internal structure and function of a leaf • Compare and contrast simple leaves and compound leaves • List and describe examples of modified leaves Leaves are the main sites for photosynthesis: the process by which plants synthesize food. Most leaves are usually green, due to the presence of chlorophyll in the leaf cells. However, some leaves may have different colors, caused by other plant pigments that mask the green chlorophyll. The thickness, shape, and size of leaves are adapted to the environment. Each variation helps a plant species maximize its chances of survival in a particular habitat. Usually, the leaves of plants growing in tropical rainforests have larger surface areas than those of plants growing in deserts or very cold conditions, which are likely to have a smaller surface area to minimize water loss. Answer: chlorophyll", "output": [ "The presence of what in leaf cells makes most leaves appear green?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cd93584dad4148b8b76269d1d81d0e7e", "input": "Passage: The heart is a muscular organ in the chest that consists mainly of cardiac muscle. It pumps blood through blood vessels by repeated, rhythmic contractions. Blood flows through four chambers of the heart when it beats. Heartbeat is controlled by electrical signals from special cells within the heart called the pacemaker. Answer: cardiac muscle", "output": [ "What type of muscle makes up most of the heart?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ac9cfb164b5d47f482e813a9e6dfdecf", "input": "Passage: All forms of energy can be interconverted. Three things can change the energy of an object: the transfer of heat, work performed on or by an object, or some combination of heat and work. Answer: heat and work", "output": [ "All forms of energy can be interconverted. three things can change the energy of an object: the transfer of heat, work performed on or by an object, or some combination of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9309a06dbb6041bf81131ba90c205e4b", "input": "Passage: Like hurricanes, winter storms develop from cyclones. But in the case of winter storms, the cyclones form at higher latitudes. In North America, cyclones often form when the jet stream dips south in the winter. This lets dry polar air pour south. At the same time, warm moist air from the Gulf of Mexico flows north. When the two air masses meet, the differences in temperature and pressure cause strong winds and heavy precipitation. Two types of winter storms that occur in the U. S. are blizzards and lake-effect snow storms. Answer: cyclones", "output": [ "Winter storms develop from what, which form at high altitudes and are associated with hurricanes as well?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9c7637b28e1b4fcdb03f1f58e865ab19", "input": "Passage: The strong nuclear force works only over very short distances. As a result, it isn’t effective if the nucleus gets too big. As more protons are added to the nucleus, the electromagnetic force of repulsion between them gets stronger, while the strong nuclear force of attraction between them gets weaker. This puts an upper limit on the number of protons an atom can have and remain stable. If atoms have more than 83 protons, the electromagnetic repulsion between them is greater than the strong nuclear force of attraction between them. This makes the nucleus unstable, or radioactive, so it breaks down. The following video discusses the strong nuclear force and its role in the atom. The video also introduces the weak nuclear force, which is described next. Answer: unstable, or radioactive", "output": [ "If the electromagnetic repulsion between protons is greater than the strong nuclear force of attraction between them, what do they become?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b7469cbe436841ffb46df69a449ec3a8", "input": "Passage: Joints are places where two or more bones of the skeleton meet. With the help of muscles, joints allow the body to move with relatively little force. Some joints can move more than others. Answer: joints", "output": [ "Where do two or more bones of the skeleton meet?" ] }, { "id": "task594-02ffd2a6780a4c94b57851640629a16c", "input": "Passage: During the Permian Period, all the major landmasses moved together to form one supercontinent. The supercontinent has been named Pangaea. You can see how it looked in Figure below . At this time, temperatures were extreme and the climate became very dry. As a result, plants and animals evolved ways to cope with dryness. For example, reptiles evolved leathery skin. This helped prevent water loss. Plants evolved waxy leaves for the same purpose. Answer: permian", "output": [ "All the major landmasses moved together to form one supercontinent in which period?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d391578c6034484f9a4f1c3ec5b3f374", "input": "Passage: In the course of a chemical reaction between a metal and a nonmetal, electrons are transferred from the metal atoms to the nonmetal atoms. For example, when zinc metal is mixed with sulfur and heated, the compound zinc sulfide is produced. Two valence electrons from each zinc atom are transferred to each sulfur atom. Answer: zinc sulfide", "output": [ "When zinc metal is mixed with sulfur and heated, what is produced?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0cbaecd4e6ef40b6a3197f8ffbf22b0c", "input": "Passage: Minerals are chemical elements that don’t come from living things or include the element carbon. Many minerals are needed in the diet for normal functioning of the body. Several minerals that are needed in relatively large amounts are listed in Table below . As you can see from these examples, minerals have a diversity of important functions. Your body can’t produce any of the minerals it needs, so you must get them from the food you eat. The table shows good food sources of the minerals. Answer: minerals", "output": [ "What is the name for elements that neither contain carbon nor come from living things?" ] }, { "id": "task594-42389146b9b04819bd2daaf9813457f9", "input": "Passage: wavelength : The distance between two crests of a wave of light. The color of light is related to its wavelength. This is inversely proportional to frequency. Answer: wavelength", "output": [ "The distance between two crests of a wave of light is referred to as what, which is related to the color of light?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a0b174066c5f433aa5e14ac0e4d6d009", "input": "Passage: Some children are born with genetic defects that are not carried by a single gene. Instead, an error in a larger part of the chromosome or even in an entire chromosome causes the disorder. Usually the error happens when the egg or sperm is forming. Having extra chromosomes or damaged chromosomes can cause disorders. Answer: disorders", "output": [ "Having extra chromosomes or damaged chromosomes can cause what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c3e23b7f0e404757a5999e86815f354f", "input": "Passage: An element is defined by the number of protons it contains. All atoms of a given element contain the same number of protons. The number of neutrons in an element may vary. Atoms of an element with different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes . Answer: protons", "output": [ "An element is defined by the number of ____ it contains?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a4fdc1f051b141939ef88bca65f7a859", "input": "Passage: Mammals have separate sexes and reproduce sexually. They produce eggs or sperm and must mate in order for fertilization to occur. A few mammals are oviparous. They lay eggs, which later hatch. These mammals are called monotremes. Most mammals are viviparous and give birth to live young. These mammals are either placental mammals or marsupials. Placental mammals give birth to relatively large and well-developed fetuses. Marsupials give birth to smaller, less-developed embryos. In both placental and marsupial mammals, the young grow and develop inside the mother’s body in an organ called the uterus. At birth, they pass through a tube-like organ called the birth canal, or vagina. Answer: monotremes", "output": [ "Mammals that lay eggs are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-194d9e98b3ce40f3bca648c512e883fb", "input": "Passage: Flying birds are divided into 29 orders. The most common orders include landfowl, waterfowl, shorebirds, diurnal and nocturnal raptors, parrots, and perching birds. Answer: 29", "output": [ "How many orders can flying birds be divided into?" ] }, { "id": "task594-08f5b79ebc224a3388cb537d11a3d7df", "input": "Passage: Radiation is the transfer of thermal energy by waves that can travel through empty space. When the waves reach objects, they transfer thermal energy to the objects. This is how the sun’s energy reaches and warms Earth. Answer: radiation", "output": [ "What is the transfer of thermal energy by waves that can travel through empty space called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bfbd7541cb064b2cb7ec174ca010623b", "input": "Passage: Prevailing winds are the result of atmospheric circulation cells. They influence the climate of a region. Answer: climate", "output": [ "What do prevailing winds influence?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4372098e5d1644978213629cb59de851", "input": "Passage: Understanding and curing genetic diseases is the ultimate goal of human geneticists. As discussed in the Human Genetics: Diagnosis and Treatment (Advanced) concept, gene therapy is the insertion of a new gene into an individual’s cells and tissues to treat a disease, replacing a mutant disease-causing allele with a normal, non-mutant allele. Of course, the findings of the Human Genome Project are significant in determining the disease-causing alleles. Geneticists must know which are mutant alleles and which are non-mutant or \"normal\" alleles. They must also be able to identify alleles that are not just associated with a particular disease phenotype, but cause a disease phenotype. And of course, scientists must develop and test the technology to replace mutant alleles. Answer: human genome project", "output": [ "For geneticists, the findings of what massive undertaking are significant in determining disease-causing alleles?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dbef26a9408445fb9d7a788d0fd9f67f", "input": "Passage: The study of rock layers is called stratigraphy. Laws of stratigraphy help scientists determine the relative ages of rocks. The main law is the law of superposition. This law states that deeper rock layers are older than layers closer to the surface. Answer: stratigraphy", "output": [ "What do we call the study of rock layers?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a17dea170459477cb76cd9a9ea79088d", "input": "Passage: Orbital Energies and Atomic Structure The energy of atomic orbitals increases as the principal quantum number, n, increases. In any atom with two or more electrons, the repulsion between the electrons makes energies of subshells with different values of l differ so that the energy of the orbitals increases within a shell in the order s < p < d < f. Figure 6.25 depicts how these two trends in increasing energy relate. The 1s orbital at the bottom of the diagram is the orbital with electrons of lowest energy. The energy increases as we move up to the 2s and then 2p, 3s, and 3p orbitals, showing that the increasing n value has more influence on energy than the increasing l value for small atoms. However, this pattern does not hold for larger atoms. The 3d orbital is higher in energy than the 4s orbital. Such overlaps continue to occur frequently as we move up the chart. Answer: it increases", "output": [ "How is the energy of an atomic orbital affected as the principal quantum number increases?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3047206dd9754e599c4392f479348a79", "input": "Passage: Farther inland, the climate is influenced by cold or hot air from the land. This air may be dry, because it comes from over land. An inland climate is usually more extreme. Winters may be very cold, and summers may be very hot. Precipitation can be low. This is a continental climate . Answer: inland", "output": [ "Continental climates are generally found in what areas of landmasses?" ] }, { "id": "task594-adc1af2baef140af899b359ce41a30eb", "input": "Passage: Mass is independent of location, while weight depends on location. Answer: location", "output": [ "What is a factor in determining weight but not mass?" ] }, { "id": "task594-57eb5ed2f4d2491080d524fb2703182f", "input": "Passage: Sphenodontia Sphenodontia (“wedge tooth”) arose in the Mesozoic era and includes only one living genus, Tuatara, comprising two species that are found in New Zealand (Figure 29.26). Tuataras measure up to 80 centimeters and weigh about 1 kilogram. Although quite lizard-like in gross appearance, several unique features of the skull and jaws clearly define them and distinguish the group from the squamates. Answer: living genus", "output": [ "Sphenodontia sphenodontia (“wedge tooth”) arose in the mesozoic era and includes only one of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a1012cd1a5b84de5bad7f62805d671d2", "input": "Passage: Limnology is the study of the plants and animals that live in fresh water bodies. A lake has zones just like the ocean. The ecosystem of a lake is divided into three distinct zones ( Figure below ):. Answer: limnology", "output": [ "What is the name for the study of the plants and animals that live in fresh water bodies ?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4639d7b93d60472ab3f7daf3b19bb540", "input": "Passage: Today, scientists think that electrons truly are fundamental particles that cannot be broken down into smaller, simpler particles. They are a type of fundamental particles called leptons. Protons and neutrons, on the other hand, are no longer thought to be fundamental particles. Instead, they are now thought to consist of smaller, simpler particles of matter called quarks. Scientists theorize that leptons and quarks are held together by yet another type of fundamental particles called bosons. All three types of fundamental particles—leptons, quarks, and bosons—are described below. The following Figure below shows the variety of particles of each type. Answer: quarks", "output": [ "What can protons and neutrons be broken down into?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2008c592d76f4a218a31e283a5f20ca3", "input": "Passage: At each level of a food chain, a lot of energy is lost. Only about 10 percent of the energy passes to the next level. Where does that energy go? Some energy is given off as heat. Some energy goes into animal wastes. Energy also goes into growing things that another consumer can't eat, like fur. It's because so much energy is lost that most food chains have just a few levels. There’s not enough energy left for higher levels. Answer: energy", "output": [ "In a food chain, only about 10 percent of what passes to the next level?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8b1a4be13f3c47eeb815d1f191f5c55d", "input": "Passage: As living things evolve, they generally become better suited for their environment. This is because they evolve adaptations. An adaptation is a characteristic that helps a living thing survive and reproduce in a given environment. Look at the mole in Figure below . It has tentacles around its nose that it uses to sense things by touch. The mole lives underground in the soil where it is always dark. However, by using its touch organ, it can detect even tiny food items in the soil in total darkness. The touch organ is an adaptation because it helps the mole survive in its dark, underground environment. Answer: adaptations", "output": [ "Living things evolve what characteristics that make them better suited for their environment?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0767ebe1d31445a29827075ef051d74f", "input": "Passage: When nonmetals react with one another, the product is a molecular compound. Often, the nonmetal reactants can combine in different ratios and produce different products. Sulfur can also combine with oxygen to produce sulfur trioxide. Answer: sulfur trioxide", "output": [ "Sulfur can combine with oxygen to produce what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cb38881a0e3e450b89ff92f3e1553709", "input": "Passage: The charge on a single electron is and is known as the elementary charge. Answer: elementary charge", "output": [ "What is the charge on a single electron known as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7291dbad9c724c08916a5b31df269020", "input": "Passage: you could prove that movements are occurring even in the absence of a gradient. In a similar manner, there are analogous carrier systems that move hydrophobic molecules through water. Channel molecules sit within a membrane and contain an aqueous channel that spans the membrane’s hydrophobic region. Hydrophilic molecules of particular sizes and shapes can pass through this aqueous channel and their movement involves a significantly lower activation energy than would be associated with moving through the lipid part of the membrane in the absence of the channel. Channels are generally highly selective in terms of which particles will pass through them. For example, there are channels in which 10,000 potassium ions will pass through for every one sodium ion. Often the properties of these channels can be regulated; they can exist in two or more distinct structural states. For example, in one state the channel can be open and allow particles to pass through or it can be closed, that is the channel can be turned on and off. Channels cannot, however, determine in which direction an ion will move - that is determined by the ion gradient across the membrane. The transition between open and closed states can be regulated through a number of processes, including the reversible binding of small molecules to the protein and various other molecular changes (which we will consider when we talk about proteins). Another method of channel control depends on the fact that channel proteins are i) embedded within a membrane and ii) contain charged groups. As we will see cells can (and generally do) generate ion gradients, that, is a separation of charged species across their membranes. For example if the concentration of K+ ions is higher on one side of the membrane, there will be an ion gradient where the natural tendency is for the ions to move to the region of lower K+ concentration.222 The ion gradient in turn can produce an electrical field across the plasma membrane. As these fields change, they can produce (induce) changes in channel structure, which can switch the channel from open to closed and vice versa. Organisms typically have many genes that encode specific channel proteins which are involved in a range of processes from muscle contraction to thinking. As in the case of carriers, channels do not determine the direction of molecular motion. The net flux of molecular movement is determined by the gradients of molecules across the membrane, with the thermodynamic driver being entropic factors. That said, the actual movement of the molecules through the channel is driven by thermal motion. Questions to answer & to ponder: • What does it mean to move up a concentration gradient? • Are there molecules that can move up their concentration gradients spontaneously? • Where does the energy involved in moving molecules come from? Is there a force driving the movement of molecules \"down\" their concentration gradient? • If there is no net flux of A, even if there is a concentration gradient between two points, what can we conclude? • Draw a picture of valinomycin’s position and movements within a typical membrane. What drives the movement of valinomycin in the membrane and what factors lead to a net flux in K+ movement? • What happens to the movement of molecules through channels and transporters if we reverse the concentration gradients across the membrane? 222. Answer: channel", "output": [ "What type of molecules sit within a membrane and contain an aqueous channel that spans the membrane’s hydrophobic region?" ] }, { "id": "task594-355d1d3a92474ba48b753400056200e9", "input": "Passage: Humans have been making and using magnifying lenses for thousands of years. The first telescope was built by Galileo in 1608. His telescope used two lenses to make distant objects appear both nearer and larger. Answer: galileo", "output": [ "Who built the first telescope?" ] }, { "id": "task594-65eae8431912412dbabd66b01b081d7f", "input": "Passage: The most common cause of hearing loss is exposure to loud sounds. Loud sounds damage hair cells in the ear that are needed for hearing. Louder sounds damage hair cells more quickly than softer sounds. Answer: loud sounds", "output": [ "Exposure to what is the most common cause of hearing loss?" ] }, { "id": "task594-57fd589bdeb94107b59c0b26a1b0e217", "input": "Passage: In ordinary chemical reactions, the nucleus of each atom (and thus the identity of the element) remains unchanged. Electrons, however, can be added to atoms by transfer from other atoms, lost by transfer to other atoms, or shared with other atoms. The transfer and sharing of electrons among atoms govern the chemistry of the elements. During the formation of some compounds, atoms gain or lose electrons, and form electrically charged particles called ions (Figure 2.28). Answer: ions", "output": [ "When atoms gain or lose electrons, they can form electrically charged particles called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c5816ab03e444fd9a7c3a12dc465f9da", "input": "Passage: Secondary Succession. Two months after a forest fire, new plants are already sprouting among the charred logs. Answer: two months later", "output": [ "When did new plants start sprouting after the forest fire?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1874ee5060074f10a334eccee5c351c4", "input": "Passage: You won’t see this car on the road, at least not yet. It’s a concept car that was developed by a major automaker. Instead of burning gasoline, it runs on hydrogen gas. Using hydrogen for fuel doesn’t produce pollution, and it doesn’t depend on nonrenewable fossil fuels. New technologies like this car may one day help solve our energy resource problems. But even without new technologies such as this, there are many ways we can help solve the problems right now. Answer: nonrenewable fossil fuels", "output": [ "Developing cars that run on hydrogen gas can help solve our dependence on what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c8e2125fb3de4874bdb67449cc83fa62", "input": "Passage: Dirt that gets on our hands can be difficult to remove by rinsing with cold water. What are some things that you can do to increase the solubility of dirt, making it easier to dissolve in running water?. Answer: solubility", "output": [ "Increasing what property of dirt would make it easier to rinse off your hands?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5b53617f72e14928a987f9a09b9e9b7b", "input": "Passage: 47.2 The Importance of Biodiversity to Human Life Humans use many compounds that were first discovered or derived from living organisms as medicines: secondary plant compounds, animal toxins, and antibiotics produced by bacteria and fungi. More medicines are expected to be discovered in nature. Loss of biodiversity will impact the number of pharmaceuticals available to humans. Crop diversity is a requirement for food security, and it is being lost. The loss of wild relatives to crops also threatens breeders’ abilities to create new varieties. Ecosystems provide ecosystem services that support human agriculture: pollination, nutrient cycling, pest control, and soil development and maintenance. Loss of biodiversity threatens these ecosystem services and risks making food production more expensive or impossible. Wild food sources are mainly aquatic, but few are being managed for sustainability. Fisheries’ ability to provide protein to human populations is threatened when extinction occurs. Biodiversity may provide important psychological benefits to humans. Additionally, there are moral arguments for the maintenance of biodiversity. Answer: bacteria and fungi", "output": [ "Humans use many compounds that were first discovered or derived from living organisms as medicines: secondary plant compounds, animal toxins, and antibiotics produced by these?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ed0a10829ff04455986b1f77b8bb8d98", "input": "Passage: 28.3 Fetal Development The fetal period lasts from the ninth week of development until birth. During this period, male and female gonads differentiate. The fetal circulatory system becomes much more specialized and efficient than its embryonic counterpart. It includes three shunts—the ductus venosus, the foramen ovale, and the ductus arteriosus—that enable it to bypass the semifunctional liver and pulmonary circuit until after childbirth. The brain continues to grow and its structures differentiate. Facial features develop, the body elongates, and the skeleton ossifies. In the womb, the developing fetus moves, blinks, practices sucking, and circulates amniotic fluid. The fetus grows from an embryo measuring approximately 3.3 cm (1.3 in) and weighing 7 g (0.25 oz) to an infant measuring approximately 51 cm (20 in) and weighing an average of approximately 3.4 kg (7.5 lbs). Embryonic organ structures that were primitive and nonfunctional develop to the point that the newborn can survive in the outside world. Answer: fetal period", "output": [ "In humans, what period lasts from the ninth week of development until birth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fd9a79ead9184d1c983eabf497b5a596", "input": "Passage: We already know that visible light is the type of electromagnetic waves to which our eyes respond. That knowledge still leaves many questions regarding the nature of light and vision. What is color, and how do our eyes detect it? Why do diamonds sparkle? How does light travel? How do lenses and mirrors form images? These are but a few of the questions that are answered by the study of optics. Optics is the branch of physics that deals with the behavior of visible light and other electromagnetic waves. In particular, optics is concerned with the generation and propagation of light and its interaction with matter. What we have already learned about the generation of light in our study of heat transfer by radiation will be expanded upon in later topics, especially those on atomic physics. Now, we will concentrate on the propagation of light and its interaction with matter. It is convenient to divide optics into two major parts based on the size of objects that light encounters. When light interacts with an object that is several times as large as the light’s wavelength, its observable behavior is like that of a ray; it does not prominently display its wave characteristics. We call this part of optics “geometric optics. ” This chapter will concentrate on such situations. When light interacts with smaller objects, it has very prominent wave characteristics, such as constructive and destructive interference. Wave Optics will concentrate on such situations. Answer: optics", "output": [ "What type of physics explains the behavior of visible light and electromagnetic waves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dfb7a7d5f79541278f9bb39e8a69320e", "input": "Passage: Light may transfer its energy to matter rather than being reflected or transmitted by matter. This is called absorption . When light is absorbed, the added energy increases the temperature of matter. If you get into a car that has been sitting in the sun all day, the seats and other parts of the car’s interior may be almost too hot to touch, especially if they are black or very dark in color. That’s because dark colors absorb most of the sunlight that strikes them. Answer: absorption", "output": [ "When light transfers its energy to objects, this is known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-623e0f0dfe9545528b2ec3cdf81aa55e", "input": "Passage: Gas bubbles get bigger when they are under less pressure. Answer: they get bigger", "output": [ "If everything in a system stays the same but the pressure deceases, gas bubbles will change in what way?" ] }, { "id": "task594-aae58045d38842ff80e8cc150cc728b6", "input": "Passage: The physical properties of gases are predictable using mathematical formulas known as gas laws. Answer: gas laws", "output": [ "The physical properties of gases are predictable using mathematical formulas known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-733f71f16a2843718a63b180052b8b57", "input": "Passage: The lymphatic system consists of organs, vessels, and lymph. Answer: lymphatic", "output": [ "Organs, vessels, and lymph make up what system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-611c0f7ba3bb44db8a65fd53da5b3a51", "input": "Passage: Cellular respiration uses oxygen in addition to glucose. It releases carbon dioxide and water as waste products. Cellular respiration actually \"burns\" glucose for energy. However, it doesn't produce light or intense heat like burning a candle or log. Instead, it releases the energy slowly, in many small steps. The energy is used to form dozens of molecules of ATP. Answer: oxygen", "output": [ "In addition to glucose, what gas is used during cellular respiration?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3c371b0e0b4145ed8954702edbd38e7a", "input": "Passage: In Silver Springs, the TLTE between the first two trophic levels was approximately 14.8 percent. The low efficiency of energy transfer between trophic levels is usually the major factor that limits the length of food chains observed in a food web. The fact is, after four to six energy transfers, there is not enough energy left to support another trophic level. In the Lake Ontario example shown in Figure 46.6, only three energy transfers occurred between the primary producer, (green algae), and the apex consumer (Chinook salmon). Ecologists have many different methods of measuring energy transfers within ecosystems. Some transfers are easier or more difficult to measure depending on the complexity of the ecosystem and how much access scientists have to observe the ecosystem. In other words, some ecosystems are more difficult to study than others, and sometimes the quantification of energy transfers has to be estimated. Another main parameter that is important in characterizing energy flow within an ecosystem is the net production efficiency. Net production efficiency (NPE) allows ecologists to quantify how efficiently organisms of a particular trophic level incorporate the energy they receive into biomass; it is calculated using the following formula:. Answer: trophic level", "output": [ "Net production efficiency allows ecologists to quantify how efficiently organisms of a particular what incorporate the energy they receive into biomass?" ] }, { "id": "task594-70f63150ddb846cc98b80c1c1a50c81a", "input": "Passage: Elements can be identified by their atomic number and mass number. Answer: elements", "output": [ "What substance can be identified by their atomic number and mass number?" ] }, { "id": "task594-34e0477895c543ca87d513c5c60f8003", "input": "Passage: Bone tissue (osseous tissue) differs greatly from other tissues in the body. Bone is hard and many of its functions depend on that characteristic hardness. Later discussions in this chapter will show that bone is also dynamic in that its shape adjusts to accommodate stresses. This section will examine the gross anatomy of bone first and then move on to its histology. Answer: bone", "output": [ "Osseous tissue is the tissue that makes up what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ac3a947689554c9ab6eb146f2c9ad0be", "input": "Passage: Minerals form from dissolved substances when water evaporates. Answer: evaporation", "output": [ "What process does water undergo to leave behind dissolved substances?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6df8006f603046fe877c4791b38e6757", "input": "Passage: Creep usually takes place where the ground freezes and thaws frequently. Soil and rock particles are lifted up when the ground freezes. When the ground thaws, the particles settle down again. Each time they settle down, they move a tiny bit farther down the slope because of gravity. Answer: gravity", "output": [ "Creep, which usually takes place where the ground freezes and thaws frequently, involves movement of particles due to what force?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bbd6c233b7ac4de2b4e14bc5ff98c147", "input": "Passage: The simple carbohydrates discussed above are used as the building blocks for complex carbohydrates. Monosaccharides like glucose or fructose can be linked together to form larger structures. When two monosaccharides are bound together, the result is a disaccharide . Some common disaccharides are shown in the Table below . Answer: disaccharide", "output": [ "What is the result when two monosaccharides are bound together?" ] }, { "id": "task594-24578eaba9b647c8ba75efe84eb20c15", "input": "Passage: Scavengers are decomposers that consume the soft tissues of dead animals. Examples of scavengers include hyenas and cockroaches. Answer: scavengers", "output": [ "Hyenas and cockroaches are examples of what decomposers that consume the soft tissues of dead animals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-980176e38c1445d5b8d114ad5eb346cc", "input": "Passage: Carbon is a nonmetal in group 14 of the periodic table. Like other group 14 elements, carbon has four valence electrons. Valence electrons are the electrons in the outer energy level of an atom that are involved in chemical bonds. The valence electrons of carbon are shown in the electron dot diagram in the Figure below . Answer: valence electrons", "output": [ "What do you call the electrons in the outer energy level of an atom that are involved in chemical bonds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-931356a8a39d4df4847b0d2308ccca56", "input": "Passage: 5. Anthracite is the hardest type of coal because it is metamorphic. Anthracite causes less pollution when it burns. Why do you think that is?. Answer: anthracite", "output": [ "What is the hardest type of coal?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1525dd0bde264c1aa33bc9f804b26550", "input": "Passage: Many chemical reactions and physical processes release energy that can be used to do other things. When the fuel in a car is burned, some of the released energy is used to power the vehicle. Free energy is energy that is available to do work. Spontaneous reactions release free energy as they proceed. Recall that the determining factors for spontaneity of a reaction are the enthalpy and entropy changes that occur for the system. The free energy change of a reaction is a mathematical combination of the enthalpy change and the entropy change. Answer: free energy", "output": [ "Spontaneous reactions release what type of energy, meaning it is available to do work?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8e1ebc4c2e324250a98574f19345df67", "input": "Passage: Similarly, monoprotic bases are bases that will accept a single proton. Diprotic acids contain two ionizable hydrogen atoms per molecule; ionization of such acids occurs in two steps. The first ionization always takes place to a greater extent than the second ionization. For example, sulfuric acid, a strong acid, ionizes as follows: K a1 = more than 10 2 ; complete dissociation. Answer: accepts one proton", "output": [ "What is the basic characteristic of monoprotic bases?" ] }, { "id": "task594-22200a0703554fd588482dcb3530fd3e", "input": "Passage: Respiration begins with ventilation. This is the process of moving air in and out of the lungs. The lungs are the organs in which gas exchange takes place between blood and air. Answer: lungs", "output": [ "What is the organ in which gas exchanges take place between blood and air?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3d0e94b51e9b45fc86960254a8725f18", "input": "Passage: There are several traits shared by all arthropods. Arthropods have a complete digestive system. They also have a circulatory system and a nervous system. In addition, they have special organs for breathing and excreting wastes. Other traits of arthropods include:. Answer: insects", "output": [ "What group of animals are the largest arthropods?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ea7e16c1cfe34937b5d4f093061d606f", "input": "Passage: Roundworms may be free-living or parasitic. Free-living worms are found mainly in freshwater habitats. Some live in soil. They generally feed on bacteria, fungi, protozoans, or decaying organic matter. By breaking down organic matter, they play an important role in the carbon cycle. Answer: carbon cycle", "output": [ "Roundworms feed on various things, one of them being decaying organic matter. doing this, they play an important role in what famous cycle?" ] }, { "id": "task594-23cfad2cc9454cc0acd2d7397d1d72f0", "input": "Passage: The chemical reactions that regulate the levels of CO2 and carbonic acid occur in the lungs when blood travels through the lung’s pulmonary capillaries. Minor adjustments in breathing are usually sufficient to adjust the pH of the blood by changing how much CO2 is exhaled. In fact, doubling the respiratory rate for less than 1 minute, removing “extra” CO2, would increase the blood pH by 0.2. This situation is common if you are exercising strenuously over a period of time. To keep up the necessary energy production, you would produce excess CO2 (and lactic acid if exercising beyond your aerobic threshold). In order to balance the increased acid production, the respiration rate goes up to remove the CO2. This helps to keep you from developing acidosis. The body regulates the respiratory rate by the use of chemoreceptors, which primarily use CO2 as a signal. Peripheral blood sensors are found in the walls of the aorta and carotid arteries. These sensors signal the brain to provide immediate adjustments to the respiratory rate if CO2 levels rise or fall. Yet other sensors are found in the brain itself. Changes in the pH of CSF affect the respiratory center in the medulla oblongata, which can directly modulate breathing rate to bring the pH back into the normal range. Hypercapnia, or abnormally elevated blood levels of CO2, occurs in any situation that impairs respiratory functions, including pneumonia and congestive heart failure. Reduced breathing (hypoventilation) due to drugs such as morphine, barbiturates, or ethanol (or even just holding one’s breath) can also result in hypercapnia. Hypocapnia, or abnormally low blood levels of CO2, occurs with any cause of hyperventilation that drives off the CO2, such as salicylate toxicity, elevated room temperatures, fever, or hysteria. Answer: hypocapnia", "output": [ "What is the term for abnormally low blood levels of carbon dioxide?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dc81324ef19c4d689dd400eaafdcf786", "input": "Passage: Topsoil usually does not have very small particles like clay. Clay-sized particles are carried to lower layers as water seeps down into the ground. Many minerals dissolve in the fresh water that moves through the topsoil. These minerals are carried down to the lower layers of soil. Answer: topsoil", "output": [ "What layer of soil usually does not have very small particles like clay?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3765f46ac3c94d7abfdbde46d76f7399", "input": "Passage: CFCs break down ozone in the stratosphere. Answer: cfcs", "output": [ "What man-made substance tends to break down ozone in the stratosphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c41321992b6e4402abe0c26dc989035b", "input": "Passage: The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped organs just above the waist. A cross-section of a kidney is shown in Figure below . The function of the kidney is to filter blood and form urine. Urine is the liquid waste product of the body that is excreted by the urinary system. Nephrons are the structural and functional units of the kidneys. A single kidney may have more than a million nephrons!. Answer: kidneys", "output": [ "What is the pair of bean-shaped organs situated just above the waist?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5d08fb09921f450294dab30c11776c2a", "input": "Passage: Nearly all fish reproduce sexually and have separate sexes. Answer: separate sexes", "output": [ "Nearly all fish reproduce sexually and have what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-09c426c3e0954304a70ebdadf03b3834", "input": "Passage: • The sagittal plane is the plane that divides the body or an organ vertically into right and left sides. If this vertical plane runs directly down the middle of the body, it is called the midsagittal or median plane. If it divides the body into unequal right and left sides, it is called a parasagittal plane or less commonly a longitudinal section. • The frontal plane is the plane that divides the body or an organ into an anterior (front) portion and a posterior (rear) portion. The frontal plane is often referred to as a coronal plane. (“Corona” is Latin for “crown. ”) • The transverse plane is the plane that divides the body or organ horizontally into upper and lower portions. Transverse planes produce images referred to as cross sections. Answer: sagittal plane", "output": [ "What is the plane that divides the body or an organ vertically into right and left sides?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b53d64b60cd14803a6ba39c41043ff80", "input": "Passage: Both flukes and tapeworms are parasites with vertebrate hosts, including human hosts. Flukes live in the host’s circulatory system or liver. Tapeworms live in the host’s digestive system. Usually, more than one type of host is required to complete the parasite’s life cycle. Look at the life cycle of the liver fluke in Figure below . As an adult, the fluke has a vertebrate host. As a larva, it has an invertebrate host. If you follow the life cycle, you can see how each host becomes infected so the fluke can continue its life cycle. Answer: vertebrate", "output": [ "Both flukes and tapeworms are parasites with what kind of host?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f5a9eceadc9b4f4eaa90fa7b37758ed0", "input": "Passage: Static electricity is a buildup of electric charges on objects. It occurs when electrons are transferred from one object to another. Answer: static electricity", "output": [ "What is the term for the buildup of electric charge on an object, which can be transferred to another when touched?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b2a81fab96e2483eb23276ef4cf44004", "input": "Passage: Spermatogenesis produces four haploid sperm cells, while oogenesis produces one mature ovum. Answer: ovum", "output": [ "While spermatogenesis produces four haploid sperm cells, oogenesis produces one mature what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d18f548ff37f4412804f0a81fccd0e7a", "input": "Passage: A caldera forms after a massive eruption. The top of the volcano collapses, forming a basin. Answer: after an eruption", "output": [ "When does a caldera form?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cbca92df487c46d184c868a1578a9b4a", "input": "Passage: 22.2 Structure of Prokaryotes Prokaryotes (domains Archaea and Bacteria) are single-celled organisms lacking a nucleus. They have a single piece of circular DNA in the nucleoid area of the cell. Most prokaryotes have a cell wall that lies outside the boundary of the plasma membrane. Some prokaryotes may have additional structures such as a capsule, flagella, and pili. Bacteria and Archaea differ in the lipid composition of their cell membranes and the characteristics of the cell wall. In archaeal membranes, phytanyl units, rather than fatty acids, are linked to glycerol. Some archaeal membranes are lipid monolayers instead of bilayers. The cell wall is located outside the cell membrane and prevents osmotic lysis. The chemical composition of cell walls varies between species. Bacterial cell walls contain peptidoglycan. Archaean cell walls do not have peptidoglycan, but they may have pseudopeptidoglycan, polysaccharides, glycoproteins, or protein-based cell walls. Bacteria can be divided into two major groups: Gram positive and Gram negative, based on the Gram stain reaction. Gram-positive organisms have a thick cell wall, together with teichoic acids. Gram-negative organisms have a thin cell wall and an outer envelope containing lipopolysaccharides and lipoproteins. Answer: prokaryotes", "output": [ "What is the group of single-celled organisms lacking a nucleus that have a single piece of circular dna in the nucleoid area of the cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-57a38bd29eb84fcdb7dc6ded926bc9c4", "input": "Passage: Benzene is the smallest aromatic hydrocarbon. It has just one ring. You can see its structural formula in Figure below . Benzene has many uses. For example, it is used in air fresheners and mothballs because of its strong scent. Answer: benzene", "output": [ "What is the smallest aromatic hydrocarbon?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0d6d0a4a0f0747a9b6d80d22ac45acfb", "input": "Passage: functionality of pepsin. Second, the stomach has a thick mucus lining that protects the underlying tissue from the action of the digestive juices. When this mucus lining is ruptured, ulcers can form in the stomach. Ulcers are open wounds in or on an organ caused by bacteria (Helicobacter pylori) when the mucus lining is ruptured and fails to reform. Small Intestine Chyme moves from the stomach to the small intestine. The small intestine is the organ where the digestion of protein, fats, and carbohydrates is completed. The small intestine is a long tube-like organ with a highly folded surface containing fingerlike projections called the villi. The apical surface of each villus has many microscopic projections called microvilli. These structures, illustrated in Figure 34.12, are lined with epithelial cells on the luminal side and allow for the nutrients to be absorbed from the digested food and absorbed into the blood stream on the other side. The villi and microvilli, with their many folds, increase the surface area of the intestine and increase absorption efficiency of the nutrients. Absorbed nutrients in the blood are carried into the hepatic portal vein, which leads to the liver. There, the liver regulates the distribution of nutrients to the rest of the body and removes toxic substances, including drugs, alcohol, and some pathogens. Answer: stomach", "output": [ "Which organ has a thick mucus lining that protects the underlying tissue from the action of the digestive juices?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9dd11123b6934822ac3bebe2ac0bc4ee", "input": "Passage: Many quantities can be expressed in several different ways. The English system measurement of 4 cups is also equal to 2 pints, 1 quart, and ¼ of a gallon. Answer: 4 cups", "output": [ "According to the english system measurement, how much is equal to 2 pints, 1 quart, and ¼ of a gallon?" ] }, { "id": "task594-31a7680cec7140599c34e0383a7ca6e0", "input": "Passage: Learn to balanced simple redox reactions by inspection. Learn to balance complex redox reactions by the half reaction method. Use the solvent, or parts of it, as a reactant or a product in balancing a redox reaction. Balancing simple redox reactions can be a straightforward matter of going back and forth between products and reactants. For example, in the redox reaction of Na and Cl2:. Answer: reactant", "output": [ "Redox reactions, like other chemical reactions, begin with a product and end with what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0c1d6c0886084bcc918acc55fa61eae3", "input": "Passage: In this chapter, you saw how pressure and buoyancy of fluids can be used to make work easier — from raising a car on a lift to floating a ship on the ocean. Devices that make work easier are called machines in physics. Answer: machines", "output": [ "In physics, what do you call devices that make work easier?" ] }, { "id": "task594-42477448212043569dd2afc53fc5646a", "input": "Passage: If particles have enough kinetic energy to completely overcome the force of attraction between them, matter exists as a gas. The particles can pull apart and spread out. This explains why gases have neither a fixed volume nor a fixed shape. Answer: gas", "output": [ "If particles have enough kinetic energy to completely overcome the force of attraction between them, matter exists as a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-255bfc66203b4b26a931060e48224733", "input": "Passage: As stated earlier, not all atoms of a given element are identical. Specifically, the number of neutrons in the nucleus can vary for many elements. As an example, naturally occurring carbon exists in three forms, which are illustrated in Figure below . Answer: neutrons", "output": [ "The number of what subatomic particles can vary between atoms of the same element?" ] }, { "id": "task594-34d239e7e85a46ce9a0460ca76e95922", "input": "Passage: Exocytosis The reverse process of moving material into a cell is the process of exocytosis. Exocytosis is the opposite of the processes discussed above in that its purpose is to expel material from the cell into the extracellular fluid. Waste material is enveloped in a membrane and fuses with the interior of the plasma membrane. This fusion opens the membranous envelope on. Answer: exocytosis", "output": [ "The reverse process of moving material into a cell is the process of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-98321e0c6d1245889cc21edaaf28d430", "input": "Passage: Before and after the quarter-moon phases are the gibbous and crescent phases. During the crescent moon phase, the Moon is less than half lit. It is seen as only a sliver or crescent shape. During the gibbous moon phase, the Moon is more than half lit. It is not full. The Moon undergoes a complete cycle of phases about every 29.5 days. Answer: gibbous phase", "output": [ "During which phase is the moon more than half lit but not full?" ] }, { "id": "task594-19513efb0e7043c1982538364775abb3", "input": "Passage: Larger cycloalkanes also exist, but are less common. Cyclic hydrocarbons may also be unsaturated. A cycloalkene is a cyclic hydrocarbon with at least one carbon-carbon double bond. A cycloalkyne is a cyclic hydrocarbon with at least one carbon-carbon triple bond. Shown below are the simplified structural formulas for cyclohexene and cyclooctyne. Answer: cycloalkyne", "output": [ "What's the term for a cyclic hydrocarbon with a carbon-carbon triple bond?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3b0af360b230476eada84342eb9d8e3c", "input": "Passage: Extracellular Matrix of Animal Cells Most animal cells release materials into the extracellular space. The primary components of these materials are proteins, and the most abundant protein is collagen. Collagen fibers are interwoven with carbohydrate-containing protein molecules called proteoglycans. Collectively, these materials are called the extracellular matrix (Figure 4.27). Not only does the extracellular matrix hold the cells together to form a tissue, but it also allows the cells within the tissue to communicate with each other. How can this happen?. Answer: collagen", "output": [ "The extracellular matrix of most animal cells contains abundant amounts of what protein, which helps hold things together?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1ad84c2932de4b09a06546e67a426327", "input": "Passage: The binding of complementary bases allows DNA molecules to take their well-known shape, called a double helix . Figure below shows how two chains of nucleotides form a DNA double helix. A simplified double helix is illustrated in Figure below . It shows more clearly how the two chains are intertwined. The double helix shape forms naturally and is very strong. Being intertwined, the two chains are difficult to break apart. This is important given the fundamental role of DNA in all living organisms. Answer: double helix", "output": [ "The binding of complementary bases allows dna molecules to take their well-known shape, called a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b4fe10df619f447b995bd023e9f9dd78", "input": "Passage: rates The rates at which reactants are consumed and products are formed during chemical reactions vary greatly. We can identify five factors that affect the rates of chemical reactions: the chemical nature of the reacting substances, the state of subdivision (one large lump versus many small particles) of the reactants, the temperature of the reactants, the concentration of the reactants, and the presence of a catalyst. Answer: catalyst", "output": [ "The presence of what, which acts as a trigger, affects the rate of chemical reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1c43bc4af7fd41cbbe8fa102279ceb6d", "input": "Passage: Graphite is a form of carbon in which carbon atoms are arranged in layers. Bonds are strong between carbon atoms within each layer but relatively weak between atoms in different layers. The weak bonds between layers allow the layers to slide over one another. This makes graphite relatively soft and slippery. It is used as a lubricant. It also makes up the \"lead\" in pencils. Answer: graphite", "output": [ "What layered form of carbon is used as a lubricant and in pencils?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1c73116ec0f5402595a1882f6713b19c", "input": "Passage: The first photosynthetic organisms were bacteria that lived in the water. So, where did plants come from? Evidence shows that plants evolved from freshwater green algae, a protist ( Figure below ). The similarities between green algae and plants is one piece of evidence. They both have cellulose in their cell walls, and they share many of the same chemicals that give them color. So what separates green algae from green plants?. Answer: bacteria", "output": [ "The first photosynthetic organisms were not plants, but types of what that lived in the water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4436901d28b04bd5a9070a94a94796e3", "input": "Passage: The classroom in Figure above has artificial light sources in addition to natural sunlight. There are fluorescent lights on the ceiling of the room. There are also projectors on the ceiling that are shining light on screens. In these and most other artificial light sources, electricity provides the energy and some type of light bulb converts the electrical energy to visible light. How a light bulb produces visible light varies by type of bulb, as you can see in Table below . Incandescent light bulbs, which produce light by incandescence, give off a lot of heat as well as light, so they waste energy. Other light bulbs produce light by luminescence, so they produce little if any heat. These light bulbs use energy more efficiently. Which types of light bulbs do you use?. Answer: heat", "output": [ "Aside from light, incandescent light bulbs also give off what that wastes energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9c63d5b5af494267aecd44c8a712b711", "input": "Passage: Dilution of the products with water, followed by filtration to remove calcium sulfate, gives a dilute acid solution contaminated with calcium dihydrogen phosphate, Ca(H2PO4)2, and other compounds associated with calcium phosphate rock. It is possible to prepare pure orthophosphoric acid by dissolving P4O10 in water. The action of water on P4O6, PCl3, PBr3, or PI3 forms phosphorous acid, H3PO3 (shown in Figure 18.53). The best method for preparing pure phosphorous acid is by hydrolyzing phosphorus trichloride: PCl 3(l) + 3H 2 O(l) ⟶ H 3 PO 3(aq) + 3HCl(g) Heating the resulting solution expels the hydrogen chloride and leads to the evaporation of water. When sufficient water evaporates, white crystals of phosphorous acid will appear upon cooling. The crystals are deliquescent, very soluble in water, and have an odor like that of garlic. The solid melts at 70.1 °C and decomposes at about 200 °C by disproportionation into phosphine and orthophosphoric acid: 4H 3 PO 3(l) ⟶ PH 3(g) + 3H 3 PO 4(l). Answer: phosphorus trichloride", "output": [ "The best method for preparing pure phosphorous acid is by hydrolyzing what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e49278be2e2042fcbbd708a9aa253ee3", "input": "Passage: The ability of fungi to degrade many large and insoluble molecules is due to their mode of nutrition. As seen earlier, digestion precedes ingestion. Fungi produce a variety of exoenzymes to digest nutrients. The enzymes are either released into the substrate or remain bound to the outside of the fungal cell wall. Large molecules are broken down into small molecules, which are transported into the cell by a system of protein carriers embedded in the cell membrane. Because the movement of small molecules and enzymes is dependent on the presence of water, active growth depends on a relatively high percentage of moisture in the environment. As saprobes, fungi help maintain a sustainable ecosystem for the animals and plants that share the same habitat. In addition to replenishing the environment with nutrients, fungi interact directly with other organisms in beneficial, and sometimes damaging, ways (Figure 24.19). Answer: exoenzymes", "output": [ "What do fungi produce to digest nutrients?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0d5892afb34d4928999966e3694d75b0", "input": "Passage: Sources of voltage include electric generators and cells. Electric generators change kinetic energy to electrical energy. Chemical cells change chemical energy to electrical energy, and solar cells change solar energy to electrical energy. Answer: electrical", "output": [ "Electric generators change kinetic energy to what type of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b6333bc660c84b63b0a8b3234d2881c0", "input": "Passage: The Hardy-Weinberg theorem states that, if a population meets certain conditions, it will be in equilibrium. In an equilibrium population, allele and genotype frequencies do not change over time. The conditions that must be met are no mutation, no migration, very large population size, random mating, and no natural selection. Answer: hardy-weinberg theorem", "output": [ "Which theorem states that, if a population meets certain conditions, it will be in equilibrium?" ] }, { "id": "task594-04c24e9ebea149aa9d30500cb0293bfa", "input": "Passage: Chemists are involved in the design and production of new materials. Some of the materials that chemists have helped discover or develop in recent years include polymers, ceramics, adhesives, coatings, and liquid crystals. Liquid crystals are used in electronic displays, as in watches and calculators. The silicon-based computer chip has revolutionized modern society and chemists have played a key role in their design and continued improvement. The calculator shown below uses both a liquid crystal display and chips inside the device. Answer: chemists", "output": [ "Polymers, ceramics, adhesives, coatings, and liquid crystals are examples of materials recently discovered or developed by what type of scientists?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3a619e4d7e794af082fbf788ff40c92b", "input": "Passage: Radioactivity is quantified by measuring the number of decay processes per unit time. For example, we can measure radioactivity in terms of counts per minute (cpm), where each \"count\" is a single decay process, such as the emission of an α-particle. A sample of one particular isotope may have an activity of 5,000 cpm, while an equal amount of another isotope might result in a radiation level of only 250 cpm. For a given nucleus, the amount of radioactivity gives a rough indication of the amount of the radioisotope present – the higher the activity, the more of the radioactive isotope in the sample. Answer: radioactivity", "output": [ "What is quantified by measuring the number of decay processes per unit time?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5719afec65c740b4a7e3c77492610023", "input": "Passage: Like mitochondria, plastids contain their own DNA. Therefore, according to endosymbiotic theory, plastids may also have evolved from ancient, free-living prokaryotes that invaded larger prokaryotic cells. If so, they allowed early eukaryotes to make food and produce oxygen. Answer: dna", "output": [ "Like mitochondria, plastids contain their own what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b9d5ce60ed6c480d84de6a3475ce6f83", "input": "Passage: conditions in the new environment, threatening the species that exist there. For this reason, exotic species are also called invasive species. Exotic species can threaten other species through competition for resources, predation, or disease. Answer: threaten other species", "output": [ "Why are exotic species also called invasive species?" ] }, { "id": "task594-46c310dcd44d4c8ba93198bfbf8c057d", "input": "Passage: Volume measures the amount of space that a substance or an object takes up. The basic SI unit for volume is the cubic meter (m 3 ). Answer: volume", "output": [ "What is a measure of the amount of space a substance or an object takes up?" ] }, { "id": "task594-424f7f4b3e0744c8aef05b0399f10d2d", "input": "Passage: RNA consists of just one chain of nucleotides. DNA consists of two chains. Nitrogen bases on the two chains of DNA form hydrogen bonds with each other. Hydrogen bonds are relatively weak bonds that form between a positively charged hydrogen atom in one molecule and a negatively charged atom in another molecule. Hydrogen bonds form only between adenine and thymine, and between guanine and cytosine. These bonds hold the two chains together and give DNA is characteristic double helix, or spiral, shape. Answer: dna", "output": [ "What has two chains of nucleotides, one more than rna?" ] }, { "id": "task594-64a15e2354e44b9fbdad0918100c62b8", "input": "Passage: sweating. These vessels become smaller when it is cold outside and larger when it is hot (so more fluid flows, and more energy is transferred). The body also loses a significant fraction of its heat through the breathing process. While convection is usually more complicated than conduction, we can describe convection and do some straightforward, realistic calculations of its effects. Natural convection is driven by buoyant forces: hot air rises because density decreases as temperature increases. The house in Figure 14.17 is kept warm in this manner, as is the pot of water on the stove in Figure 14.18. Ocean currents and large-scale atmospheric circulation transfer energy from one part of the globe to another. Both are examples of natural convection. Answer: buoyant", "output": [ "Natural convection is driven by what forces?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9bdb4c45aacc4848b11ac526904f744a", "input": "Passage: Nonmetals are elements that generally cannot conduct electricity. They are the second largest class of elements after metals. Examples of nonmetals include hydrogen, carbon, chlorine, and helium. Answer: nonmetals", "output": [ "What group of elements cannot conduct electricity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0ddae3be3d6b4e14858f12afad0d2ec8", "input": "Passage: In some soils, the organic portion is entirely missing. This is true of desert sand. At the other extreme, a soil may be completely organic. Peat, found in a bog or swamp, is totally organic soil. Organic materials are necessary for a soil to be fertile. The organic portion provides the nutrients needed for strong plant growth. Answer: no", "output": [ "Will contour lines ever cross?" ] }, { "id": "task594-276585f7e351410ea6423f689d230561", "input": "Passage: Lipids play several important roles in the body. Triglycerides are stored in fat cells until the body needs to break them down for chemical energy. These stored triglycerides also help insulate the body against extreme temperatures and cushion organs against physical jostling. Phospholipids and cholesterol are important constituents of the cell membrane. These compounds provide structural integrity to the cell wall, since they are not water-soluble. Other steroids are used as chemical messengers in the body, and the fat-soluble vitamins serve a variety of other functions. Answer: lipids", "output": [ "What play several important roles in the human body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9e40779c6f594d7a9d3d61c78e41857c", "input": "Passage: 26.2 | Water Balance By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Explain how water levels in the body influence the thirst cycle • Identify the main route by which water leaves the body • Describe the role of ADH and its effect on body water levels • Define dehydration and identify common causes of dehydration On a typical day, the average adult will take in about 2500 mL (almost 3 quarts) of aqueous fluids. Although most of the intake comes through the digestive tract, about 230 mL (8 ounces) per day is generated metabolically, in the last steps of aerobic respiration. Additionally, each day about the same volume (2500 mL) of water leaves the body by different routes; most of this lost water is removed as urine. The kidneys also can adjust blood volume though mechanisms that draw water out of the filtrate and urine. The kidneys can regulate water levels in the body; they conserve water if you are dehydrated, and they can make urine more dilute to expel excess water if necessary. Water is lost through the skin through evaporation from the skin surface without overt sweating and from air expelled from the lungs. This type of water loss is called insensible water loss because a person is usually unaware of it. Answer: insensible water loss", "output": [ "Water that is lost through the skin through evaporation from the skin surface without overt sweating and from air expelled from the lungs is known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-231e41a80fda40be94bdafeaac7caf1f", "input": "Passage: Health care has been improving over the most recent centuries. Vaccines were developed that could prevent many diseases ( Figure below ). Antibiotics were discovered that could cure most infections caused by bacteria. Together, these two advances saved countless lives. Answer: bacteria", "output": [ "Antibiotics can cure most infections that are caused by what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b5e9021c7cf94907ad077af75f89809a", "input": "Passage: Plants obtain food in two different ways. Autotrophic plants can make their own food from inorganic raw materials, such as carbon dioxide and water, through photosynthesis in the presence of sunlight. Green plants are included in this group. Some plants, however, are heterotrophic: they are totally parasitic and lacking in chlorophyll. These plants, referred to as holo-parasitic plants, are unable to synthesize organic carbon and draw all of their nutrients from the host plant. Plants may also enlist the help of microbial partners in nutrient acquisition. Particular species of bacteria and fungi have evolved along with certain plants to create a mutualistic symbiotic relationship with roots. This improves the nutrition of both the plant and the microbe. The formation of nodules in legume plants and mycorrhization can be considered among the nutritional adaptations of plants. However, these are not the only type of adaptations that we may find; many plants have other adaptations that allow them to thrive under specific conditions. Answer: autotrophic", "output": [ "The group of plants that can make their own food from inorganic raw materials in the presence of sunlight are referred to as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-87d68871e8c34e45ae0df5da179113d8", "input": "Passage: The main cause of outdoor air pollution is the burning of fossil fuels. Outdoor air pollution causes human health problems, acid rain, and global climate change. Answer: burning of fossil fuels", "output": [ "What is the main cause of outdoor air pollution?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3fafe067f6144b98b9d954bbf718b091", "input": "Passage: Biochemical reactions are optimal at physiological temperatures. For example, most biochemical reactions work best at the normal body temperature of 98.6˚F (37˚C). Many enzymes lose function at lower and higher temperatures. At higher temperatures, an enzyme’s shape deteriorates, and only when the temperature comes back to normal does the enzyme regain its shape and normal activity. Answer: enzymes", "output": [ "Biochemical reactions are optimal at physiological temperatures because many what lose function at lower and higher temperatures?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f767cf0f609a458b92c4e26827d9b2fd", "input": "Passage: Citric acid is a large carboxylic acid with three ionizable hydrogen atoms. It is found in citrus fruits and gives them their sour or tart flavor. Answer: citric acid", "output": [ "What large carboxylic acid with three ionizable hydrogen atoms gives some fruits a sour or tart flavor?" ] }, { "id": "task594-11586467467446b5bec8907b8fe10091", "input": "Passage: You have ten times as many bacterial cells as human cells in your body. Luckily for you, most of these bacteria are harmless. However, some of them can cause disease. Any organism that causes disease is called a pathogen . Diseases caused by bacterial pathogens include food poisoning, strep throat, and Lyme disease. Answer: a pathogen", "output": [ "Any organism that causes disease is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8f8b1f9813044a74bb0c55bd12cefa77", "input": "Passage: Like equations in math, equations in chemistry must balance. There must be the same number of each type of atom in the products as there is in the reactants. In equation 1, count the number of hydrogen and oxygen atoms on each side of the arrow. There are two hydrogen atoms in both reactants and products. There are two oxygen atoms in the reactants but only one in the product. Therefore, equation 1 is not balanced. Answer: reactants", "output": [ "What do you call the atomic \"ingredients\" that go into a chemical reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fc6513fa38a74b8b86084c3008fbd2e2", "input": "Passage: chemical reaction: Involves a transfer of energy. There are four visual clues to indicate a chemical reaction. Answer: four", "output": [ "There are how many visual clues to indicate a chemical reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-52d079baa0af4d20a3c290ff337b7b4f", "input": "Passage: All chemical reactions involve energy. Some chemical reactions consume energy, whereas other chemical reactions release energy. Chemical reactions can be either spontaneous, which do not require an input of energy, or non-spontaneous, which does require an input of some type of energy. Energy may be in the form of heat, light or electricity. Each of the energy changes that occur during a reaction are graphed in Figure below . In the reaction on the left, energy is released. In the reaction on the right, energy is consumed. Answer: heat, electricity, light", "output": [ "What types of energy is released during a chemical reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ecf0673d78404369b7d7ab0342afc7f7", "input": "Passage: Regular reflection occurs when light reflects off a very smooth surface and forms a clear image. Diffuse reflection occurs when light reflects off a rough surface and forms a blurry image or no image at all. Answer: regular reflection", "output": [ "What occurs when light reflects off a very smooth surface and forms a clear image?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2e5492a0f32f478a9e82e70c60d01ae5", "input": "Passage: Humans have been studying the night sky for thousands of years. Knowing the motions of stars helped people keep track of seasons. With this information they could know when to plant crops. Stars were so important that the patterns they made in the sky were named. These patterns are called constellations . Even now, constellations help astronomers know where they are looking in the night sky. Answer: constellations", "output": [ "What are observable patterns of stars found in the night sky called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b89f60b16d974ebd83e80134ed1f5401", "input": "Passage: Part of a cycle that holds an element or water for a long period of time is called a reservoir . The ocean is a reservoir for water. The deep ocean may hold water for thousands of years. Answer: a reservoir", "output": [ "What is part of a cycle that holds an element or water for a long period of time called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ccf44fea132a4fd69ef16d9d07e1d6de", "input": "Passage: In addition to these organs, the male reproductive system consists of a series of ducts and glands. Ducts include the vas deferens and ejaculatory ducts. They transport sperm from the epididymis to the urethra in the penis. Glands include the seminal vesicles and prostate gland . They secrete substances that become part of semen. Answer: male reproductive system", "output": [ "The vas deferens and ejaculatory ducts are part of what system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c854026d3d5d462d9364bcc66cdc457e", "input": "Passage: The decay of an unstable isotope to a stable element occurs at a constant rate. This rate is different for each isotope pair. The decay rate is measured in a unit called the half-life. The half-life is the time it takes for half of a given amount of an isotope to decay. For example, the half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 years. Imagine that you start out with 100 grams of carbon-14. In 5730 years, half of it decays. This leaves 50 grams of carbon-14. Over the next 5730 years, half of the remaining amount will decay. Now there are 25 grams of carbon-14. How many grams will there be in another 5730 years? Figure below graphs the rate of decay of carbon-14. Answer: half-life", "output": [ "The decay rate is measured in a unit called the what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6ef2cad04abd45f78ca4f88f63ae1873", "input": "Passage: An autoimmune disease is a disease in which the immune system attacks the body’s own cells. Why this happens is not known for certain, but a combination of genetic and environmental factors are likely to be responsible. Type 1 diabetes is an example of an autoimmune disease. In this case, the immune system attacks cells of the pancreas. Two other examples are multiple sclerosis and rheumatoid arthritis. Answer: autoimmune", "output": [ "What term describes a disease in which the immune system attacks the body’s own cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a58d1a6c4c584279b1db20f8371b5499", "input": "Passage: Cellular respiration and photosynthesis are important parts of the carbon cycle. The carbon cycle is the pathways through which carbon is recycled in the biosphere. While cellular respiration releases carbon dioxide into the environment, photosynthesis pulls carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere. The exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen during photosynthesis ( Figure below ) and cellular respiration worldwide helps to keep atmospheric oxygen and carbon dioxide at stable levels. Answer: carbon cycle", "output": [ "Cellular respiration and photosynthesis are important parts of which cycle?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0ba9b92e1c9344ae8c3f9fc75eddfa36", "input": "Passage: Solutions can also become supersaturated , where the amount of solute dissolved exceeds its solubility. Supersaturation most commonly occurs when a saturated solution is slowly cooled. They occur frequently in geological and meteorological processes. Supersaturated systems are unstable, and eventually, the solute will precipitate until a saturated solution is regenerated. We can quantify supersaturation by looking at solubility curves. If the ratio of solute to solvent is above the saturation curve at the given temperature, the solution is supersaturated. If it is on the curve, the solution is saturated, and if it is below the curve, the solution is unsaturated. Answer: its solubility", "output": [ "Solutions can also become supersaturated , where the amount of solute dissolved exceeds what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6398f8efe81044cd92c09a243c956a37", "input": "Passage: 11.6 Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs The pelvic girdle attaches the legs to the axial skeleton. The hip joint is where the pelvic girdle and the leg come together. The hip is joined to the pelvic girdle by many muscles. In the gluteal region, the psoas major and iliacus form the iliopsoas. The large and strong gluteus maximus, gluteus medius, and gluteus minimus extend and abduct the femur. Along with the gluteus maximus, the tensor fascia lata muscle forms the iliotibial tract. The lateral rotators of the femur at the hip are the piriformis, obturator internus, obturator externus, superior gemellus, inferior gemellus, and quadratus femoris. On the medial part of the thigh, the adductor longus, adductor brevis, and adductor magnus adduct the thigh and medially rotate it. The pectineus muscle adducts and flexes the femur at the hip. The thigh muscles that move the femur, tibia, and fibula are divided into medial, anterior, and posterior compartments. The medial compartment includes the adductors, pectineus, and the gracilis. The anterior compartment comprises the quadriceps femoris, quadriceps tendon, patellar ligament, and the sartorius. The quadriceps femoris is made of four muscles: the rectus femoris, the vastus lateralis, the vastus medius, and the vastus intermedius, which together extend the knee. The posterior compartment of the thigh includes the hamstrings: the biceps femoris, semitendinosus, and the semimembranosus, which all flex the knee. The muscles of the leg that move the foot and toes are divided into anterior, lateral, superficial- and deep-posterior compartments. The anterior compartment includes the tibialis anterior, the extensor hallucis longus, the extensor digitorum longus, and the fibularis (peroneus) tertius. The lateral compartment houses the fibularis (peroneus) longus and the fibularis (peroneus) brevis. The superficial posterior compartment has the gastrocnemius, soleus, and plantaris; and the deep posterior compartment has the popliteus, tibialis posterior, flexor digitorum longus, and flexor hallucis longus. Answer: hip joint", "output": [ "What is the joint where the pelvic girdle and leg come together?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b46e35e7ee564a61b1c5e89d1358da9d", "input": "Passage: Blood cancers affect the production and function of your blood cells. Most of these cancers start in your bone marrow where blood is produced. In most blood cancers, the normal production of blood cells is replaced by uncontrolled growth of an abnormal type of blood cell. These abnormal blood cells are cancerous cells, and prevent your blood from performing many of its functions, like fighting off infections or preventing serious bleeding. Leukemia is a cancer of the blood or bone marrow. It is characterized by an abnormal production of blood cells, usually white blood cells. Lymphoma is a cancer of a type of white blood cell called lymphocytes. There are many types of lymphoma. Answer: white blood cells", "output": [ "Lymphoma is a cancer of a type of what type of cells, called lymphocytes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-44eda94de92440c7ab75d9b1b676ba32", "input": "Passage: The Carboniferous Period : Next, during the Carboniferous Period (360–290 million years ago), widespread forests of huge plants left massive deposits of carbon that eventually turned to coal. The first amphibians evolved to move out of the water and colonize land, but they had to return to the water to reproduce. Soon after amphibians arose, the first reptiles evolved. They were the first animals that could reproduce on dry land. Answer: the carboniferous period", "output": [ "During what period on earth was coal formed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9869256272b94be09df9a1cb205c150b", "input": "Passage: Left: Indrik myneur; Right: Courtesy of UNEP/GRID. Craters and rifts become lakes when they fill with water . Left: CC BY 2.0; Right: Non-copyrighted and available for free use. Answer: lakes", "output": [ "What do craters and rifts become when they fill with water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f3019353acca474aa536f77084145c00", "input": "Passage: In shallow water close to shore, waves start to drag on the bottom of the water. The bottoms—but not the tops—of the wave slow down because of friction. This causes the waves to steepen until they break and fall over, carrying water onto the shore as surf. Answer: friction", "output": [ "The bottoms—but not the tops—of the wave slow down because of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d428fbee23f1495ba0c811c054b1afd7", "input": "Passage: We see an opaque object, such as the apple in Figure below , because it reflects some wavelengths of visible light. The wavelengths that are reflected determine the color that the object appears. For example, the apple in the figure appears red because it reflects red light and absorbs light of other wavelengths. We see a transparent or translucent object, such as the bottle in Figure below , because it transmits light. The wavelength of the transmitted light determines the color that the object appears. For example, the bottle in the figure appears blue because it transmits blue light. Answer: wavelength", "output": [ "The color of an object is determined by the what of it's reflected light?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a0803b7dd7904a59b48fda681bc3a53e", "input": "Passage: The dermis is the lower layer of the skin, located directly beneath the epidermis (see Figure below ). It is made of tough connective tissue and attached to the epidermis by collagen fibers. The dermis contains blood vessels and nerve endings. Because of the nerve endings, skin can feel touch, pressure, heat, cold, and pain. The dermis also contains hair follicles and two types of glands. Answer: dermis", "output": [ "What layer of skin is located right beneath the epidermis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-128a762c750a401bbe63413cca59f174", "input": "Passage: Mount Kilimanjaro has very different climates at the top and bottom. Answer: different", "output": [ "Mount kilimanjaro has ________ climates at the top and bottom?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8a84a967b1cb4415a4ab388f2b30e53e", "input": "Passage: Find the microwave in the Figure above . A microwave is an electromagnetic wave with a relatively long wavelength and low frequency. Microwaves are often classified as radio waves, but they have higher frequencies than other radio waves. With higher frequencies, they also have more energy. That’s why microwaves are useful for heating food in microwave ovens. Microwaves have other important uses as well, including cell phone transmissions and radar. These uses are described below. You can learn more about microwaves and their uses in the video at this URL: http://www. youtube. com/watch?v=YgQQb1BVnu8 . Answer: higher frequency", "output": [ "Why do microwaves have a higher energy than radio waves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-076a4387bcd54b3595c1aa69362fb3f6", "input": "Passage: 30.4 Leaves Leaves are the main site of photosynthesis. A typical leaf consists of a lamina (the broad part of the leaf, also called the blade) and a petiole (the stalk that attaches the leaf to a stem). The arrangement of leaves on a stem, known as phyllotaxy, enables maximum exposure to sunlight. Each plant species has a characteristic leaf arrangement and form. The pattern of leaf arrangement may be alternate, opposite, or spiral, while leaf form may be simple or compound. Leaf tissue consists of the epidermis, which forms the outermost cell layer, and mesophyll and vascular tissue, which make up the inner portion of the leaf. In some plant species, leaf form is modified to form structures such as tendrils, spines, bud scales, and needles. Answer: leaf", "output": [ "What part of the plant is the main site of photosynthesis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0addf20f5f2f47ad965006ff22e40046", "input": "Passage: Air movement takes place in the troposphere. This is the lowest layer of the atmosphere. Air moves because of differences in heating. These differences create convection currents and winds ( Figure below ). Answer: troposphere", "output": [ "What is the lowest layer of the atmosphere called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-47cd230b5bff45609eb2664a0c652d28", "input": "Passage: In plants, most chloroplasts are found in the leaves. Therefore, all the raw materials needed for photosynthesis must be present in the leaves. These materials include light, water, and carbon dioxide. The shape of the leaves gives them a lot of surface area to absorb light for photosynthesis. Roots take up water from the soil. Stems carry the water from the roots to the leaves. Carbon dioxide enters the leaves through tiny openings called stomata. (The oxygen released during photosynthesis also exits the leaves through the stomata. ). Answer: leaves", "output": [ "Where are most chloroplasts found in plants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5d6dd8a4eb2b44c2914205deaa7e7db8", "input": "Passage: After cells differentiate, all the major organs begin to form during the remaining weeks of embryonic development. A few of the developments that occur in the embryo during weeks 4 through 8 are listed in Figure below . As the embryo develops, it also grows in size. By the eighth week of development, the embryo is about 30 millimeters (just over 1 inch) in length. It may also have begun to move. Answer: embryonic", "output": [ "During which stage of development do all the major organs begin to form?" ] }, { "id": "task594-460a8da07d964f0c82e7ca9e36e0efe8", "input": "Passage: To begin mitosis, the DNA in the nucleus wraps around proteins to form chromosomes . Each organism has a unique number of chromosomes. In human cells, our DNA is divided up into 23 pairs of chromosomes. Replicated DNA forms a chromosome made from two identical sister chromatids , forming an \"X\" shaped molecule ( Figure below ). The two chromatids are held together on the chromosome by the centromere . The centromere is also where spindle fiber microtubules attach during mitosis. The spindles separate sister chromatids from each other. Answer: chromosomes", "output": [ "What forms when the dna in the nucleus wraps around proteins?" ] }, { "id": "task594-01387dbc58e94fe09bf12edcdb4c677f", "input": "Passage: Hormones Maintaining homeostasis within the body requires the coordination of many different systems and organs. One mechanism of communication between neighboring cells, and between cells and tissues in distant parts of the body, occurs through the release of chemicals called hormones. Hormones are released into body fluids, usually blood, which carries them to their target cells where they elicit a response. The cells that secrete hormones are often located in specific organs, called endocrine glands, and the cells, tissues, and organs that secrete hormones make up the endocrine system. Examples of endocrine organs include the pancreas, which produces the hormones insulin and glucagon to regulate blood-glucose levels, the adrenal glands, which produce hormones such as epinephrine and norepinephrine that regulate responses to stress, and the thyroid gland, which produces thyroid hormones that regulate metabolic rates. The endocrine glands differ from the exocrine glands. Exocrine glands secrete chemicals through ducts that lead outside the gland (not to the blood). For example, sweat produced by sweat glands is released into ducts that carry sweat to the surface of the skin. The pancreas has both endocrine and exocrine functions because besides releasing hormones into the blood. It also produces digestive juices, which are carried by ducts into the small intestine. Answer: endocrine glands", "output": [ "In which specific organs are hormonal cells located?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cd2242a46cae463ba490f3ff59e71369", "input": "Passage: Do you see the man sitting on top of this tanker truck? He gives you a sense of how big the truck is. What’s behind the truck? Is it a huge apartment complex? It’s just as massive as a very large building, but it’s not even resting on land. It’s a giant cruise ship, and it’s floating on water. The ship weighs about 100,000 metric tons. How can such a tremendous weight float on water? Why doesn’t it sink to the bottom of the ocean instead? Archimedes’ law explains why. Answer: archimedes' law", "output": [ "Which law explains why a ship weighing thousands of metric tons floats on water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5b14332f29514e3dbd6287fc3177a7d7", "input": "Passage: Major exchange pools of carbon include organisms and the atmosphere. Carbon cycles more quickly between these components of the carbon cycle. Answer: the atmosphere", "output": [ "Major exchange pools of carbon include organisms and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-41244c0d06fa4c29b7e09b75fc86a392", "input": "Passage: A certain mineral may form in different colors. Figure below shows four samples of quartz, including one that is colorless and one that is purple. The purple color comes from a tiny amount of iron. The iron in quartz is a chemical impurity. Iron is not normally found in quartz. Many minerals are colored by chemical impurities. Other factors can also affect a mineral’s color. Weathering changes the surface of a mineral. Because color alone is unreliable, geologists rarely identify a mineral just on its color. To identify most minerals, they use several properties. Answer: iron", "output": [ "Where does the purple color in quartz come from?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ff0c23503c1241d593c9686d2fd0d50e", "input": "Passage: Agamogenesis is any form of reproduction that does not involve a male gamete. These include are parthenogenesis and apomixis. Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction where growth and development of embryos occur without fertilization. Parthenogenesis occurs naturally in aphids, rotifers, nematodes and some other invertebrates, as well as in many plants and certain lizards, such as the Komodo dragon. Apomixis is asexual reproduction, without fertilization, in plants. Answer: agamogenesis", "output": [ "Reproduction that doesn't involve a male gamete is also known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2e0a3d598b7b4cc7b8cdf9134b543759", "input": "Passage: Due to the difference in the distribution of charge, water is a polar molecule. Answer: polar", "output": [ "Due to the difference in the distribution of charge, water is what type of molecule?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f0cc722f6ab448b38e8d20d1e88d6b00", "input": "Passage: (A) A wave consists of alternation crests and troughs. The wavelength (λ) is defined as the distance between any two consecutive identical points on the waveform. The amplitude is the height of the wave. (B) A wave with a short wavelength (top) has a high frequency because more waves pass a given point in a certain amount of time. A wave with a longer wavelength (bottom) has a lower frequency. Answer: amplitude", "output": [ "What is the term for the height of the wave?" ] }, { "id": "task594-31632d95048b4694a12122fa6d5c1084", "input": "Passage: Nephrons and Vessels The renal artery first divides into segmental arteries, followed by further branching to form interlobar arteries that pass through the renal columns to reach the cortex (Figure 25.9). The interlobar arteries, in turn, branch into arcuate arteries, cortical radiate arteries, and then into afferent arterioles. The afferent arterioles service about 1.3 million nephrons in each kidney. Answer: nephrons", "output": [ "The afferent arterioles service about 1.3 million of what in each kidney?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a43f34627d79437098d3e78d11e52d1f", "input": "Passage: Besides the four parts listed above, many cells also have a nucleus. The nucleus of a cell is a structure enclosed by a membrane that contains most of the cell’s DNA. Cells are classified in two major groups based on whether or not they have a nucleus. The two groups are prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells. Answer: nucleus", "output": [ "What structure of a cell is enclosed by a membrane and contains most of the cell’s dna?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8a1f2a1eb8bd4434b62b8d0a830f1ab6", "input": "Passage: Lymphocytes: B Cells, T Cells, Plasma Cells, and Natural Killer Cells As stated above, lymphocytes are the primary cells of adaptive immune responses (Table 21.1). The two basic types of lymphocytes, B cells and T cells, are identical morphologically with a large central nucleus surrounded by a thin layer of cytoplasm. They are distinguished from each other by their surface protein markers as well as by the molecules they secrete. While B cells mature in red bone marrow and T cells mature in the thymus, they both initially develop from bone marrow. T cells migrate from bone marrow to the thymus gland where they further mature. B cells and T cells are found in many parts of the body, circulating in the bloodstream and lymph, and residing in secondary lymphoid organs, including the spleen and lymph nodes, which will be described later in this section. The human body contains approximately 10 12 lymphocytes. Answer: lymphocytes", "output": [ "What are the primary cells of adaptive immune response?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ba640592a3984455be22719d8c47a3df", "input": "Passage: This long, almost nonstop molecule is called a polymer (from the Greek meaning “many parts”). The original part—ethylene—is called the monomer (meaning “one part”). The process of making a polymer is called polymerization. A polymer is an example of a macromolecule, the name given to a large molecule. Simple polymers are named after their monomers; the ethylene polymer is formally called poly(ethylene), although in common use, the names are used without parentheses: polyethylene. Because adding one Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: polymerization", "output": [ "The process of making a polymer is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0dd1296bf7de4a3385bb0c478865dabd", "input": "Passage: Other lipoproteins also transport lipids throughout the body, but different types of lipoproteins tend to serve different functions. We will discuss some of these differences in the section below on cholesterol and heart disease. Lipoproteins are often classified into five different groups based on their densities. In increasing order of density, these groups include chylomicrons, very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), intermediate-density lipoproteins (IDL), low-density lipoproteins (LDL), and high-density lipoproteins (HDL). Answer: density", "output": [ "On what basis are lipoproteins classified?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c74249bce006415881333cc9bc8c65d3", "input": "Passage: All alkanes are composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms, and have similar bonds, structures, and formulas; noncyclic alkanes all have a formula of CnH2n+2. The number of carbon atoms present in an alkane has no limit. Greater numbers of atoms in the molecules will lead to stronger intermolecular attractions (dispersion forces) and correspondingly different physical properties of the molecules. Properties such as melting point and boiling point (Table 20.1) usually change smoothly and predictably as the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms in the molecules change. Properties of Some Alkanes[3] Alkane. Answer: no limit", "output": [ "All alkanes are composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms, and have similar bonds, structures, and formulas; noncyclic alkanes all have a formula of cnh2n+2. the number of carbon atoms present in an alkane has what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a005235b6e2748aeaf6c35f8b168ec1d", "input": "Passage: Cancer is usually found in adults, especially in adults over the age of 50. The most common type of cancer in adult males is cancer of the prostate gland. The prostate gland is part of the male reproductive system. Prostate cancer makes up about one third of all cancers in men. The most common type of cancer in adult females is breast cancer. It makes up about one third of all cancers in women. In both men and women, lung cancer is the second most common type of cancer. Most cases of lung cancer happen in people who smoke. Answer: prostate cancer", "output": [ "What is the most common type of cancer in adult males?" ] }, { "id": "task594-67211c778ada4caaa574fd1811192cde", "input": "Passage: Diseases of the respiratory system include asthma, pneumonia, and emphysema. Answer: respiratory", "output": [ "Asthma, pneumonia, and emphysema are diseases of what system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c6873baa62654336aa10df5833be9125", "input": "Passage: An ecosystem consists of all the living things in a given area, together with the nonliving environment. The nonliving environment includes water, sunlight, and other physical factors. Answer: ecosystem", "output": [ "All of the living things in an area and the nonliving environment together make up what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cebcf44be96e4e03845e464961e94732", "input": "Passage: Particles that are too large to be suspended move along the stream bed by saltation. Answer: saltation", "output": [ "What process allows particles too large to move along the stream bed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-67017f68674a488f856f1129da92abe0", "input": "Passage: Thunderstorms grow where ground temperatures are extremely high. Answer: extremely high", "output": [ "Are thunderstorms more likely where the ground temperatures are extremely high or extremely low?" ] }, { "id": "task594-682989507f8449d8ba36a6138a6168e9", "input": "Passage: The only completely effective way to prevent infection with STIs is to avoid sexual contact and other risky behaviors. Using condoms can lower the risk of becoming infected with STIs during some types of sexual activity. However, condoms are not foolproof. Pathogens may be present on areas of the body not covered by condoms. Condoms can also break or be used incorrectly. Answer: avoid sexual contact", "output": [ "What is the only way to completely avoid stis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-079d47b7f4ee4c8890b379559d2eaa30", "input": "Passage: Anterior Pituitary The anterior pituitary gland, or adenohypophysis, is surrounded by a capillary network that extends from the hypothalamus, down along the infundibulum, and to the anterior pituitary. This capillary network is a part of the hypophyseal portal system that carries substances from the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary and hormones from the anterior pituitary into the circulatory system. A portal system carries blood from one capillary network to another; therefore, the hypophyseal portal system allows hormones produced by the hypothalamus to be carried directly to the anterior pituitary without first entering the circulatory system. The anterior pituitary produces seven hormones: growth hormone (GH), prolactin (PRL), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), melanin-stimulating hormone (MSH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and luteinizing hormone (LH). Anterior pituitary hormones are sometimes referred to as tropic hormones, because they. Answer: hormones", "output": [ "The anterior pituitary produces seven different what, each with a special function?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1b9456d24e6d42faa6123ac4f953a3d7", "input": "Passage: Scientists create models with computers. Computers can handle enormous amounts of data. This can more accurately represent the real situation. For example, Earth’s climate depends on an enormous number of factors. Climate models can predict how climate will change as certain gases are added to the atmosphere. To test how good a model is, scientists might start a test run at a time in the past. If the model can predict the present it is probably a good model. It is more likely to be accurate when predicting the future. Answer: computers", "output": [ "What technology do scientists use to create models?" ] }, { "id": "task594-693a519877f64e9982fdc28d7b410b45", "input": "Passage: Tim Wilson. Regularly done aerobic activities can help build up endurance and make the heart stronger . CC BY 2.0. Answer: heart", "output": [ "Regularly done aerobic activities can help build up endurance and make what vital organ stronger?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9d4705d79e694d15b6282c6b109c97f4", "input": "Passage: Many meteorites are remnants of the earliest material that formed in the solar system. Answer: meteorites", "output": [ "What astronomical phenomenon is often comprised of remnants of the earliest material that formed in the solar system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-11bfec6944de4313923d9a7fc5cb2387", "input": "Passage: Matter and energy are the most basic concepts in physical science. Watch this video about matter and energy, and then answer the questions below. Answer: matter and energy", "output": [ "What are considered to be the most basic concepts in the field of physical science?" ] }, { "id": "task594-478b7cb68b224d6a8f7a25b2180cd727", "input": "Passage: Galaxies are divided into three types, according to shape. There are spiral galaxies, elliptical galaxies, and irregular galaxies. Spiral galaxies are a rotating disk of stars and dust. In the center is a dense bulge of material. Several arms spiral out from the center. Spiral galaxies have lots of gas and dust and many young stars. Figure below shows a spiral galaxy from the side. You can see the disk and central bulge. Answer: three", "output": [ "How many types of galaxies are there?" ] }, { "id": "task594-39c905dbe9084f61b5d7f1e82d646166", "input": "Passage: The nuclear envelope is a double membrane of the nucleus that encloses the genetic material. It separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm. The nuclear envelope is made of two lipid bilayers, an inner membrane and an outer membrane. The outer membrane is continuous with the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Many tiny holes called nuclear pores are found in the nuclear envelope. These nuclear pores help to regulate the exchange of materials (such as RNA and proteins) between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. Answer: nuclear enevelope", "output": [ "What is a double membrane of the nucleus that encloses the genetic material?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c48a12cc0fd641888ae3d507623af648", "input": "Passage: Earth and the other planets in the solar system make elliptical orbits around the Sun. Answer: elliptical", "output": [ "What type of orbit do the planets make in the solar system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-825d06c2310142bb93101897d0d5519c", "input": "Passage: Types of compounds include covalent and ionic compounds. They differ in the nature of the bonds that hold their atoms or ions together. Answer: ionic", "output": [ "Types of compounds include covalent and which other compounds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ddb5b8438bfc47ca870ef37e2fc82f74", "input": "Passage: Flatworms The relationships among flatworms, or phylum Platyhelminthes, is being revised and the description here will follow the traditional groupings. Most flatworms are parasitic, including important parasites of humans. Flatworms have three embryonic germ layers that give rise to surfaces covering tissues, internal tissues, and the lining of the digestive system. The epidermal tissue is a single layer of cells or a layer of fused cells covering a layer of circular muscle above a layer of longitudinal muscle. The mesodermal tissues include support cells and secretory cells that secrete mucus and other materials to the surface. The flatworms are acoelomate, so their bodies contain no cavities or spaces between the outer surface and the inner digestive tract. Physiological Processes of Flatworms Free-living species of flatworms are predators or scavengers, whereas parasitic forms feed from the tissues of their hosts. Most flatworms have an incomplete digestive system with an opening, the “mouth,” that is also used to expel digestive. Answer: parasitic", "output": [ "Unlike free-living species of flatworms that are predators or scavengers, what forms feed from the tissues of their hosts?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f3b9f71cf1f54dd489e9b804295b40c8", "input": "Passage: All eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and other organelles. Each organelle has a special job to do. Answer: nucleus", "output": [ "Along with other organelles, all eukaryotic cells possess what structure?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8d233959e2d3478b86942d83e5e465ea", "input": "Passage: Chapter 15 1 Figure 15.3 B 3 Figure 15.33 A 4 B 6 D 8 B 10 A 12 B 14 C 16 C 18 A 20 Specialized tissues allow more efficient functioning because differentiated tissue types can perform unique functions and work together in tandem to allow the animal to perform more functions. For example, specialized muscle tissue allows directed and efficient movement, and specialized nervous tissue allows for multiple sensory modalities as well as the ability to respond to various sensory information; these functions are not necessarily available to other non-animal organisms. 22 The sponges draw water carrying food particles into the spongocoel using the beating of flagella in the choanocytes. The food particles are caught by the collar of the choanocyte and brought into the cell by phagocytosis. Digestion of the food particle takes place inside the cell. The difference between this and the mechanisms of other animals is that digestion takes place within cells rather than outside of cells. It means that the organism can feed only on particles smaller than the cells themselves. 24 In a complete digestive system, food material is not mixed with waste material, so the digestion and uptake of nutrients can be more efficient. In addition, the complete digestive system allows for an orderly progression of digestion of food matter and the specialization of different zones of the digestive tract. 26 Mollusks have a large muscular foot that may be modified in various ways, such as into tentacles, but it functions in locomotion. They have a mantle, a structure of tissue that covers and encloses the dorsal portion of the animal and secretes the shell when it is present. The mantle encloses the mantle cavity, which houses the gills (when present), excretory pores, anus, and gonadopores. The coelom of mollusks is restricted to the region around the systemic heart. The main body cavity is a hemocoel. Many mollusks have a radula near the mouth that is used for scraping food. 28 During embryonic development, we also have a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve tube, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail. 30 A moist environment is required as frog eggs lack a shell and dehydrate quickly in dry environments. Answer: phagocytosis", "output": [ "The food particles are caught by the collar of the choanocyte and brought into the cell by what process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a944d4aa4a03444eac5b2c5ae533d537", "input": "Passage: • Torque is the turning effectiveness of a force. In this case, because F is perpendicular to r , torque is simply we multiply both sides of the equation above by r , we get torque on the left-hand side. That is, rF = mr 2α. Answer: torque", "output": [ "What is the turning effectiveness of a force?" ] }, { "id": "task594-83ca8d53da0443fdac26eb2521b09fc4", "input": "Passage: A chemical change occurs whenever matter changes into an entirely different substance with different chemical properties. A chemical change is also called a chemical reaction. Many complex chemical changes occur to produce the explosions of fireworks. An example of a simpler chemical change is the burning of methane. Methane is the main component of natural gas, which is burned in many home furnaces. During burning, methane combines with oxygen in the air to produce entirely different chemical substances, including the gases carbon dioxide and water vapor. You can watch some very colorful chemical changes occurring in the video at this URL:. Answer: chemical change", "output": [ "When matter changes into an entirely different substance with different chemical properties, what has occurred?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b4a31e863d2546c5bfb53137613bbdba", "input": "Passage: Raising the temperature of a chemical reaction usually results in a higher rate of reaction. When the reactant particles are heated, they move faster and faster. This results in a greater frequency of collisions. A more important effect of the temperature increase is that the collisions occur with a greater force and are thus more likely to surmount the activation energy barrier and go on to form products. Increasing the temperature of a reaction increases the number of effective collisions between reacting particles, so the reaction rate increases. Answer: collisions", "output": [ "Higher temperatures increase the rate of reaction in a lot of chemical reactions because they increase the frequency of what interaction between reactant particles?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3af35469042c42e3aab326811935474b", "input": "Passage: Grain boundaries. As a polycrystalline material solidifies, grains with irregular shapes form. The interfaces between grains constitute grain boundaries. (Squares represent unit cells within grains. Answer: boundaries", "output": [ "As a polycrystalline material solidifies, grains with irregular shapes form. the interfaces between grains constitute grain what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e1e811c1f1964455973a9cfbc74a5b34", "input": "Passage: Sedimentary rocks are formed in horizontal layers. This is magnificently displayed around the southwestern United States. The arid climate allows rock layers to be well exposed ( Figure below ). The lowest layers are the oldest and the higher layers are younger. Answer: horizontal", "output": [ "Sedimentary rocks form in what kind of layers?" ] }, { "id": "task594-82dee86d01f249a387a7099886313d55", "input": "Passage: The law of conservation of mass states that matter cannot be created or destroyed. Answer: destroyed", "output": [ "The law of conservation mass states that matter cannot be created or what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8a4a6b5beb534f9593cb7e504ce3a96a", "input": "Passage: Mutation creates new genetic variation in a gene pool. It is how all new alleles first arise. In sexually reproducing species, the mutations that matter for evolution are those that occur in gametes. Only these mutations can be passed to offspring. For any given gene, the chance of a mutation occurring in a given gamete is very low. Thus, mutations alone do not have much effect on allele frequencies. However, mutations provide the genetic variation needed for other forces of evolution to act. Answer: mutation", "output": [ "What phenomenon, crucial for evolution, creates new genetic variation in a gene pool and is how all new alleles first arise?" ] }, { "id": "task594-44c91f426ba242bcb31cb5f44b3224c8", "input": "Passage: The chloroplast is the site of photosynthesis. Part of the photosynthesis reactions occur in an internal membrane within the organelle. The chloroplast contains many of these internal membranes, making photosynthesis very efficient. These internal membranes stack on top of each other, just like a stack of pancakes. Answer: chloroplast", "output": [ "What structure, containing many internal membranes, is the site of photosynthesis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ea736ebb18334a7ea68c3844ca86018d", "input": "Passage: Pollutants that enter an aquifer spread outward from the source. They spread in the direction the water is moving. Answer: outward", "output": [ "Which direction from the source do pollutants in an aquifer spread?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8c0020adaedf41ae82fbb393b53e491c", "input": "Passage: Consider a gigantic tub filled with water as shown below. A column of water with a cross-sectional area of 1.00 m 2 is designated. If we multiply the cross-sectional area by the height of the column, we get the volume of water in this column. We can then multiply this volume by the density of water, 1000. kg/m 3 , and get the mass of water in the column. We then multiply this mass by the acceleration due to gravity, , to get the weight of the water in this column. Answer: mass of water", "output": [ "What do you get by multiplying volume by the density of water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f4971897047544fc885c3909c516c6bc", "input": "Passage: Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to break along certain planes. When a mineral breaks along a plane, it makes a smooth surface. Minerals with different crystal structures will break or cleave in different ways ( Figure below ). Halite tends to form cubes with smooth surfaces. Mica tends to form sheets. Fluorite can form octahedrons. Answer: cleavage", "output": [ "What term is used to describe the tendency of a mineral to break along certain planes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-892015e43835419ab5a50720a921b25f", "input": "Passage: Photosynthesis takes place in the organelle of the plant cell known as the chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are one of the main differences between plant and animal cells. Animal cells do not have chloroplasts, so they cannot photosynthesize. Photosynthesis occurs in two stages. During the first stage, the energy from sunlight is absorbed by the chloroplast. Water is used, and oxygen is produced during this part of the process. During the second stage, carbon dioxide is used, and glucose is produced. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "What takes place in the organelle known as the chloroplast, which distinguishes animal from plant cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-30162a121cfe4c85ba8ce5c17c4788f8", "input": "Passage: In grazing , the predator eats part of the prey but does not usually kill it. You may have seen cows grazing on grass. The grass they eat grows back, so there is no real effect on the population. In the ocean, kelp (a type of seaweed) can regrow after being eaten by fish. Answer: prey", "output": [ "In grazing, a predator partially eats but does not kill what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a850b24f4d7244a5bb2902f6eb668d89", "input": "Passage: The angular momentum of a spinning object can be found in two equivalent ways. Just like linear momentum, one way, shown in the first equation, is to multiply the moment of inertia, the rotational analog of mass, with the angular velocity. The other way is simply multiplying the linear momentum by the radius, as shown in the second equation. Answer: angular momentum", "output": [ "Multiplying the linear momentum of a spinning object by the radius calculates what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8830d2c80eac4877a71ee16ba92f1372", "input": "Passage: Each species has a characteristic number of chromosomes. Chromosomes are coiled structures made of DNA and proteins called histones ( Figure below ). Chromosomes are the form of the genetic material of a cell during cell division. See the \"Chromosomes\" section for additional information. Answer: chromosomes", "output": [ "Each species has a characteristic number of what coiled structures made of dna and proteins?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ff779e92229c48e69b2ccdc446ff6270", "input": "Passage: Carbon taxes are taxes placed on products that produce carbon dioxide. An example of this is gasoline for your car. The taxes encourage people to use less fossil fuel. This naturally reduces carbon dioxide emissions. Answer: carbon taxes", "output": [ "What do you call taxes placed on products that produce carbon dioxide?" ] }, { "id": "task594-145e36cb070b499da04acd3e7d744002", "input": "Passage: Individual nucleotides can be linked together through their phosphate groups to form nucleic acid polymers. Once constructed, DNA generally exists as two strands that are linked together by hydrogen bonds, producing a double-helical structure (see Figure below ). Answer: nucleic acid polymers", "output": [ "Individual nucleotides can be linked together through their phosphate groups to form?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e65d3343f70c4c4a84526f63d5ab7df7", "input": "Passage: Thermal energy is the total energy of moving particles of matter. The transfer of thermal energy is called heat. Therefore, a heating system is a system for the transfer of thermal energy. Regardless of the type of heating system in a home, the basic function is the same: to produce thermal energy and transfer it to air throughout the house. Answer: heat", "output": [ "What do you call the transfer of thermal energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d37c60850dbf4965a2cf32d9cac18898", "input": "Passage: Most metal objects are made of metal alloys rather than pure metals. Answer: metal alloys", "output": [ "What are most metal objects made of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-97ff743f98c3419cab36e95c6a148675", "input": "Passage: Cows are able to digest grass with the help of the methanogens in their gut. Answer: digestion", "output": [ "Methanogens in their gut enable what process in cows?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5211e47765a74deb8b5ee7f28419a3bb", "input": "Passage: Only radioactive isotopes have half-lives. Answer: universe", "output": [ "The first law of thermodynamics deals with the total amount of energy in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cf0d9a806f5a4d3cb172f7622cf98101", "input": "Passage: Selective precipitation can also be used in qualitative analysis. In this method, reagents are added to an unknown chemical mixture in order to induce precipitation. Certain reagents cause specific ions to precipitate out; therefore, the addition of the reagent can be used to determine whether the ion is present in the solution. Answer: precipitation", "output": [ "In qualitative analysis, reagents are added to an unknown chemical mixture in order to induce what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-15326a344eb74509bc2b24835b1d9b17", "input": "Passage: Flammability is the ability of matter to burn. When matter burns, it combines with oxygen and changes to different substances. Wood is an example of flammable matter, as seen in Figure below . Answer: flammability", "output": [ "What term is used to describe the ability of matter to burn?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9018b9ffd283454aa6908489eb566f26", "input": "Passage: electrons, which have a negative electric charge. Answer: negative", "output": [ "What kind of charge do electrons have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b805cf8c16204fe2b510859f70f79322", "input": "Passage: To figure out how the solar system formed, we need to put together what we have learned. There are two other important features to consider. First, all the planets orbit in nearly the same flat, disk-like region. Second, all the planets orbit in the same direction around the Sun. These two features are clues to how the solar system formed. Answer: orbit", "output": [ "All planets exhibit the same or nearly the same direction and shape of what path around the sun?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f2b3b9451bb44918b79e12b13879ff96", "input": "Passage: Soil erosion is a natural process, but human activities can increase it. Answer: human activities", "output": [ "Soil erosion is a natural process, but what can increase it unnaturally?" ] }, { "id": "task594-24e7d359bfaa487395e02bbba6d2bd65", "input": "Passage: The first and longest phase of mitosis is prophase . During prophase, chromatin condenses into chromosomes, and the nuclear envelope, or membrane, breaks down. In animal cells, the centrioles near the nucleus begin to separate and move to opposite poles of the cell. As the centrioles move, a spindle starts to form between them. The spindle, shown in Figure below , consists of fibers made of microtubules. Answer: mitosis", "output": [ "Chromatin condenses into chromosomes during prophase, the first and longest phase of what process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8557b7a7c14a4dd9b7ac71b1a5f86082", "input": "Passage: The speed of sound also depends on the temperature of the medium. For a given medium such as air, sound has a slower speed at lower temperatures. You can compare the speed of sound in air at different temperatures in Table below . A lower temperature means that particles of the medium are moving more slowly, so it takes them longer to transfer the energy of the sound waves. The amount of water vapor in the air affects the speed of sound as well. Do you think sound travels faster or slower when the air contains more water vapor? ( Hint: Compare the speed of sound in water and air in Table above . ). Answer: sound", "output": [ "The amount of water vapor in the air and the temperature of the medium affects how fast what travels?" ] }, { "id": "task594-85457a259ca04a59afd06973b15fe5ad", "input": "Passage: Your body needs proteins to create muscles, regulate chemical reactions, transport oxygen, and perform other important tasks in your body. But how are these proteins built? They are made up of units called amino acids. Just like there are only a few types of blocks in a set, there are a limited number of amino acids. But there are many different ways in which they can be combined. Answer: proteins", "output": [ "What is needed to create muscles, regulate chemical reactions, and transport oxygen?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d283ee29344d4318a64d5ce14401ff14", "input": "Passage: Reptiles are a class of ectothermic, four-legged vertebrates that produce amniotic eggs. They include turtles, crocodiles, lizards, and snakes. Reptiles were the first vertebrates to live full time on land, and they evolved many terrestrial adaptations. Answer: reptiles", "output": [ "What is the term for the class of ectothermic, four-legged vertebrates that produce amniotic eggs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bc0f36c85b3f4b18966a81d4b51f1663", "input": "Passage: The atoms of a compound are held together by chemical bonds. Chemical bonds form when atoms share electrons. There are different types of chemical bonds, and they vary in how strongly they hold together the atoms of a compound. Two of the strongest types of bonds are covalent and ionic bonds. Covalent bonds form between atoms that have little if any difference in electronegativity, and result when atoms share electrons. Electronegativity is the power of an atom to attract electrons toward itself. Ionic bonds , in contrast, form between atoms that are significantly different in electronegativity. An ion is an atom that has gained or lost at least one electron. Ionic bonds form between ions of opposite charges. Answer: chemical", "output": [ "The atoms of a compound are held together by what type of bonds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e8ecb41b3d034fc0ab1cd15c9e1406ac", "input": "Passage: Living species of chordates are classified into three major subphyla: Vertebrata, Urochordata, and Cephalochordata. Vertebrates are all chordates that have a backbone. The other two subphyla are invertebrate chordates that lack a backbone. Members of the subphylum Urochordata are tunicates (also called sea squirts). Members of the subphylum Cephalochordata are lancelets . Both tunicates and lancelets are small and primitive. They are probably similar to the earliest chordates that evolved more than 500 million years ago. Answer: backbone", "output": [ "Vertebrates are all chordates that have a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2424566698284bb4aaff754d1c3520d9", "input": "Passage: Diffraction is the bending of waves around a corner. Answer: diffraction", "output": [ "What is the bending of waves around a corner called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a030b674c35140babb7f081e4808d255", "input": "Passage: The process in which organ systems work to maintain a stable internal environment is called homeostasis. Keeping a stable internal environment requires constant adjustments. Here are just three of the many ways that human organ systems help the body maintain homeostasis:. Answer: homeostasis", "output": [ "What is the process in which organ systems work to maintain a stable internal environment?" ] }, { "id": "task594-731a0d0142b24e67be76c409d01db6d2", "input": "Passage: In myopia, the eye is too long. Below, you can see how images are focused on the retina of someone with myopia ( Figure below ). Myopia is corrected with a concave lens, which curves inward like the inside of a bowl. The lens changes the focus, so images fall on the retina as they should. Answer: myopia", "output": [ "What vision defect occurs because the eye is too long?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2b67d05b899a4d30a9d9af8a55cdcbe8", "input": "Passage: Pulmonary gas exchange is the exchange of gases between inhaled air and the blood. It occurs in the alveoli of the lungs. Alveoli (singular, alveolus) are grape-like clusters surrounded by networks of thin-walled pulmonary capillaries. After you inhale, there is a greater concentration of oxygen in the alveoli than in the blood of the pulmonary capillaries, so oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood across the capillaries (see Figure below ). Carbon dioxide, in contrast, is more concentrated in the blood of the pulmonary capillaries than in the alveoli, so it diffuses in the opposite direction. Answer: alveoli", "output": [ "In what part of the lungs is pulmonary gas exchanged?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8a1badb5dbf743a4a78bd573b2b09462", "input": "Passage: There are many other examples of redox reactions in which two neutral elements combine to make a compound. These often take the form of a metal being oxidized and a nonmetal being reduced, resulting in an ionic compound. Two nonmetallic elements can also undergo a redox reaction of this type, in which the less electronegative element is oxidized and the more electronegative element is reduced. Answer: ionic compound", "output": [ "When a metal is oxidized and a nonmetal is reduced in a redox reaction, what is the resulting compound called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-02b136851ccb41b3a2de2afab0b8c4a8", "input": "Passage: Erosion moves the pieces of broken rock. Answer: moves them", "output": [ "What does erosion do to pieces of broken rock?" ] }, { "id": "task594-db5ebdaa8989457eb6191244a42fd5f3", "input": "Passage: Cartilage Templates Bone is a replacement tissue; that is, it uses a model tissue on which to lay down its mineral matrix. For skeletal development, the most common template is cartilage. During fetal development, a framework is laid down that determines where bones will form. This framework is a flexible, semi-solid matrix produced by chondroblasts and consists of hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, collagen fibers, and water. As the matrix surrounds and isolates chondroblasts, they are called chondrocytes. Unlike most connective tissues, cartilage is avascular, meaning that it has no blood vessels supplying nutrients and removing metabolic wastes. All of these functions are carried on by diffusion through the matrix. This is why damaged cartilage does not repair itself as readily as most tissues do. Throughout fetal development and into childhood growth and development, bone forms on the cartilaginous matrix. By the time a fetus is born, most of the cartilage has been replaced with bone. Some additional cartilage will be replaced throughout childhood, and some cartilage remains in the adult skeleton. Answer: cartilage", "output": [ "For skeletal development, the most common template is what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4306d0e996f04ff1861368117059b6c6", "input": "Passage: The Fujita scale measures tornado intensity based on wind speed and damage. Answer: tornado", "output": [ "The fujita scale measures the intensity of what weather event, based on wind speed and damage?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6cdc668c24a84685ac41681d2241b7e0", "input": "Passage: The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere. In it, temperature decreases with altitude. The troposphere gets some of its heat directly from the Sun. Most, however, comes from Earth's surface. The surface is heated by the Sun and some of that heat radiates back into the air. This makes the temperature higher near the surface than at higher altitudes. Answer: troposphere", "output": [ "What do we call the lowest layer of the atmosphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bbc5a16df5a64253933393ee536273c2", "input": "Passage: The skin is a familiar organ made of epithelial tissue. Answer: epithelial tissue", "output": [ "The skin is a familiar organ made of what kind of tissue?" ] }, { "id": "task594-66d404df456b4b5cbca11e7918ebe096", "input": "Passage: Inductive reasoning is the process of drawing general conclusions based on many pieces of evidence. This type of reasoning is the basis of the scientific method. Answer: inductive reasoning", "output": [ "What is the process of drawing general conclusions based on many pieces of evidence?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eb406d196604429286dc5694c2619155", "input": "Passage: Figure 7.22 Osteoporosis Osteoporosis is an age-related disorder that causes the gradual loss of bone density and strength. When the thoracic vertebrae are affected, there can be a gradual collapse of the vertebrae. This results in kyphosis, an excessive curvature of the thoracic region. Answer: osteoporosis", "output": [ "What is the age-related disorder that causes the gradual loss of bone density and strength?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fe438ee23aee4a959b2bd09f35f5237f", "input": "Passage: Some volcanoes form over active hotspots . Scientists count about 50 hotspots on the Earth. Hotspots lie directly above a column of hot rock called a mantle plume . Mantle plumes continuously bring hot rock up from the mantle toward the crust ( Figure below ). The rock melts due to the release of pressure. Answer: mantle plume", "output": [ "What is the column of hot rock that continuously brings hot rock up from the mantle toward the crust?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5360e478616f48edb0cccff493b01933", "input": "Passage: Like other spiral galaxies, our galaxy has a disk, a central bulge, and spiral arms. The disk is about 100,000 light-years across and 3,000 light-years thick. Most of the Galaxy’s gas, dust, young stars, and open clusters are in the disk. Answer: milky way", "output": [ "What is the name of the galaxy we live in?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ea84c37eeb4944b3811ebd42867bea3c", "input": "Passage: Bone marrow is a soft connective tissue that produces blood cells. It is found inside the pores of spongy bone. Answer: bone marrow", "output": [ "What is found inside the pores of spongy bone?" ] }, { "id": "task594-78ba04360378435c8ce01e8117e78b35", "input": "Passage: Brain Stem The midbrain and hindbrain (composed of the pons and the medulla) are collectively referred to as the brain stem (Figure 13.12). The structure emerges from the ventral surface of the forebrain as a tapering cone that connects the brain to the spinal cord. Attached to the brain stem, but considered a separate region of the adult brain, is the cerebellum. The midbrain coordinates sensory representations of the visual, auditory, and somatosensory perceptual spaces. The pons is the main connection with the cerebellum. The pons and the medulla regulate several crucial functions, including the cardiovascular and respiratory systems and rates. Answer: cerebellum", "output": [ "What part of the brain is attached to the brain stem but considered a separate region of the adult brain?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bf85cd313cbe4ef2b83297c408749223", "input": "Passage: Plants and animals exist in a cycle; each requires products of the other. The thousands of coordinated chemical reactions that keep cells alive are referred to collectively as metabolism. In general, metabolic reactions are divided into two classes: the breaking down of molecules to obtain energy is catabolism, and the building of new molecules needed by living systems is anabolism. Answer: anabolism", "output": [ "What is the term for the metabolic reaction where living systems build new molecules?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0036ad196ddd4fea8a06e09d6dc02235", "input": "Passage: Figure 20.33 The outer surface of the heart changes from positive to negative during depolarization. This wave of depolarization is spreading from the top of the heart and is represented by a vector pointing in the direction of the wave. This vector is a voltage (potential difference) vector. Three electrodes, labeled RA, LA, and LL, are placed on the patient. Each pair (called leads I, II, and III) measures a component of the depolarization vector and is graphed in an ECG. Answer: depolarization", "output": [ "The outer surface of the heart changes from positive to negative during what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-39e601242abc48b0bfa5dd90269f0ed7", "input": "Passage: Pure Substances and Mixtures A pure chemical substance is any matter that has a fixed chemical composition and characteristic properties. Oxygen, for example, is a pure chemical substance that is a colorless, odorless gas at 25°C. Very few samples of matter consist of pure substances; instead, most are mixtures, which are combinations of two or more pure substances in variable proportions in which the individual substances retain their identity. Air, tap water, milk, blue cheese, bread, and dirt are all mixtures. If all portions of a material are in the same state, have no visible boundaries, and are uniform throughout, then the material is homogeneous. Examples of homogeneous mixtures are the air we breathe. Answer: pure chemical substance", "output": [ "What type of substance is any matter that has a fixed chemical composition and characteristic properties?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a66e8f4399f7405ca82fe8554f2bd863", "input": "Passage: The life cycle of all plants is complex because it is characterized by alternation of generations. Plants alternate between diploid sporophyte and haploid gametophyte generations, and between sexual and asexual reproduction. The ability to reproduce both sexually and asexually gives plants the flexibility to adapt to changing environments. Their complex life cycle allows for great variation. A general plant life cycle is represented by the diagram in Figure below . From the figure, you can see that the diploid sporophyte has a structure called a sporangium (plural, sporangia) that undergoes meiosis to form haploid spores . A spore develops into a haploid gametophyte . The gametophyte has male or female reproductive organs that undergo mitosis to form haploid gametes (sperm or eggs). Fertilization of gametes produces a diploid zygote . The zygote grows and develops into a mature sporophyte, and the cycle repeats. Answer: asexually", "output": [ "Plants can reproduce sexually and in which other way?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ee343031758a4d71bfa0b85a299221c8", "input": "Passage: Christopher Auyeung. Particles of different densities exert different amounts of pressure . CC BY-NC 3.0. Answer: pressure", "output": [ "Particles of different densities exert different amounts of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1fbfb130e3f2468598dd7958d93f6306", "input": "Passage: Decomposers are heterotrophs that break down the wastes of other organisms or the remains of dead organisms. When they do, they release simple inorganic molecules back into the environment. Producers can then use the inorganic molecules to make new organic compounds. For this reason, decomposers are essential to every ecosystem. Imagine what would happen if there were no decomposers. Organic wastes and dead organisms would pile up everywhere, and their nutrients would no longer be recycled. Answer: decomposers", "output": [ "Without what food chain component, organic wastes and dead organisms would pile up everywhere, and their nutrients would no longer be recycled?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6874de4d6eb54a56972769e9d9e7bedc", "input": "Passage: The Van de Graaff Generator Van de Graaff generators (or Van de Graaffs) are not only spectacular devices used to demonstrate high voltage due to static electricity—they are also used for serious research. The first was built by Robert Van de Graaff in 1931 (based on original suggestions by Lord Kelvin) for use in nuclear physics research. Figure 18.38 shows a schematic of a large research version. Van de Graaffs utilize both smooth and pointed surfaces, and conductors and insulators to generate large static charges and, hence, large voltages. A very large excess charge can be deposited on the sphere, because it moves quickly to the outer surface. Practical limits arise because the large electric fields polarize and eventually ionize surrounding materials, creating free charges that neutralize excess charge or allow it to escape. Nevertheless, voltages of 15 million volts are well within practical limits. Answer: ionize", "output": [ "Practical limits of van de graaff generators arise because the large electric fields polarize and eventually do what to surrounding materials?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ce3af4b5168043979621685b3fa73b01", "input": "Passage: Cell division Mitosis M Cell growth stops at this stage. Mitosis divides the nucleus into two nuclei, followed by cytokinesis which divides the cytoplasm. Two genetically identical daughter cells result. Answer: cytoplasm", "output": [ "What is divided during cytokinesis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-31dfcdfa7df5412684fcb0331d7049f5", "input": "Passage: Electronegativity is a qualitative measure of how much an atom attracts electrons in a covalent bond. Answer: electrons", "output": [ "Electronegativity is a qualitative measure of how much an atom attracts what in a covalent bond?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f08f3c4dac9b4d94b1e92b6177884c44", "input": "Passage: Carbon behaves as a metal because it conducts heat and electricity well. It is a nonmetal because it is black and brittle and cannot be made into sheets or wires. Answer: heat and electricity", "output": [ "Carbon behaves as a metal because it conducts which two things well?" ] }, { "id": "task594-52f9b287812a429a8ca1d4aa00649eb5", "input": "Passage: Emphysema is a chronic lung disease caused by the breakdown of the lung tissue. Symptoms of emphysema include shortness of breath, especially during exercise, and chronic cough, usually due to cigarette smoking, and wheezing, especially during expiration. Damage to the alveoli ( Figure below ), is not curable. Smoking is the leading cause of emphysema. Answer: lung", "output": [ "Emphysema is a chronic disease caused by the breakdown of the what tissue?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3d5b36cb6f4a47d2b6c823cfcdca2b6a", "input": "Passage: Q: The wavelength of a wave is the distance between corresponding points on adjacent waves. For example, it is the distance between two adjacent crests in the transverse waves in the diagram. Infer how wave frequency is related to wavelength. Answer: adjacent waves", "output": [ "The wavelength of a wave is the distance between corresponding points on what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-93a090af99b2463fbf241d3dd3db0633", "input": "Passage: Translation is the process of ordering the amino acids in the assembly of a protein. The word ribosome comes from ribo nucleic acid and the Greek soma (meaning body). Two Nobel Prizes have been awarded for work relating to the ribosome. The 1974 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Albert Claude, Christian de Duve and George Emil Palade for the discovery of the ribosome, and the 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, Thomas A. Steitz and Ada E. Yonath for discovering the detailed structure and mechanism of the ribosome. Answer: protein", "output": [ "Translation is the process of ordering the amino acids in the assembly of a?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3d85ce6ab29a4ab686c35337c603a4b1", "input": "Passage: The Sun was the first object to form in the solar system. Gravity pulled matter together to the center of the disk. Density and pressure increased tremendously. Nuclear fusion reactions begin. In these reactions, the nuclei of atoms come together to form new, heavier chemical elements. Fusion reactions release huge amounts of nuclear energy. From these reactions a star was born, the Sun. Answer: sun", "output": [ "What was the first object to form in the solar system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-79839b67ccd442bebe46b6b2a8170962", "input": "Passage: After implantation occurs, the blastocyst is called an embryo . The embryonic stage lasts through the eighth week following fertilization. During this time, the embryo grows in size and becomes more complex. It develops specialized cells and tissues and starts to form most organs. For an interactive animation of embryonic development, go to this link: http://health. howstuffworks. com/adam-200129. htm . Answer: an embryo", "output": [ "What is the blastocyst called after implantation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bcf303fe1fcd4ae885d9186397786bfe", "input": "Passage: Bioterrorism is the intentional release or spread of agents of disease. Answer: bioterrorism", "output": [ "What is the term for the intentional release or spread of agents of disease?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ad76fab9042642198e989a9efee87b19", "input": "Passage: Stem Cells A stem cell is an unspecialized cell that can divide without limit as needed and can, under specific conditions, differentiate into specialized cells. Stem cells are divided into several categories according to their potential to differentiate. The first embryonic cells that arise from the division of the zygote are the ultimate stem cells; these stems cells are described as totipotent because they have the potential to differentiate into any of the cells needed to enable an organism to grow and develop. The embryonic cells that develop from totipotent stem cells and are precursors to the fundamental tissue layers of the embryo are classified as pluripotent. A pluripotent stem cell is one that has the potential to differentiate into any type of human tissue but cannot support the full development of an organism. These cells then become slightly more specialized, and are referred to as multipotent cells. A multipotent stem cell has the potential to differentiate into different types of cells within a given cell lineage or small number of lineages, such as a red blood cell or white blood cell. Finally, multipotent cells can become further specialized oligopotent cells. An oligopotent stem cell is limited to becoming one of a few different cell types. In contrast, a unipotent cell is fully specialized and can only reproduce to generate more of its own specific cell type. Stem cells are unique in that they can also continually divide and regenerate new stem cells instead of further specializing. There are different stem cells present at different stages of a human’s life. They include the embryonic stem cells of the embryo, fetal stem cells of the fetus, and adult stem cells in the adult. One type of adult stem cell is the epithelial stem cell, which gives rise to the keratinocytes in the multiple layers of epithelial cells in the epidermis of skin. Adult bone marrow has three distinct types of stem cells: hematopoietic stem cells, which give rise to red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets (Figure 3.34); endothelial stem cells, which give rise to the endothelial cell types that line blood and lymph vessels; and mesenchymal stem cells, which give rise to the different types of muscle cells. Answer: specialized cells", "output": [ "A stem cell is an unspecialized cell that can divide without limit as needed and can, under specific conditions, differentiate into these?" ] }, { "id": "task594-67cb603562fd44e7862a18a9d2a43682", "input": "Passage: Ionic compounds contain ions of metals and nonmetals held together by ionic bonds. Ionic compounds do not form molecules. Instead, many positive and negative ions bond together to form a structure called a crystal. You can see an example of a crystal in Figure below . It shows the ionic compound sodium chloride. Positive sodium ions (Na + ) alternate with negative chloride ions (Cl - ). The oppositely charged ions are strongly attracted to each other. Answer: ionic bonds", "output": [ "What kind of bond doesn't form molecules, but instead forms crystals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b45992e4f7b9418389085c4b86f75ffa", "input": "Passage: By losing an electron, the sodium atom becomes a sodium ion. It now has more protons than electrons and a charge of +1. Positive ions such as sodium are given the same name as the element. The chemical symbol has a plus sign to distinguish the ion from an atom of the element. The symbol for a sodium ion is Na + . Answer: electrons", "output": [ "Ions can be formed when atoms lose what other particles?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bb4941a264ef4e40b65384e7c18d52b2", "input": "Passage: The most common mode of asexual reproduction is through the formation of asexual spores, which are produced by one parent only (through mitosis) and are genetically identical to that parent (Figure 24.8). Spores allow fungi to expand their distribution and colonize new environments. They may be released from the parent thallus either outside or within a special reproductive sac called a sporangium. Answer: spores", "output": [ "The most common mode of asexual reproduction is through the formation of asexual these?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ec89fa38df62415a82888c47e752a65a", "input": "Passage: The scientific classification of modern land plants is under constant revision. Informally, land plants can be classified into the groups listed in Table below . The most basic division is between nonvascular and vascular plants. Vascular plants are further divided into those that reproduce without seeds and those that reproduce with seeds. Seed plants, in turn, are divided into those that produce seeds in cones and those that produce seeds in the ovaries of flowers. You can read more about each of these groups of plants in the next lesson. Answer: nonvascular and vascular", "output": [ "The most basic division of land plants is between what type of plants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e57985e363e1423ca2d3bd904e0673ef", "input": "Passage: Gas molecules are exceedingly rare in the exosphere. Answer: exosphere", "output": [ "Molecules of gas are rare in what outermost region of the planet's atmosphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d2b7c02a6f5647a1b64bd9ee87d8ab4d", "input": "Passage: Covalent bonds are responsible for many of the properties of covalent compounds. Covalent compounds have relatively low boiling points, cannot conduct electricity, and may not dissolve in water. Answer: covalent bonds", "output": [ "What is responsible for many properties of covalent compounds, which have relatively low boiling points, cannot conduct electricity, and may not dissolve in water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-91b2566cc8e2402a8cf8f0ac839c4439", "input": "Passage: Most water on Earth, like the water in the oceans, contains elements. The elements are mixed evenly through the water. Water plus other substances makes a solution. The particles are so small that they will not come out when you filter the water. But the elements in water can form solid mineral deposits. Answer: solution", "output": [ "Water plus other substances makes what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c1a4362a4c7a4b58bb1499f961268340", "input": "Passage: Testing eye movement is simply a matter of having the patient track the tip of a pen as it is passed through the visual field. This may appear similar to testing visual field deficits related to the optic nerve, but the difference is that the patient is asked to not move the eyes while the examiner moves a stimulus into the peripheral visual field. Here, the extent of movement is the point of the test. The examiner is watching for conjugate movements representing proper function of the related nuclei and the MLF. Failure of one eye to abduct while the other adducts in a horizontal movement is referred to as internuclear ophthalmoplegia. When this occurs, the patient will experience diplopia, or double vision, as the two eyes are temporarily pointed at different stimuli. Diplopia is not restricted to failure of the lateral rectus, because any of the extraocular muscles may fail to move one eye in perfect conjugation with the other. The final aspect of testing eye movements is to move the tip of the pen in toward the patient’s face. As visual stimuli move closer to the face, the two medial recti muscles cause the eyes to move in the one nonconjugate movement that is part of gaze control. When the two eyes move to look at something closer to the face, they both adduct, which is referred to as convergence. To keep the stimulus in focus, the eye also needs to change the shape of the lens, which is controlled through the parasympathetic fibers of the oculomotor nerve. The change in focal power of the eye is referred to as accommodation. Accommodation ability changes with age; focusing on nearer objects, such as the written text of a book or on a computer screen, may require corrective lenses later in life. Coordination of the skeletal muscles for convergence and coordination of the smooth muscles of the ciliary body for accommodation are referred to as the accommodation–convergence reflex. A crucial function of the cranial nerves is to keep visual stimuli centered on the fovea of the retina. The vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) coordinates all of the components (Figure 16.10), both sensory and motor, that make this possible. If the head rotates in one direction—for example, to the right—the horizontal pair of semicircular canals in the inner ear indicate the movement by increased activity on the right and decreased activity on the left. The information is sent to the abducens nuclei and oculomotor nuclei on either side to coordinate the lateral and medial rectus muscles. The left lateral rectus and right medial rectus muscles will contract, rotating the eyes in the opposite direction of the head, while nuclei controlling the right lateral rectus and left medial rectus muscles will be inhibited to reduce antagonism of the contracting muscles. Answer: retina", "output": [ "A crucial function of the cranial nerves is to keep visual stimuli centered on the fovea of what eye structure?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5597094a75d94c96b469a69851aabb12", "input": "Passage: 2Al(s) + Fe2O3(s) → 2Fe(s) + Al2O3(s) + heat to indicate that heat is one of the products. Chemical equations in which heat is shown as either a reactant or a product are called thermochemical equations. In this reaction, the system consists of aluminum, iron, and oxygen atoms; everything else, including the container, makes up the surroundings. During the reaction, so much heat is produced that the iron liquefies. Eventually, the system cools; the iron solidifies as heat is transferred to the surroundings. A process in which heat (q) is transferred from a system to its surroundings is described as exothermic. By convention, q < 0 for an exothermic reaction. Answer: thermochemical equations", "output": [ "Chemical equations in which heat is shown as either a reactant or a product are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-986715d075284e209cf99d34c149a675", "input": "Passage: Voltmeters have high resistances and are placed in the circuit in parallel. Answer: in parallel", "output": [ "How are voltmeters placed in the circuit?" ] }, { "id": "task594-047293d7ba5842d5ae4e45e263c40584", "input": "Passage: Most groundwater does not flow out of an aquifer as a spring or geyser. So to use the water that's stored in an aquifer people must go after it. How? They dig a well. A well is a hole that is dug or drilled through the ground down to an aquifer. This is illustrated in Figure below . Answer: dig a well", "output": [ "How can people access water in an aquifer that does not flow from a spring or a geyser?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2846c94767e749dda436d6507536753b", "input": "Passage: Glial Cells Glial cells, or neuroglia or simply glia, are the other type of cell found in nervous tissue. They are considered to be supporting cells, and many functions are directed at helping neurons complete their function for communication. The name glia comes from the Greek word that means “glue,” and was coined by the German pathologist Rudolph Virchow, who wrote in 1856: “This connective substance, which is in the brain, the spinal cord, and the special sense nerves, is a kind of glue (neuroglia) in which the nervous elements are planted. ” Today, research into nervous tissue has shown that there are many deeper roles that these cells play. And research may find much more about them in the future. There are six types of glial cells. Four of them are found in the CNS and two are found in the PNS. Table 12.2 outlines some common characteristics and functions. Answer: glial cells", "output": [ "What nervous tissue cells play a supporting role to neurons?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ffe58244b84f494dab71099c9092fe21", "input": "Passage: Energy is the ability to change or move matter. All living things need energy. They need energy for everything they do, whether it is to move long distances or simply to carry out basic biochemical processes inside cells. Energy enters most ecosystems in the form of sunlight. In a few ecosystems, energy enters in the form of chemical compounds. All ecosystems need a constant input of energy in one of these two forms. Answer: energy", "output": [ "What is the ability to change or move matter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9dcac6d9e5234c2caee46e47abcf6367", "input": "Passage: Most of us have at least one device in our homes that guards our safety and, at the same time, depends on radioactivity to operate properly. This device is a smoke detector. A typical smoke detector contains an electric circuit that includes two metal plates about 1 cm apart. A battery in the circuit creates a voltage between the plates. Next to the plates is a small disk containing a tiny amount (∼0.0002 g) of the radioactive element americium. The radioactivity of americium ionizes the air between the plates, causing a tiny current to. Answer: voltage", "output": [ "In a smoke detector, a battery in the electric circuit creates what between the metal plates?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8ef352da71384753bb042ee2519d1a1f", "input": "Passage: Salamanders belong to a group of approximately 500 species of amphibians. The order Urodela, containing salamanders and newts, is divided into three suborders:. Answer: urodela", "output": [ "What is the name of the order that salamanders belong to?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e6d8682d9c464ce7a542d5e57731937f", "input": "Passage: Nonrenewable resources are natural resources that are limited in supply and cannot be replaced except over millions of years. Nonrenewable energy resources include fossil fuels and radioactive elements such as uranium. Answer: nonrenewable", "output": [ "Natural resources that are limited in supply and cannot be replaced except over millions of years are known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a0433d21a3a046c082d8079dbabd40e6", "input": "Passage: Neutralization reactions, like the other chemical reactions you have read about so far, involve electrons. Electrons are outside the nucleus of an atom. Certain other reactions involve the nucleus of an atom instead. These reactions are called nuclear reactions. You will read about them in the next chapter, \"Nuclear Chemistry. \". Answer: outside the nucleus", "output": [ "Where are electrons located in relation to the nucleus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f45009cd0d2349c68d2804c8118416c2", "input": "Passage: Scanning acoustic microscopes use sound waves to scan a specimen. These microscopes are useful in biology and medical research. Answer: sound waves", "output": [ "Scanning acoustic microscopes use what kind of waves to scan a specimen?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2d94aec0b8864e5792ed7f9a01381cd9", "input": "Passage: Deposition is the change of state from a gas to a solid. Answer: solid", "output": [ "Deposition refers to when a gas changes to what state?" ] }, { "id": "task594-98719947a771472cabde1fd9f17cba40", "input": "Passage: Figure 13.11 In general, objects expand in all directions as temperature increases. In these drawings, the original boundaries of the objects are shown with solid lines, and the expanded boundaries with dashed lines. (a) Area increases because both length and width increase. The area of a circular plug also increases. (b) If the plug is removed, the hole it leaves becomes larger with increasing temperature, just as if the expanding plug were still in place. (c) Volume also increases, because all three dimensions increase. Answer: increases", "output": [ "In general, objects expand in all directions as temperature does what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c0dfde962402406e82652d04c422db50", "input": "Passage: osmol = M × i If more than one solute is present in a solution, the individual osmolarities are additive to get the total osmolarity of the solution. Solutions that have the same osmolarity have the same osmotic pressure. If solutions of differing osmolarities are present on opposite sides of a semipermeable membrane, solvent will transfer from the lower-osmolarity solution to the higher-osmolarity solution. Counterpressure exerted on the highosmolarity solution will reduce or halt the solvent transfer. An even higher pressure can be exerted to force solvent from the high-osmolarity solution to the low-osmolarity solution, a process called reverse osmosis. Reverse osmosis is used to make potable water from saltwater where sources of fresh water are scarce. Answer: low to high", "output": [ "If solutions of differing osmolarities are present on opposite sides of a semipermeable membrane, solvent will transfer from what to what, in terms of osmolarity of the solution?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e53787cf17c6414baa14788b5925986b", "input": "Passage: Gap genes control the expression of other genes within specific regions of cells in the developing organism. This allows specific genes to be expressed in certain cells at the appropriate stage of development. Answer: gap genes", "output": [ "What is the term for genes that control the expression of other genes within specific regions of cells in the developing organism?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4fa8b4158abf4543b80f54c05e1fdd3e", "input": "Passage: Eventually a main sequence star will use up all of its hydrogen. It then starts to fuse helium atoms into larger elements like carbon. At this time, the star’s core will collapse inward. The star's outer layers will spread out and cool. The result is a larger star that is cooler on the surface, and red in color. The star is now a red giant . Answer: red giant", "output": [ "When a star's core collapses inward while the outer layers spread and cool, what \"colorful\" celestial body forms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a581e5c3af2f47099e29f7a03088ffe6", "input": "Passage: More recently, people have learned to process biomass to make fuel. This is called biofuel . Biofuel is created from crops, such as corn or algae. Biofuel is unique among renewable energy sources. This is because it is liquid. Unlike solar energy, for example, biofuels can be used in a car ( Figure below ). Biofuels burn more cleanly than fossil fuels. They create less pollution and less carbon dioxide. Biofuels, such as ethanol, are added to gasoline. This cuts down the amount of fossil fuels that are used. Answer: bio fuel", "output": [ "What is biomass made into fuel called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3e220acca045405bafd03fdd3af95e06", "input": "Passage: Cells are the tiny building blocks of living things. They couldn’t be discovered until the microscope was invented. The discovery of cells led to the cell theory. This is one of the most important theories in life science. Answer: cells", "output": [ "What are all living things made of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9f66ddc77b204ac190007875dbc92757", "input": "Passage: For the first 4 billion years of Earth history there is only a little evidence of life. Organisms were tiny and soft and did not fossilize well. But scientists use a variety of ways to figure out what this early life was like. Note that the period from Earth's origin to the beginning of the Phanerozoic is called the Precambrian. Answer: precambrian", "output": [ "What is the period from earth's origin to the beginning of the phanerozoic eon?" ] }, { "id": "task594-af05521b30be4b02b00936a0275d468e", "input": "Passage: Biochemical compounds are carbon-based compounds that make up living organisms. There are four main classes of biochemical compounds: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. The classes have different structures and functions. Answer: biochemical", "output": [ "Living organisms are made up of what type of carbon-based compounds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9b80712ff9774777b110eb24c63a3aae", "input": "Passage: Chemical sedimentary rocks form when crystals precipitate out from a liquid. The mineral halite, also called rock salt, forms this way. You can make halite! Leave a shallow dish of salt water out in the Sun. As the water evaporates, salt crystals form in the dish. There are other chemical sedimentary rocks, like gypsum ( Figure below ). Answer: chemical sedimentary rocks", "output": [ "What are formed when crystals precipitate out from a liquid?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dffbbfbdd9344536873c8b09ff669f63", "input": "Passage: Xylem carries water and dissolved minerals from the roots upward to the leaves. Answer: xylem", "output": [ "What type of plant tissue transports water and dissolved mineral upward to the leaves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5652d8820e4b48769bb3b32362c29b1c", "input": "Passage: Flammability is the ability of matter to burn. Wood is flammable; iron is not. When wood burns, it changes to ashes, carbon dioxide, water vapor, and other gases. After burning, it is no longer wood. Answer: flammability", "output": [ "The ability of matter to burn is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-570b55a28c6e468f8e8b1fbf220dbcb1", "input": "Passage: A sex chromosome is a chromosome that determines the sex of an organism. Humans have two sex chromosomes, X and Y . Females have two X chromosomes ( XX ), and males have one X and one Y chromosome ( XY ). An autosome is any chromosome other than a sex chromosome. If a trait is autosomal it will affect males and females equally. Answer: sex chromosome", "output": [ "What chromosome determines the sex of an organism?" ] }, { "id": "task594-58ce0333c5bd489884df95a59cfa6c19", "input": "Passage: material, and is intimately related to the polarizability of the material. Things Great and Small The Submicroscopic Origin of Polarization Polarization is a separation of charge within an atom or molecule. As has been noted, the planetary model of the atom pictures it as having a positive nucleus orbited by negative electrons, analogous to the planets orbiting the Sun. Although this model is not completely accurate, it is very helpful in explaining a vast range of phenomena and will be refined elsewhere, such as in Atomic Physics. The submicroscopic origin of polarization can be modeled as shown in Figure 19.18. Answer: polarization", "output": [ "What process refers to a separation of charge within an atom or molecule?" ] }, { "id": "task594-84298ad85ee346a2ace77c798f89bd27", "input": "Passage: Vinegar is primarily an aqueous solution of acetic acid. Commercial vinegar typically contains 5.0 g of acetic acid in 95.0 g of water. What is the concentration of commercial vinegar? If only 3.1% of the acetic acid −. Answer: spawning", "output": [ "Pairs of fish that do not practice broadcast what may exhibit courtship behavior?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a85c3eb1ff544dd09ac06858aec7368d", "input": "Passage: Note that there is a system for naming some polyatomic ions; -ate and -ite are suffixes designating polyatomic ions containing more or fewer oxygen atoms. Per- (short for “hyper”) and hypo- (meaning “under”) are prefixes meaning more oxygen atoms than -ate and fewer oxygen atoms than -ite, respectively. For example, perchlorate is ClO 4 − , chlorate is ClO 3 − , chlorite is ClO 2 − and hypochlorite is ClO−. Unfortunately, the number of oxygen atoms corresponding to a given suffix or prefix is not consistent; for example, nitrate is NO 3 − while sulfate is SO 4 2−. This will be covered in more detail in the next module on nomenclature. The nature of the attractive forces that hold atoms or ions together within a compound is the basis for classifying chemical bonding. When electrons are transferred and ions form, ionic bonds result. Ionic bonds are electrostatic forces of attraction, that is, the attractive forces experienced between objects of opposite electrical charge (in this case, cations and anions). When electrons are “shared” and molecules form, covalent bonds result. Covalent bonds are the attractive forces between the positively charged nuclei of the bonded atoms and one or more pairs of electrons that are located between the atoms. Compounds are classified as ionic or molecular (covalent) on the basis of the bonds present in them. Answer: covalent", "output": [ "What type of bonds are the attractive forces between the positively charged nuclei of the bonded atoms and one or more pairs of electrons that are located between the atoms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-369e9e6b4a3844fb840e5b9e613e74f5", "input": "Passage: What if you were to drop a bowling ball and a soccer ball at the same time from the same distance above the ground? The bowling ball has greater mass than the basketball, so the pull of gravity on it is greater. Would it fall to the ground faster? No, the bowling ball and basketball would reach the ground at the same time. The reason? The more massive bowling ball is also harder to move because of its greater mass, so it ends up moving at the same acceleration as the soccer ball. This is true of all falling objects. They all accelerate at the same rate due to gravity, unless air resistance affects one object more than another. For example, a falling leaf is slowed down by air resistance more than a falling acorn because of the leaf’s greater surface area. You can simulate the effect of air resistance on acceleration due to gravity by doing the interactive animation at this URL: http://www. science-animations. com/support-files/freefall. swf. Answer: gravity", "output": [ "In the absence of air resistance, all falling objects accelerate at the same rate due to what force?" ] }, { "id": "task594-69badf19ba5e46ffb5d7337e74fa7e5a", "input": "Passage: When it comes to energy, ecosystems are not closed. They need constant inputs of energy. Most ecosystems get energy from sunlight. A small minority get energy from chemical compounds. Unlike energy, matter is not constantly added to ecosystems. Instead, it is recycled. Water and elements such as carbon and nitrogen are used over and over again. Answer: sunlight", "output": [ "What do most ecosystems get energy from?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b96aea58dc4a45d0bad6d738b2163559", "input": "Passage: Jupiter has lots of moons. As of 2011, we have discovered over 60 natural satellites of Jupiter. Four are big enough and bright enough to be seen from Earth using a pair of binoculars. These four moons were first discovered by Galileo in 1610. They are called the Galilean moons . Figure below shows the four Galilean moons and their sizes relative to Jupiter’s Great Red Spot. These moons are named Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. The Galilean moons are larger than even the biggest dwarf planets, Pluto and Eris. Ganymede is the biggest moon in the solar system. It is even larger than the planet Mercury!. Answer: galileo", "output": [ "Who first discovered the moons of jupiter in 1610?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2f04f005d1334cec82d7eda832f9da0c", "input": "Passage: Hydrolase – A hydrolase splits a molecule into two fragments by using water. The catalyzed reaction is referred to as a hydrolysis. Answer: water", "output": [ "What does a hydrolase use to split molecules?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6198ff4c52164d6da82ee9f677d9e7f0", "input": "Passage: Two important devices depend on electromagnetic induction: electric generators and electric transformers. Both devices play critical roles in producing and regulating the electric current we depend on in our daily lives. Electric generators use electromagnetic induction to change kinetic energy to electrical energy. They produce electricity in power plants. Electric transformers use electromagnetic induction to change the voltage of electric current. Some transformers increase voltage and other decrease voltage. Answer: electric generators", "output": [ "What type of generators use electromagnetic induction to change kinetic energy to electrical energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-27a302205b234c5399640725a7e7d704", "input": "Passage: Chapter 38 1 Figure 38.19B 3 Figure 38.38 In the presence of Sarin, acetycholine is not removed from the synapse, resulting in continuous stimulation of the muscle plasma membrane. At first, muscle activity is intense and uncontrolled, but the ion gradients dissipate, so electrical signals in the T-tubules are no longer possible. The result is paralysis, leading to death by asphyxiation. 4 A 6 D 8 B 10 A 12 B 14 C 16 D 18 D 20 The female pelvis is tilted forward and is wider, lighter, and shallower than the male pelvis. It is also has a pubic angle that is broader than the male pelvis. 22 Compact bone tissue forms the hard external layer of all bones and consists of osteons. Compact bone tissue is prominent in areas of bone at which stresses are applied in only a few directions. Spongy bone tissue forms the inner layer of all bones and consists of trabeculae. Spongy bone is prominent in areas of bones that are not heavily stressed or at which stresses arrive from many directions. 24 The hip joint is flexed and the knees are extended. 26 Because ATP is required for myosin to release from actin, muscles would remain rigidly contracted until more ATP was available for the myosin cross-bridge release. This is why dead vertebrates undergo rigor mortis. 28 Neurons will not be able to release neurotransmitter without calcium. Skeletal muscles have calcium stored and don’t need any from the outside. Answer: spongy bone tissue", "output": [ "What kind of tissue consists of trabeculae and forms the inner layer of all bones?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ee4f24cd5b794eaba0d9954b6803d69a", "input": "Passage: Ions such as sodium (Na + ), potassium (K + ), calcium (Ca 2+ ), and chloride (Cl - ), are important for many cell functions. Because they are charged (polar), these ions do not diffuse through the membrane. Instead they move through ion channel proteins where they are protected from the hydrophobic interior of the membrane. Ion channels allow the formation of a concentration gradient between the extracellular fluid and the cytosol. Ion channels are very specific, as they allow only certain ions through the cell membrane. Some ion channels are always open, others are \"gated\" and can be opened or closed. Gated ion channels can open or close in response to different types of stimuli, such as electrical or chemical signals. Answer: membrane", "output": [ "Because they are charged (polar), these ions do not diffuse through what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8c9930e4e7374f3dbaa6e54efa49667d", "input": "Passage: An ecosystem is a group of living things and their environment. The word ecosystem is short for “ecological system. ” Like any system, an ecosystem is a group of parts that work together. You can see examples of ecosystems in Figure below . The forest pictured is a big ecosystem. Besides trees, what living things do you think are part of the forest ecosystem? The dead tree stump in the same forest is a small ecosystem. It includes plants, mosses, and fungi. It also includes insects and worms. Answer: ecosystem", "output": [ "A group of living things and their environment is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-de85dd1c1e9345a1af9686f85a614175", "input": "Passage: Opposite charges attract and like charges repulse. Answer: repulse", "output": [ "Opposite charges attract and like charges do what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-45b14274e97c45c5aae4746aff9c6552", "input": "Passage: Muscles can only contract. They can’t actively lengthen. Therefore, to move bones back and forth at a joint, skeletal muscles must work in pairs. For example, the bicep and triceps muscles of the upper arm work as a pair. You can see how this pair of muscles works in Figure below . When the bicep muscle contracts, it bends the arm at the elbow. When the triceps muscle contracts, it straightens the arm. Answer: contract", "output": [ "Skeletal muscles must work in pairs to move bones back and forth at a joint because they can only do what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6e49f17c68cf4522a3235a00101fe9c4", "input": "Passage: The earliest fungi may have evolved about 600 million years ago. Answer: 600 million", "output": [ "How many years ago may the earliest fungi have evolved?" ] }, { "id": "task594-48cb166b2343495db517c0db3a9ad5ff", "input": "Passage: Emphysema is a lung disease in which walls of the alveoli break down so less gas can be exchanged in the lungs (see Figure below ). This causes shortness of breath. The damage to the alveoli is usually caused by smoking and is irreversible. Answer: lungs", "output": [ "What part of the body does emphysema affect?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ff8bd13f3b9547f2975777a15a32870e", "input": "Passage: Ribosomes are produced in the nucleolus, and then transported to the cytoplasm. Ribosomes are made of ribosomal proteins, called ribonucleoproteins , and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Each ribosome has two parts, a large and a small subunit, as shown in Figure below . The subunits are attached to each other. During translation, the smaller subunit binds to the mRNA, while the larger subunit binds to the tRNA with attached amino acids. When a ribosome finishes reading an mRNA molecule, the two ribosomal subunits disassociate. Answer: cytoplasm", "output": [ "Ribosomes are produced in the nucleolus, and then transported to the what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7b14a146fe344008b837de793431cf45", "input": "Passage: When lactose is available, a lactose metabolite called allolactose binds to the allosteric site on the repressor. This interaction causes a conformational change in the repressor shape and the repressor falls off the operator, allowing RNA polymerase to bind to the promoter and initiate transcription. Allolactose is called an inducer because it turns on, or induces the expression of the lac genes. Answer: allolactose", "output": [ "Which inducer turns on the expression of the lac genes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2221327a828d45f89b8bebdddae72367", "input": "Passage: The lungs release carbon dioxide into the air. Carbon dioxide is a gaseous waste product of the cells. Wastes are excreted from the body by the excretory system. Therefore, the lungs are organs of the excretory system as well as the respiratory system. Answer: both", "output": [ "Are the lungs organs of the excretory system, the respiratory system, or both?" ] }, { "id": "task594-65f06666fa234ec283ad8ffd7e6b2310", "input": "Passage: Zinc is a silvery metal that quickly tarnishes to a blue-gray appearance. This change in color is due to an adherent coating of a basic carbonate, Zn2(OH)2CO3, which passivates the metal to inhibit further corrosion. Dry cell and alkaline batteries contain a zinc anode. Brass (Cu and Zn) and some bronze (Cu, Sn, and sometimes Zn) are important zinc alloys. About half of zinc production serves to protect iron and other metals from corrosion. This protection may take the form of a sacrificial anode (also known as a galvanic anode, which is a means of providing cathodic protection for various metals) or as a thin coating on the protected metal. Galvanized steel is steel with a protective coating of zinc. Answer: galvanized", "output": [ "A protective coating of zinc to prevent corrosion is applied to steel and other metals labeled what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e5b3f898a96d4b0796bc840cfb241f97", "input": "Passage: 15.4 Mollusks and Annelids The phylum Mollusca is a large, mainly marine group of invertebrates. Mollusks show a variety of morphologies. Many mollusks secrete a calcareous shell for protection, but in other species, the shell is reduced or absent. Mollusks are protostomes. The dorsal epidermis in mollusks is modified to form the mantle, which encloses the mantle cavity and visceral organs. This cavity is distinct from the coelomic cavity, which the adult animal retains, surrounding the heart. Respiration is facilitated by gills known as ctenidia. A chitinous scraper called the radula is present in most mollusks. Mollusks are mostly dioecious and are divided into seven classes. The phylum Annelida includes worm-like, segmented animals. Segmentation is both external and internal, which is called metamerism. Annelids are protostomes. The presence of chitinous hairs called chaetae is characteristic of most members. These animals have well-developed nervous and digestive systems. Polychaete annelids have parapodia that participate in locomotion and respiration. Suckers are seen in the order Hirudinea. Breeding systems include separate sexes and hermaphroditism. Answer: calcareous shell", "output": [ "What do many mollusks secrete for their protection?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6d3e65dbc8a240efbdbfd49e35f9fd7b", "input": "Passage: What's the difference between monkeys and apes? The easiest way to distinguish monkeys from the other primates is to look for a tail. Most monkey species have tails, but no apes or humans do. Monkeys are much more like other mammals than apes and humans are. Answer: tail", "output": [ "What do most species of monkeys have that no apes or humans do?" ] }, { "id": "task594-31fcce798a79481ebedc8e8aea3cd640", "input": "Passage: Sedimentary rocks form from sediments that are cemented and compacted. Answer: sedimentary", "output": [ "What type of rocks form from sediments that are cemented and compacted?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d6697a9c302b4fb58504bd81ca7a4e1f", "input": "Passage: Break down some substances in food that cannot be digested, such as fiber and some starches and sugars. Bacteria produce enzymes that digest carbohydrates in plant cell walls. Most of the nutritional value of plant material would be wasted without these bacteria. These help us digest plant foods like spinach. Answer: bacteria", "output": [ "What produces enzymes that digest carbohydrates in plant cell walls?" ] }, { "id": "task594-15a7653d01b24751a1edf08320c561fc", "input": "Passage: Surface currents are like streams flowing through the surface of the ocean. They are caused mainly by winds. Earth’s rotation influences their direction. This is called the Coriolis effect. Surface currents may affect the climate of nearby coasts. Answer: winds", "output": [ "What are surface currents mainly caused by?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a50f157d12c4400a97d12304faaec7b2", "input": "Passage: Since the force on a charged particle in a magnetic field is always perpendicular to both its velocity vector and the field vector (check this using the second right hand rule above), a constant magnetic field will provide a centripetal force --- that is, a constant force that is always directed perpendicular to the direction of motion. Two such force/velocity combinations are illustrated above. According to our study of rotational motion, this implies that as long as the particle does not leave the region of the magnetic field, it will travel in a circle. To find the radius of the circle, we set the magnitude of the centripetal force equal to the magnitude of the magnetic force and solve for :. Answer: field vector", "output": [ "The force on a charged particle in a magnetic field is always perpendicular to both its velocity vector and the?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ee800b9a81e5436a884328f6f08c5177", "input": "Passage: Muscle tissue that is attached to bone is skeletal muscle . Whether you are blinking your eyes or running a marathon, you are using skeletal muscle. Contractions of skeletal muscle are voluntary, or under conscious control. Skeletal muscle is the most common type of muscle in the human body, so it is described in more detail below. Answer: skeletal tisse", "output": [ "What is muscle tissue that is attached to the bone called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7e5cc03f1b9d4c2eaabb40f28a1391ba", "input": "Passage: The wide range of movement allowed by synovial joints produces different types of movements. Angular movements are produced when the angle between the bones of a joint changes. Flexion, or bending, occurs when the angle between the bones decreases. Moving the forearm upward at the elbow is an example of flexion. Extension is the opposite of flexion in that the angle between the bones of a joint increases. Rotational movement is the movement of a bone as it rotates around its own longitudinal axis. Movement of the head as in saying “no” is an example of rotation. Answer: angular", "output": [ "What type of movements are produced when the angle between the bones of a joint changes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-582e9d49fb8342c688f690260e6c3b8d", "input": "Passage: The wind belts have names. The Trade Winds are nearest the Equator. The next belt is the westerlies. Finally are the polar easterlies. The names are the same in both hemispheres. Answer: trade winds", "output": [ "What is the name of the wind belt nearest the equator?" ] }, { "id": "task594-545d25b99cc14ddcb3fa6e926cd19a08", "input": "Passage: Old Faithful is the best-known geyser in the world. You can see a picture of it in Figure below . The geyser erupts faithfully every 90 minutes, day after day. During each eruption, it may release as much as 30,000 liters of water!. Answer: old faithful", "output": [ "What is the best-known geyser in the world that also faithfully erupts every 90 minutes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e92962b9b2404327b52e5b06175d7d8f", "input": "Passage: Plant Parasites Protist parasites of terrestrial plants include agents that destroy food crops. The oomycete Plasmopara viticola parasitizes grape plants, causing a disease called downy mildew (Figure 13.18a). Grape plants infected with P. viticola appear stunted and have discolored withered leaves. The spread of downy mildew caused the near collapse of the French wine industry in the nineteenth century. Answer: plasmopara viticola", "output": [ "Which parasite causes downy mildew in grape plants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b67129b4553b4a6391404b7c5c514304", "input": "Passage: Specialized cells may be organized into tissues. A tissue is a group of cells of the same kind that performs the same function. For example, muscle cells are organized into muscle tissue. The function of muscle tissue is to contract in order to move the body or its parts. Answer: tissue", "output": [ "What do you call a group of cells of the same kind that performs the same function?" ] }, { "id": "task594-014e5343eef74f86ba9d340ae4e18301", "input": "Passage: Heavier isotopes of plutonium—Pu-240, Pu-241, and Pu-242—are also produced when lighter plutonium nuclei capture neutrons. Some of this highly radioactive plutonium is used to produce military weapons, and the rest presents a serious storage problem because they have half-lives from thousands to hundreds of thousands of years. Although they have not been prepared in the same quantity as plutonium, many other synthetic nuclei have been produced. Nuclear medicine has developed from the ability to convert atoms of one type into other types of atoms. Radioactive isotopes of several dozen elements are currently used for medical applications. The radiation produced by their decay is used to image or treat various organs or portions of the body, among other uses. The elements beyond element 92 (uranium) are called transuranium elements. As of this writing, 22 transuranium elements have been produced and officially recognized by IUPAC; several other elements have formation claims that are waiting for approval. Some of these elements are shown in Table 21.3. Preparation of Some of the Transuranium Elements Name. Answer: neutrons", "output": [ "Heavier isotopes of plutonium are also produced when lighter plutonium nuclei capture what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9647c9c3ef474eee852d8f81cbc97ce8", "input": "Passage: FM radio is inherently less subject to noise from stray radio sources than AM radio. The reason is that amplitudes of waves add. So an AM receiver would interpret noise added onto the amplitude of its carrier wave as part of the information. An FM receiver can be made to reject amplitudes other than that of the basic carrier wave and only look for variations in frequency. It is thus easier to reject noise from FM, since noise produces a variation in amplitude. Television is also broadcast on electromagnetic waves. Since the waves must carry a great deal of visual as well as audio information, each channel requires a larger range of frequencies than simple radio transmission. TV channels utilize frequencies in the range of 54 to 88 MHz and 174 to 222 MHz. (The entire FM radio band lies between channels 88 MHz and 174 MHz. ) These TV channels are called VHF (for very high frequency). Other channels called UHF (for ultra high frequency) utilize an even higher frequency range of 470 to 1000 MHz. The TV video signal is AM, while the TV audio is FM. Note that these frequencies are those of free transmission with the user utilizing an old-fashioned roof antenna. Satellite dishes and cable transmission of TV occurs at significantly higher frequencies and is rapidly evolving with the use of the high-definition or HD format. Answer: fm", "output": [ "Which radio frequency should you listen to if you want less noise?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5005efd36d6748ffb0c316a1e0b4dcc7", "input": "Passage: The atmosphere is an exchange pool for water. Ice masses, aquifers, and the deep ocean are water reservoirs. Answer: reservoirs", "output": [ "Ice masses, acquifers, and the deep ocean are examples of water what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5a4cb7dc655c449889923fb1e4ce44a0", "input": "Passage: In arid regions, a mountain stream may flow onto flatter land. The stream comes to a stop rapidly. The deposits form an alluvial fan ( Figure below ). Answer: alluvial fan", "output": [ "When a mountain stream flows onto flatter land and comes to a stop rapidly, what do the deposits form?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1986d4d271a64065b332b925a6ec8565", "input": "Passage: Changes in the genes of a species may result in a new species. This is biological evolution. Answer: biological evolution", "output": [ "When changes in the genes of a species result in a new species, the process is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8e4edd7f2b204858a3f8edc30f075910", "input": "Passage: Ovulation , the release of an egg from an ovary, is part of the menstrual cycle , which typically occurs each month in a sexually mature female unless she is pregnant. Another part of the cycle is the monthly period, or menstruation. Menstruation is the process in which the endometrium of the uterus is shed from the body. The menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones from the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and ovaries. For an interactive animation of the menstrual cycle, you can go this link: http://health. howstuffworks. com/adam-200132. htm. Answer: menstrual", "output": [ "The release of an egg from an ovary, is part of what cycle?" ] }, { "id": "task594-29d0a4ce143346cb9dcf31e59c7035ce", "input": "Passage: Binary fission in various single-celled organisms (left). Cell division is a relatively simple process in many single-celled organisms. Eventually the parent cell will pinch apart to form two identical daughter cells. In multiple fission (right), a multinucleated cell can divide to form more than one daughter cell. Multiple fission is more often observed among protists. Answer: among protists", "output": [ "Where is multiple fission more often observed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dcb928ad8be640179d99896d715dd313", "input": "Passage: Parasitism is a symbiotic relationship in which the parasitic species benefits while the host species is harmed. Answer: parasitism", "output": [ "What do you call the symbiotic relationship where a parasite benefits while the host is harmed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-817f0dbe21c84fa6a85df4ce842cba9c", "input": "Passage: 29.3 Photon Energies and the Electromagnetic Spectrum 11. Why are UV, x rays, and γ rays called ionizing radiation? 12. How can treating food with ionizing radiation help keep it from spoiling? UV is not very penetrating. What else could be used? 13. Some television tubes are CRTs. They use an approximately 30-kV accelerating potential to send electrons to the screen, where the electrons stimulate phosphors to emit the light that forms the pictures we watch. Would you expect x rays also to be created? 14. Tanning salons use “safe” UV with a longer wavelength than some of the UV in sunlight. This “safe” UV has enough photon energy to trigger the tanning mechanism. Is it likely to be able to cause cell damage and induce cancer with prolonged exposure? 15. Your pupils dilate when visible light intensity is reduced. Does wearing sunglasses that lack UV blockers increase or decrease the UV hazard to your eyes? Explain. One could feel heat transfer in the form of infrared radiation from a large nuclear bomb detonated in the atmosphere 75 km from you. However, none of the profusely emitted x rays or γ rays reaches you. Explain. Can a single microwave photon cause cell damage? Explain. In an x-ray tube, the maximum photon energy is given by. Answer: uv (ultraviolet)", "output": [ "Tanning salons claim to use a “safe” form of what light, with a longer wavelength than that in sunlight?" ] }, { "id": "task594-87915a25ed484eaca38913c3c69a6be7", "input": "Passage: Consultations with human geneticists and genetic counselors are an important first step in genetic testing. They will most likely prescribe some sort of prenatal screening (see the Human Genetics: Diagnosis and Treatment (Advanced) concept). Prenatal screening (also known as prenatal diagnosis or prenatal testing) is the testing for diseases or conditions in a fetus or embryo before it is born. Methods may involve amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling to remove fetal cells. DNA can be isolated from these cells and analyzed. If the mutation that results in the phenotype is known, that specific base can be analyzed, either through restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis or, more likely, through PCR and DNA sequence analysis. As it is the baby’s DNA that is being analyzed, the analysis will determine if the developing baby will have the mutation and develop the phenotype, or not have the mutation. Parents can then be informed of the probability of the baby developing the disease. Answer: prenatal screening", "output": [ "What is the testing for disease in a fetus or embryo?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a49c02263e0349ebbc2ac1543c987706", "input": "Passage: Latitude is the distance north or south of the equator. It’s measured in degrees, from 0° to 90°. Several climate factors vary with latitude. Answer: latitude", "output": [ "What is the distance north or south of the equator called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eb9f0202a8be44e9a0599966bad877aa", "input": "Passage: Both mammals and birds evolved endothermy. Endothermy means controlling body temperature within a narrow range from the inside through biochemical or physical means. For example, on a cold day, an endotherm may produce more body heat by increasing its rate of metabolism. On a hot day, it may give off more heat by increasing blood flow to the surface of the body. That way, some of the heat can radiate into the air from the body’s surface. Endothermy requires more energy (and food) than ectothermy. However, it allows the animal to stay active regardless of the temperature outside. You can learn more about how vertebrates regulate their temperature by watching this video: https://www. youtube. com/watch?v=TSUCdLkI474 . Answer: endothermy", "output": [ "What term means controlling body temperature within a narrow range from the inside through biochemical or physical means?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9c6640ca5f5d4f23a8fa4cfdba4f9210", "input": "Passage: Figure 4.17 The chloroplast has an outer membrane, an inner membrane, and membrane structures called thylakoids that are stacked into grana. The space inside the thylakoid membranes is called the thylakoid space. The light harvesting reactions take place in the thylakoid membranes, and the synthesis of sugar takes place in the fluid inside the inner membrane, which is called the stroma. Chloroplasts also have their own genome, which is contained on a single circular chromosome. Answer: sugar", "output": [ "Within the chloroplast, synthesis of what takes place in the fluid inside the inner membrane called the stroma?" ] }, { "id": "task594-89d219e703ff4db78f7ae916f519bbc5", "input": "Passage: Two interesting properties of liquids are surface tension and viscosity. Answer: liquids", "output": [ "Surface tension and viscosity are generally associated with what form or state of matter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-521706ef14d44710bf8eeb35b65d8b31", "input": "Passage: The dominant stage of the lifecycle of a fern is the sporophyte, which consists of large compound leaves called fronds. Fronds fulfill a double role; they are photosynthetic organs that also carry reproductive organs. The stem may be buried underground as a rhizome, from which adventitious roots grow to absorb water and nutrients from the soil; or, they may grow above ground as a trunk in tree ferns (Figure 25.20). Adventitious organs are those that grow in unusual places, such as roots growing from the side of a stem. Answer: sporophyte", "output": [ "Which is the dominant stage of the lifecycle of a fern?" ] }, { "id": "task594-db8ff3dfa55a43e49bf1928da7bae167", "input": "Passage: Both amylopectin and glycogen contain branch points that are linked through α-1,6linkages. These branch points occur more often in glycogen. Dextrins are glucose polysaccharides of intermediate size. The shine and stiffness imparted to clothing by starch are due to the presence of dextrins formed when clothing is ironed. Because of their characteristic stickiness with wetting, dextrins are used as adhesives on stamps, envelopes, and labels; as binders to hold pills and tablets together; and as pastes. Dextrins are more easily digested than starch and are therefore used extensively in the commercial preparation of infant foods. The complete hydrolysis of starch yields, in successive stages, glucose:. Answer: glucose", "output": [ "The complete hydrolysis of starch yields what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5ba473e1d44649d7b3d5b3849ce3ba1c", "input": "Passage: In addition to these organs, the male reproductive system consists of a series of ducts and glands. Ducts include the vas deferens and ejaculatory ducts. They transport sperm from the epididymes to the urethra in the penis. Glands include the seminal vesicles and prostate gland. They secrete substances that become part of semen. Answer: male reproductive system", "output": [ "The vas deferens and ejaculatory ducts transport sperm from the epididymes to the urethra in what system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0083f9601c6f4ed2ae5bb7f8a1cb5064", "input": "Passage: In some places, the oceanic crust comes up to a continent. The moving crust pushes that continent away from the ridge axis as well. If the moving oceanic crust reaches a deep sea trench, the crust sinks into the mantle. The creation and destruction of oceanic crust is the reason that continents move. Answer: continents", "output": [ "The creation and destruction of oceanic crust is the reason what moves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-62b61a0e6a934b6da2efe5f69fa432f8", "input": "Passage: Photosynthesis changes light energy to chemical energy. The chemical energy is stored in the bonds of glucose molecules. Glucose, in turn, is used for energy by the cells of almost all living things. Photosynthetic organisms such as plants make their own glucose. Other organisms get glucose by consuming plants (or organisms that consume plants). Answer: chemical energy", "output": [ "What does photosynthesis change light energy into?" ] }, { "id": "task594-42deb7aa5c77454aa4ff5d52e2005cd9", "input": "Passage: To balance a nuclear reaction. The two general kinds of nuclear reactions are nuclear decay reactions and nuclear transmutation reactions. In a nuclear decay reaction, also called radioactive decay, an unstable nucleus emits radiation and is transformed into the nucleus of one or more other elements. The resulting daughter nuclei have a lower mass and are lower in energy (more stable) than the parent nucleus that decayed. In contrast, in anuclear transmutation reaction, a nucleus reacts with a subatomic particle or another nucleus to form a product nucleus that is more massive than the. Answer: radioactive decay", "output": [ "When an unstable nucleus emits radiation and is transformed into the nucleus of other elements this is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7578bca650ef468897058d691332c1cc", "input": "Passage: The sporozoans are protists that produce spores, such as the toxoplasma . These protists do not move at all. The spores develop into new protists. Answer: sporozoans", "output": [ "What is the term for protists that produce spores, such as the toxoplasm?" ] }, { "id": "task594-59d0dd923b6c471681380e6dd6a9fd64", "input": "Passage: Smooth muscles and cardiac muscles are not attached to bone. Recall that these types of muscles are under involuntary control. Smooth muscle is responsible for the contractility of hollow organs, such as blood vessels, the gastrointestinal tract, the bladder, or the uterus. Like skeletal muscles, smooth muscle fibers do contract together, causing the muscle to shorten. Smooth muscles have numerous functions, including the following. Answer: smooth muscle", "output": [ "What kind of muscle is responsible for hollow organs contracting?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3c5182dd165440c6bc2039b216f61799", "input": "Passage: The ostrich egg - unfertilized, of course. Yes, this egg, just like a human ovum, is just one cell. It is a gamete with a haploid number of chromosomes, formed through meiosis. The egg shell membrane encloses the nucleus containing the genetic material and the cytoplasm. Answer: cytoplasm", "output": [ "The egg shell membrane encloses the nucleus containing the genetic material and what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-24cc19966a00478d9318b035e5a21295", "input": "Passage: Momentum can be calculated by multiplying an object’s mass in kilograms (kg) by its velocity in meters per second (m/s). For example, assume that a golf ball has a mass of 0.05 kg. If the ball is traveling at a velocity of 50 m/s, its momentum is:. Answer: momentum", "output": [ "What can be calculated by multiplying an object’s mass in kilograms (kg) by its velocity in meters per second (m/s)?" ] }, { "id": "task594-04bf6b7c7c624556ac3f52baee969d9c", "input": "Passage: Neutralization reactions between an acid and a base yield a salt and water. In some cases, this results in a completely neutral solution. However, some salts are weakly acidic or basic. How can we tell whether a given salt will act as an acid or base? Looking at the relative strengths of the acid and base that were used to form the salt can give us information on the acid-base properties of the resulting solution. Answer: neutralization", "output": [ "What kind of reactions between an acid and a base yield a salt and water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5d13fb3a940d4638bc896a63f0ec548e", "input": "Passage: Valence electrons of both atoms are always involved when those two atoms come together to form a chemical bond. Chemical bonds are the basis for how elements combine with one another to form compounds. When these chemical bonds form, atoms of some elements have a greater ability to attract the valence electrons involved in the bond than other elements. Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of an atom to attract shared electrons when the atom is part of a compound. Electronegativity differs from electron affinity because electron affinity is a measure of the actual energy released when an atom gains an electron. In contrast, electronegativity is a relative scale, so it is not measured in units of energy. All elements are compared to one another, and the most electronegative element, fluorine, is assigned an electronegativity value of 3.98. Fluorine attracts shared electrons better than any other element. Figure below shows the electronegativity values of most elements. Answer: shared electrons", "output": [ "What does fluorine attract better than any other element?" ] }, { "id": "task594-944530f0e5f34e3585d51724e7f0b0b3", "input": "Passage: Clastic sedimentary rocks are grouped by the size of the sediment they contain. Conglomerate and breccia are made of individual stones that have been cemented together. In conglomerate, the stones are rounded. In breccia, the stones are angular. Sandstone is made of sand-sized particles. Siltstone is made of smaller particles. Silt is smaller than sand but larger than clay. Shale has the smallest grain size. Shale is made mostly of clay-sized particles and hardened mud. Answer: size of sediment", "output": [ "How are classic sedimentary rocks group?" ] }, { "id": "task594-49f1e941f9e4423f92b7845c50a1a6dd", "input": "Passage: projectile motion: A form of motion where a particle (called a projectile) is thrown obliquely near the earth's surface, & it moves along a curved path under the action of gravity. The path followed by a projectile motion is called its trajectory. Projectile motion only occurs when there is one force applied at the beginning of the trajectory after which there is no interference apart from gravity. Answer: projectile", "output": [ "What type of motion only occurs when there is one force applied at the beginning of the trajectory after which there is no interference apart from gravity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2bdf08cdd288467dbc3f4de224447351", "input": "Passage: It’s easy to save water at home. If you save even a few gallons a day you can make a big difference over the long run. The best place to start saving water is in the bathroom. Toilet flushing is the single biggest use of water in the home. Showers and baths are the next biggest use. Follow the tips below to save water at home. Answer: flushing the toilet", "output": [ "What action, performed multiple times daily, is the single biggest use of water in the home?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dcb355960e9942ccbdc8571763cd11d4", "input": "Passage: Meanders form because water erodes the outside of curves and deposits eroded material on the inside. Over time, the curves shift position. Answer: meanders", "output": [ "What form because water erodes the outside of curves and deposits eroded material on the inside?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7f61a10b655f4dab80dd49e46389a57a", "input": "Passage: Regulation of Nitrogen Wastes Nitrogen wastes are produced by the breakdown of proteins during normal metabolism. Proteins are broken down into amino acids, which in turn are deaminated by having their nitrogen groups removed. Deamination converts the amino (NH2) groups into ammonia (NH3), ammonium ion (NH4+), urea, or uric acid (Figure 25.22). Ammonia is extremely toxic, so most of it is very rapidly converted into urea in the liver. Human urinary wastes typically contain primarily urea with small amounts of ammonium and very little uric acid. Answer: proteins", "output": [ "Nitrogen wastes are produced by the breakdown of what during normal metabolism?" ] }, { "id": "task594-80203198ec9642a493ef9fb4750f087c", "input": "Passage: Most fungi grow on moist soil or rotting vegetation such as dead logs. Some fungi live in water. Others live in or on other organisms. Fungi get their nutrition by absorbing organic compounds from other organisms. The other organisms may be dead or alive, depending on the fungus. Answer: organic compounds from other organisms", "output": [ "What do fungi absorb to get their nutrition?" ] }, { "id": "task594-86032c148b4949f39799945fad3763d3", "input": "Passage: The muscles all begin the actual process of contracting (shortening) when a protein called actin is pulled by a protein called myosin. This occurs in striated muscle (skeletal and cardiac) after specific binding sites on the actin have been exposed in response to the interaction between calcium ions (Ca++) and proteins (troponin and tropomyosin) that “shield” the actinbinding sites. Ca++ also is required for the contraction of smooth muscle, although its role is different: here Ca++ activates enzymes, which in turn activate myosin heads. All muscles require adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to continue the process of contracting, and they all relax when the Ca++ is removed and the actin-binding sites are re-shielded. A muscle can return to its original length when relaxed due to a quality of muscle tissue called elasticity. It can recoil back to its original length due to elastic fibers. Muscle tissue also has the quality of extensibility; it can stretch or extend. Contractility allows muscle tissue to pull on its attachment points and shorten with force. Differences among the three muscle types include the microscopic organization of their contractile proteins—actin and myosin. The actin and myosin proteins are arranged very regularly in the cytoplasm of individual muscle cells (referred to as fibers) in both skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle, which creates a pattern, or stripes, called striations. The striations are visible with a light microscope under high magnification (see Figure 10.2). Skeletal muscle fibers are multinucleated structures that compose the skeletal muscle. Cardiac muscle fibers each have one to two nuclei and are physically and electrically connected to each other so that the entire heart contracts as one unit (called a syncytium). Because the actin and myosin are not arranged in such regular fashion in smooth muscle, the cytoplasm of a smooth muscle fiber (which has only a single nucleus) has a uniform, nonstriated appearance (resulting in the name smooth muscle). However, the less organized appearance of smooth muscle should not be interpreted as less efficient. Smooth muscle in the walls of arteries is a critical component that regulates blood pressure necessary to push blood through the circulatory system; and smooth muscle in the skin, visceral organs, and internal passageways is essential for moving all materials through the body. Answer: elasticity", "output": [ "A muscle can return to its original length when relaxed due to a quality of muscle tissue called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6817209f98c848288f26dbd54ac6cb0d", "input": "Passage: Again, the transfer of an H + ion leaves the oxidation numbers unaffected. In summary, redox reactions can always be recognized by a change in oxidation number of two of the atoms in the reaction. Any reaction in which no oxidation numbers change is not a redox reaction. Answer: oxidation", "output": [ "Redox reactions can always be recognized by a change in what number of two of the atoms in the reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-227a860bf50341f89882c7d7a8624caa", "input": "Passage: RNA, the other nucleic acid. RNA has many important functions, especially during protein synthesis. And what allows it to be involved in protein synthesis is its ability to fold into three-dimensional structures, giving the molecule specific functions. This structure depicts an RNA molecule. the numerous secondary structures, such as the helices, are visible. Answer: protein", "output": [ "Rna is especially important during synthesis of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4870e9fdfe3a4546ac82689cf2c3b96e", "input": "Passage: Like mollusks and annelids, aquatic arthropods may have gills to exchange gases with the water (discussed below). Terrestrial arthropods, on the other hand, have special respiratory structures to exchange gases with the air. These are described in Figure below . Answer: gills", "output": [ "What do aquatic arthropods use to exchange gases with the water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5645a71ca7554c9f95f4af63cd6ff049", "input": "Passage: Before Darwinian evolution became the prevailing theory of the field, French naturalist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck theorized that acquired traits could, in fact, be inherited; while this hypothesis has largely been unsupported, scientists have recently begun to realize that Lamarck was not completely wrong. Visit this site (http://openstaxcollege. org/l/epigenetic) to learn more. Heritability is the fraction of phenotype variation that can be attributed to genetic differences, or genetic variance, among individuals in a population. The greater the hereditability of a population’s phenotypic variation, the more susceptible it is to the evolutionary forces that act on heritable variation. The diversity of alleles and genotypes within a population is called genetic variance. When scientists are involved in the breeding of a species, such as with animals in zoos and nature preserves, they try to increase a population’s genetic variance to preserve as much of the phenotypic diversity as they can. This also helps reduce the risks associated with inbreeding, the mating of closely related individuals, which can have the undesirable effect of bringing together deleterious recessive mutations that can cause abnormalities and susceptibility to disease. For example, a disease that is caused by a rare, recessive allele might exist in a population, but it will only manifest itself when an individual carries two copies of the allele. Because the allele is rare in a normal, healthy population with unrestricted habitat, the chance that two carriers will mate is low, and even then, only 25 percent of their offspring will inherit the disease allele from both parents. While it is likely to happen at some point, it will not happen frequently enough for natural selection to be able to swiftly eliminate the allele from the population, and as a result, the allele will be maintained at low levels in the gene pool. However, if a family of carriers begins to interbreed with each other, this will dramatically increase the likelihood of two carriers mating and eventually producing diseased offspring, a phenomenon known as inbreeding depression. Changes in allele frequencies that are identified in a population can shed light on how it is evolving. In addition to natural selection, there are other evolutionary forces that could be in play: genetic drift, gene flow, mutation, nonrandom mating, and environmental variances. Answer: variance", "output": [ "The diversity of alleles and genotypes within a population is known as genetic what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4760bc2a13cd4b31a61147a742c38ebd", "input": "Passage: Passive immunity arises from the transfer of antibodies to an individual without requiring them to mount their own active immune response. Naturally acquired passive immunity is seen during fetal development. IgG is transferred from the maternal circulation to the fetus via the placenta, protecting the fetus from infection and protecting the newborn for the first few months of its life. As already stated, a newborn benefits from the IgA antibodies it obtains from milk during breastfeeding. The fetus and newborn thus benefit from the immunological memory of the mother to the pathogens to which she has been exposed. In medicine, artificially acquired passive immunity usually involves injections of immunoglobulins, taken from animals previously exposed to a specific pathogen. This treatment is a fast-acting method of temporarily protecting an individual who was possibly exposed to a pathogen. The downside to both types of passive immunity is the lack of the development of immunological memory. Once the antibodies are transferred, they are effective for only a limited time before they degrade. Answer: antibodies", "output": [ "Passive immunity arises from the transfer of what to an individual, without requiring them to mount their own active immune response?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b374b94a8eb74b8b895046d89636e986", "input": "Passage: The Epidermis The epidermis is composed of keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium. It is made of four or five layers of epithelial cells, depending on its location in the body. It does not have any blood vessels within it (i. , it is avascular). Skin that has four layers of cells is referred to as “thin skin. ” From deep to superficial, these layers are the stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, and stratum corneum. Most of the skin can be classified as thin skin. “Thick skin” is found only on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet. It has a fifth layer, called the stratum lucidum, located between the stratum corneum and the stratum granulosum (Figure 5.3). Answer: layer", "output": [ "The thick skin, found only on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet, has an extra what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-956ae34785104d72a862ba6d0e3071b9", "input": "Passage: Summary The major types of solids are ionic, molecular, covalent, and metallic. Ionic solids consist of positively and negatively charged ions held together by electrostatic forces; the strength of the bonding is reflected in the lattice energy. Ionic solids tend to have high melting points and are rather hard. Molecular solids are held together by relatively weak forces, such as dipole–dipole interactions, hydrogen bonds, and London dispersion forces. As a result, they tend to be rather soft and have low melting points, which depend on their molecular structure. Covalent solids consist of two- or three-dimensional networks of Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: solids", "output": [ "Ionic, molecular, covalent, and metallic are major types of what state of matter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-344d78c444854762a1004ae6241467a9", "input": "Passage: The Sun gives off energy in tiny packets called photons . Photons travel in waves. Figure below models a wave of light. Notice the wavelength in the figure. Waves with shorter wavelengths have more energy. Answer: photons", "output": [ "What are the tiny packets of energy the sun gives off called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e0ab6c3592134cefb981b53b5e905620", "input": "Passage: the history of galactic evolution has been, and the nature of space in their vicinity. However, so many black holes are now known that correlations between black hole mass and galactic nuclei characteristics are being studied. What is the mechanism for the energy output of quasars? These distant and extraordinarily energetic objects now seem to be early stages of galactic evolution with a supermassive black-hole-devouring material. Connections are now being made with galaxies having energetic cores, and there is evidence consistent with less consuming, supermassive black holes at the center of older galaxies. New instruments are allowing us to see deeper into our own galaxy for evidence of our own massive black hole. Answer: quasars", "output": [ "What distant and extraordinarily energetic objects now seem to be early stages of galactic evolution with a supermassive black-hole-devouring material?" ] }, { "id": "task594-996f395e6a414e09ba1d5638255dbed6", "input": "Passage: Global air currents cause global winds. The figure below shows the direction that these winds blow ( Figure below ). Global winds are the prevailing, or usual, winds at a given latitude. The winds move air masses, which causes weather. Answer: weather", "output": [ "Winds moving air masses causes what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9001ba0338ce4204957936ee563e78b2", "input": "Passage: Solution First, write out the electron configuration for each parent atom. We have chosen to show the full, unabbreviated configurations to provide more practice for students who want it, but listing the coreabbreviated electron configurations is also acceptable. Next, determine whether an electron is gained or lost. Remember electrons are negatively charged, so ions with a positive charge have lost an electron. For main group elements, the last orbital gains or loses the electron. For transition metals, the last s orbital loses an electron before the d orbitals. (a) Na: 1s22s22p63s1. Sodium cation loses one electron, so Na+: 1s22s22p63s1 = Na+: 1s22s22p6. (b) P: 1s22s22p63s23p3. Phosphorus trianion gains three electrons, so P3−: 1s22s22p63s23p6. (c) Al: 1s22s22p63s23p1. Aluminum dication loses two electrons Al2+: 1s22s22p63s23p1 = Al2+: 1s22s22p63s1. (d) Fe: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6. Iron(II) loses two electrons and, since it is a transition metal, they are removed from the 4s orbital Fe2+: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6 = 1s22s22p63s23p63d6. Sm: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s24f6. Samarium trication loses three electrons. The first two will be lost from the 6s orbital, and the final one is removed from the 4f orbital. Sm3+: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s24f6 = 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p64f5. Answer: electron", "output": [ "Remember electrons are negatively charged, so ions with a positive charge have lost what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fe836b0ed57249768c8c9e2c1bb43356", "input": "Passage: isothermal expansion is a process occurring without a change in temperature. Answer: temperature", "output": [ "Isothermal expansion is a process occurring without a change in?" ] }, { "id": "task594-073e7def8b8843b8b47cd5759e0aefaa", "input": "Passage: Geothermal energy is an excellent resource in some parts of the world. Iceland gets about one fourth of its electricity from geothermal sources. In the United States, California leads all states in producing geothermal energy. Geothermal energy in California is concentrated in the northern part of the state. The largest plant is in the Geysers Geothermal Resource Area. Geothermal energy is not economical everywhere. Many parts of the world do not have underground sources of heat that are close enough to the surface for building geothermal power plants. Answer: california", "output": [ "What us state leads all states in producing geothermal energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1bd1f079356045a6a72175958c6d8493", "input": "Passage: The fruiting bodies are usually produced at the surface of the food source, rather than hidden within it. This allows the reproductive spores to be easily shed and carried away by the wind, water, or animals. The fruiting bodies are usually the only indication that a fungus is present. Like icebergs, the fruiting bodies represent only a tiny fraction of the whole fungus, with most of the fungus hidden from view. Answer: at the surface", "output": [ "Where is the fruiting body normally produced in relation to the food source?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c02795b7c5834f1589dbef26aacd3246", "input": "Passage: Barbecued foods are cooked at very high temperatures. This may cause carcinogens to form. Answer: carcinogens", "output": [ "What kind of potentially harmful compounds can barbecuing food create?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d38d6c4b826a4404b317a9bee8fa79c2", "input": "Passage: Atmospheric pressure is low in the eye of a hurricane. In a 1979 hurricane in the Pacific Ocean, a pressure of 0.859 atm was reported inside the eye. What is this pressure in torr?. Answer: eye", "output": [ "Atmospheric pressure is low in what anatomically named part of a hurricane?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cfbb3d69143941ada0eb800963428389", "input": "Passage: For individuals to cooperate, they need to communicate . Animals can communicate with sounds, chemicals, or visual cues. For example, to communicate with sounds, birds sing and frogs croak. Both may be communicating that they are good mates. Ants communicate with chemicals called pheromones . For example, they use the chemicals to mark trails to food sources so other ants can find them. Male dogs use pheromones in urine to mark their territory. They are “telling” other dogs to stay out of their yard. You can see several examples of visual communication in Figure below . Answer: communication", "output": [ "Sounds, chemicals, and visual cues are examples of what between animals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a77f5534711944f38d9caef2f8772d35", "input": "Passage: Flickr:EvelynGiggles. Antifreeze lowers the freezing temperature of the water in car radiators . CC BY 2.0. Answer: lowers it", "output": [ "What does antifreeze do to the freezing temperature of the water in car radiators?" ] }, { "id": "task594-88dc3ea527154d0a9ea580d302d8ebb9", "input": "Passage: Fluid friction is friction that acts on objects that are moving through a fluid. A fluid is a substance that can flow and take the shape of its container. Fluids include liquids and gases. If you’ve ever tried to push your open hand through the water in a tub or pool, then you’ve experienced fluid friction. You can feel the resistance of the water against your hand. Look at the skydiver in the Figure below . He’s falling toward Earth with a parachute. Resistance of the air against the parachute slows his descent. The faster or larger a moving object is, the greater is the fluid friction resisting its motion. That’s why there is greater air resistance against the parachute than the skydiver’s body. Answer: fluid friction", "output": [ "What is friction that acts on objects that are moving through a fluid?" ] }, { "id": "task594-59c0672239d14e9caa5665d6c1a54a0f", "input": "Passage: Alkenes can react with halogens to form dihalides. Answer: halogens", "output": [ "Alkenes react with what to form dihalides?" ] }, { "id": "task594-acbc6de2139c4d39b92069ee88877954", "input": "Passage: The internal carotid artery enters the cranium through the carotid canal in the temporal bone. A second set of vessels that supply the CNS are the vertebral arteries, which are protected as they pass through the neck region by the transverse foramina of the cervical vertebrae. The vertebral arteries enter the cranium through the foramen magnum of the occipital bone. Branches off the left and right vertebral arteries merge into the anterior spinal artery supplying the anterior aspect of the spinal cord, found along the anterior median fissure. The two vertebral arteries then merge into the basilar artery, which gives rise to branches to the brain stem and cerebellum. The left and right internal carotid arteries and branches of the basilar artery all become the circle of Willis, a confluence of arteries that can maintain perfusion of the brain even if narrowing or a blockage limits flow through one part (Figure 13.15). Answer: internal carotid artery", "output": [ "Which artery enters the cranium through the carotid canal in the temporal bone?" ] }, { "id": "task594-06c6151dce0f48e9bdc93a0b7cccffdf", "input": "Passage: A neutron is a particle in the nucleus of an atom that has no electric charge. Atoms of an element often have the same number of neutrons as protons. For example, most carbon atoms have six neutrons as well as six protons. This is also shown in Figure below . Answer: six", "output": [ "Carbon atoms have six neutrons as well as how many protons?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c341ac4df8da4754bf7a4bee8c4563bf", "input": "Passage: Has this ever happened to you? You walk across a carpet, reach out to touch a metal doorknob, and get an unpleasant electric shock (see Figure below ). The reason you get a shock is because of moving electric charges. Moving electric charges also create lightning bolts and the electric current that flows through cables and wires. Answer: electrical charge", "output": [ "Has this ever happened to you? you walk across a carpet, reach out to touch a metal doorknob, and get an unpleasant electric shock? .the reason you get a shock is because of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e70b24ebfb1249259dc617d45b342331", "input": "Passage: The sugar of one nucleotide binds to the phosphate group of the next nucleotide. Alternating sugars and phosphate groups form the backbone of a nucleotide chain, as shown in Figure below . The bases, which are bound to the sugars, protrude from the backbone of the chain. In DNA, pairs of bases-one from each of two nucleotides-form the middle section of the molecule. Answer: the phosphate", "output": [ "The sugar of one nucleotide binds to what group of the next nucleotide?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c8eb837f4d8f4a0c8c593d7435caa762", "input": "Passage: A vesicle. Because vesicles are made of phospholipids, they can break off of and fuse with other membraneous material. This allows them to serve as small transport containers, moving substances around the cell and to the cell membrane. Answer: phospholipids", "output": [ "What are vesicles made of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a9fcf401987041e982a0a1b90de392cb", "input": "Passage: The adaptive, or acquired, immune response takes days or even weeks to become established—much longer than the innate response; however, adaptive immunity is more specific to an invading pathogen. Adaptive immunity is an immunity that occurs after exposure to an antigen either from a pathogen or a vaccination. An antigen is a molecule that stimulates a response in the immune system. This part of the immune system is activated when the innate immune response is insufficient to control an infection. In fact, without information from the innate immune system, the adaptive response could not be mobilized. There are two types of adaptive responses: the cell-mediated immune response, which is controlled by activated T cells, and the humoral immune response, which is controlled by activated B cells and antibodies. Activated T and B cells whose surface binding sites are specific to the molecules on the pathogen greatly increase in numbers and attack the invading pathogen. Their attack can kill pathogens directly or they can secrete antibodies that enhance the phagocytosis of pathogens and disrupt the infection. Adaptive immunity also involves a memory to give the host long-term protection from reinfection with the same type of pathogen; on reexposure, this host memory will facilitate a rapid and powerful response. Answer: adaptive immunity", "output": [ "What term is used to describe an immunity that occurs after exposure to an antigen either from a pathogen or a vaccination?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fb4b63f3a3ed4f519835a9f0a9761bbb", "input": "Passage: The place where the axon of one neuron meets the dendrite of another is called a synapse . Synapses are also found between neurons and other types of cells, such as muscle cells. The axon of the sending neuron does not actually touch the dendrite of the receiving neuron. There is a tiny gap between them, the synaptic cleft ( Figure below ). Answer: synapse", "output": [ "What is the place called where the axon of one neuron meets the dendrite of another?" ] }, { "id": "task594-64e672d6b33941b895533e249c830d3c", "input": "Passage: Figure 2.22 When carbon forms single bonds with other atoms, the shape is tetrahedral. When two carbon atoms form a double bond, the shape is planar, or flat. Single bonds, like those found in ethane, are able to rotate. Double bonds, like those found in ethene cannot rotate, so the atoms on either side are locked in place. Answer: carbon", "output": [ "When what common element forms single bonds with other atoms, the shape is tetrahedral, and when its atoms form a double bond, the shape is planar?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7f9e5f46f5e44f8993d8c689f4ff732e", "input": "Passage: Transport of Oxygen in the Blood Although oxygen dissolves in blood, only a small amount of oxygen is transported this way. Only 1.5 percent of oxygen in the blood is dissolved directly into the blood itself. Most oxygen—98.5 percent—is bound to a protein called hemoglobin and carried to the tissues. Hemoglobin Hemoglobin, or Hb, is a protein molecule found in red blood cells (erythrocytes) made of four subunits: two alpha subunits and two beta subunits (Figure 39.19). Each subunit surrounds a central heme group that contains iron and binds one oxygen molecule, allowing each hemoglobin molecule to bind four oxygen molecules. Molecules with more oxygen bound to the heme groups are brighter red. As a result, oxygenated arterial blood where the Hb is carrying four oxygen molecules is bright red, while venous blood that is deoxygenated is darker red. Answer: hemoglobin", "output": [ "Most oxygen in blood is bound to a protein called what, and carried to the tissues?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7c325d07d39a41b2baacfc8538cb0096", "input": "Passage: Earth gets its energy from the Sun. The Sun gives off photons of energy that travel in waves. All the wavelengths of the Sun’s energy make up the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum. Answer: sun", "output": [ "Where does the earth gets its energy from?" ] }, { "id": "task594-41eaeac0b4b748c889b2233042772717", "input": "Passage: The boy in Figure below is taking a water break while playing outside on a hot day. If he doesn’t take in enough water to replace the water lost in sweat, he may become dehydrated. Symptoms of dehydration include dry mouth, headache, and dizziness. Dehydration can be very serious. It can even cause death. Answer: dehydration", "output": [ "What happens if a person doesn’t take in enough water to replace the water lost in sweat?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f6c734fd31fa453aa823f4f0c2f761fc", "input": "Passage: 5.3 Functions of the Integumentary System The skin plays important roles in protection, sensing stimuli, thermoregulation, and vitamin D synthesis. It is the first layer of defense to prevent dehydration, infection, and injury to the rest of the body. Sweat glands in the skin allow the skin surface to cool when the body gets overheated. Thermoregulation is also accomplished by the dilation or constriction of heat-carrying blood vessels in the skin. Immune cells present among the skin layers patrol the areas to keep them free of foreign materials. Fat stores in the hypodermis aid in both thermoregulation and protection. Finally, the skin plays a role in the synthesis of vitamin D, which is necessary for our well-being but not easily available in natural foods. Answer: integumentary system", "output": [ "What system, which includes the skin, plays important roles in protection, sensing stimuli and thermoregulation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bbd8b4864828473e95f25da27fb2db29", "input": "Passage: There are two major types of seismic waves. Body waves travel through the Earth’s interior. Surface waves travel along the ground surface. In an earthquake, body waves are responsible for sharp jolts. Surface waves are responsible for rolling motions that do most of the damage in an earthquake. Answer: seismic waves", "output": [ "Body waves and surface waves are the two major types of what, which occur during earthquakes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-25145d432ec94f858ff1a2a27f797614", "input": "Passage: Asexual reproduction is simpler than sexual reproduction. It involves just one parent. The offspring are genetically identical to each other and to the parent. All prokaryotes and some eukaryotes reproduce this way. There are several different methods of asexual reproduction. They include binary fission, fragmentation, and budding. Answer: asexual reproduction", "output": [ "What kind of reproduction involves just one parent and produces offspring genetically identical to each other and to the parent?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9112bb12ae1b447686172f673f828d63", "input": "Passage: Through the process of conduction, heat flows from warmer objects to cooler objects ( Figure below ). The lower mantle is heated directly by conduction from the core. In conduction , heat is transferred as atoms collide. Answer: conduction", "output": [ "What process involves the flow of heat from warmer objects to cooler objects?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2bede210393b459bb3425f68f29bb265", "input": "Passage: The organs of Corti contain hair cells, which are named for the hair-like stereocilia extending from the cell’s apical surfaces (Figure 14.8). The stereocilia are an array of microvilli-like structures arranged from tallest to shortest. Protein fibers tether adjacent hairs together within each array, such that the array will bend in response to movements of the basilar membrane. The stereocilia extend up from the hair cells to the overlying tectorial membrane, which is attached medially to the organ of Corti. When the pressure waves from the scala move the basilar membrane, the tectorial membrane slides across the stereocilia. This bends the stereocilia either toward or away from the tallest member of each array. When the stereocilia bend toward the tallest member of their array, tension in the protein tethers opens ion channels in the hair cell membrane. This will depolarize the hair cell membrane, triggering nerve impulses that travel down the afferent nerve fibers attached to the hair cells. When the stereocilia bend toward the shortest member of their array, the tension on the tethers slackens and the ion channels close. When no sound is present, and the stereocilia are standing straight, a small amount of tension still exists on the tethers, keeping the membrane potential of the hair cell slightly depolarized. Answer: stereocilia", "output": [ "When the pressure waves from the scala move the basilar membrane, the tectorial membrane slides across the what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1551e6245b72480f8822edec82790239", "input": "Passage: Parasitic fungi often cause illness and may eventually kill their host. They are the major cause of disease in agricultural plants. Fungi also parasitize animals, such as the insect pictured in Figure below . Fungi even parasitize humans. Did you ever have athelete’s foot? If so, you were the host of a parasitic fungus. Answer: kill them", "output": [ "Parasitic fungi often cause illness and may eventually do what to their hosts?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7820740b108c4e2caf0e6f2f2fefcacf", "input": "Passage: Anaerobic prokaryotes live in habitats without oxygen. Answer: anaerobic", "output": [ "What type of prokaryotes live in habitats without oxygen?" ] }, { "id": "task594-37f7f2c5728e414b98de56f7f87230f4", "input": "Passage: Organic chemistry is the study of chemicals containing carbon. Carbon is one of the most abundant elements on Earth and is capable of forming a tremendously vast number of chemicals (over twenty million so far). Most of the chemicals found in all living organisms are based on carbon. Answer: organic chemistry", "output": [ "What type of chemistry is the study of chemicals containing carbon called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-48dc2697f76f4a498ac6f8f6e20cc500", "input": "Passage: Solutions may be prepared in which a solute concentration exceeds its solubility. Such solutions are said to be supersaturated, and they are interesting examples of nonequilibrium states. For example, the carbonated beverage in an open container that has not yet “gone flat” is supersaturated with carbon dioxide gas; given time, the CO2 concentration will decrease until it reaches its equilibrium value. Answer: supersaturated", "output": [ "Solutions that are prepared in which a solute concentration exceeds its solubility are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-04db28c591d149ab92b5ff73f9468c4e", "input": "Passage: The sensory division of the peripheral nervous system carries messages from sense organs and internal organs to the central nervous system. For example, it carries messages about images from the eyes to the brain. Once the messages reach the brain, the brain interprets the information. Answer: peripheral nervous system", "output": [ "What system carries messages from sense organs and internal organs to the central nervous system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e6b216f9967f48d29f0360631c5d272f", "input": "Passage: Another measure of the effectiveness of a machine is its mechanical advantage. Mechanical advantage is the number of times a machine multiplies the input force. It can be calculated with the equation:. Answer: mechanical advantage", "output": [ "Another measure of the effectiveness of a machine is its what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4b529fa5387147beb16986699cc2b3d1", "input": "Passage: The clavicles are S-shaped bones that position the arms on the body. The clavicles lie horizontally across the front of the thorax (chest) just above the first rib. These bones are fairly fragile and are susceptible to fractures. For example, a fall with the arms outstretched causes the force to be transmitted to the clavicles, which can break if the force is excessive. The clavicle articulates with the sternum and the scapula. The scapulae are flat, triangular bones that are located at the back of the pectoral girdle. They support the muscles crossing the shoulder joint. A ridge, called the spine, runs across the back of the scapula and can easily be felt through the skin (Figure 38.11). The spine of the scapula is a good example of a bony protrusion that facilitates a broad area of attachment for muscles to bone. The Upper Limb The upper limb contains 30 bones in three regions: the arm (shoulder to elbow), the forearm (ulna and radius), and the wrist and hand (Figure 38.12). Answer: scapulae", "output": [ "Which bones are flat and triangular and located at the back of the pectoral girdle?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1c4aca9ecd194745a564bb8137519131", "input": "Passage: Each substance can be classified as an ionic solute or a nonionic solute. Ionic solutes are electrolytes, and nonionic solutes are nonelectrolytes. Potassium chloride is an ionic compound; therefore, when it dissolves, its ions separate, making it an electrolyte. Fructose is a sugar similar to glucose. (In fact, it has the same molecular formula as glucose. ) Because it is a molecular compound, we expect it to be a nonelectrolyte. Isopropyl alcohol is an organic molecule containing the alcohol functional group. The bonding in the compound is all covalent, so when isopropyl alcohol dissolves, it separates into individual molecules but not ions. Thus, it is a nonelectrolyte. Magnesium hydroxide is an ionic compound, so when it dissolves it dissociates. Thus, magnesium hydroxide is an electrolyte. Answer: electrolytes", "output": [ "What are ionic solutes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ead7e63adae44826b098f0491870b30d", "input": "Passage: Figure 7.12 Ethmoid Bone The unpaired ethmoid bone is located at the midline within the central skull. It has an upward projection, the crista galli, and a downward projection, the perpendicular plate, which forms the upper nasal septum. The cribriform plates form both the roof of the nasal cavity and a portion of the anterior cranial fossa floor. The lateral sides of the ethmoid bone form the lateral walls of the upper nasal cavity, part of the medial orbit wall, and give rise to the superior and middle nasal conchae. The ethmoid bone also contains the ethmoid air cells. Answer: at the midline", "output": [ "The unpaired ethmoid bone is located where within the central skull?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2cd90a2ff5ac44539cd5e91c52355231", "input": "Passage: The size and shape of the beak is related to the food the bird eats and can vary greatly among different birds. Parrots have down-curved, hooked bills, which are well-adapted for cracking seeds and nuts ( Figure below ). Hummingbirds, on the other hand, have long, thin, pointed bills, which are adapted for getting the nectar out of flowers ( Figure below ). Hawks, eagles, falcons and owls have a sharp, hooked beak. Answer: beak", "output": [ "What characteristic of birds is related to the food they eat?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7fed330707674fab88da48920139f22d", "input": "Passage: Skin grafts are required when the damage from trauma or infection cannot be closed with sutures or staples. Watch this video (http://openstaxcollege. org/l/skingraft) to learn more about skin grafting procedures. Answer: skin grafts", "output": [ "What are required when the damage from trauma or infection cannot be closed with sutures or staples?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d00b9d30305b45089e8104941e45b3f7", "input": "Passage: Almost all surfaces reflect some of the light that strikes them. The still water of the lake in Figure above reflects almost all of the light that strikes it. The reflected light forms an image of nearby objects. An image is a copy of an object that is formed by reflected or refracted light. Answer: image", "output": [ "A visual \"copy\" of an object that is formed by reflected or refracted light is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b122f013c8e24ebc9f042b1f30a666fb", "input": "Passage: Plant Responses to Light Plants have a number of sophisticated uses for light that go far beyond their ability to photosynthesize low-molecularweight sugars using only carbon dioxide, light, and water. Photomorphogenesis is the growth and development of plants in response to light. It allows plants to optimize their use of light and space. Photoperiodism is the ability to use light to track time. Plants can tell the time of day and time of year by sensing and using various wavelengths of sunlight. Phototropism is a directional response that allows plants to grow towards, or even away from, light. The sensing of light in the environment is important to plants; it can be crucial for competition and survival. The response of plants to light is mediated by different photoreceptors, which are comprised of a protein covalently bonded to a lightabsorbing pigment called a chromophore. Together, the two are called a chromoprotein. Answer: sunlight", "output": [ "Plants can tell the time of day and time of year by sensing and using various wavelengths of what" ] }, { "id": "task594-e96d9fa4adde4e55a8d28e35a10fee94", "input": "Passage: Earth's magnetosphere is controlled by the magnetic field. The magnetosphere protects the planet from the solar wind . The solar wind is ions that fly from the Sun to Earth very fast. The magnetosphere protects Earth's ozone layer. So life on Earth needs the protection of the magnetosphere. Answer: magnetic field", "output": [ "What controls earth's magnetosphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f7f9b64198ed4f25bf68d32f067635cb", "input": "Passage: Enzymes may also allow reactions to occur by different pathways that have lower activation energy. Answer: enzymes", "output": [ "What catalyst substances may also allow reactions to occur by different pathways that have lower activation energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-042f92365ba9480aaeb096cea43d8852", "input": "Passage: Matter has both physical and chemical properties. Physical properties can be measured or observed without matter changing to a different substance. Answer: physical and chemical", "output": [ "What are the two types of properties that matter has?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cf19182a63d649b2a018db8ec0461fdf", "input": "Passage: Viewed from Earth, Mars is red. This is due to large amounts of iron in the soil. The ancient Greeks and Romans named the planet Mars after the god of war. The planet's red color reminded them of blood. Mars has only a very thin atmosphere, made up mostly of carbon dioxide. Answer: iron", "output": [ "What is in the soil that causes mars to look red?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5d9192f78eb8461ebf2a2fa8baaa6c5a", "input": "Passage: Some pathogens spread through food or water. When harmful bacteria contaminate food, they cause foodborne illness, commonly called food poisoning. An example of a pathogen that spreads through water is the protozoan named Giardia lamblia, described in Table above . It causes a disease called giardiasis. Answer: food poisoning", "output": [ "Illnesses caused by bacteria in food are commonly known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c459d890c4c440d7b5263df10b1ff530", "input": "Passage: Longer chains of monosaccharides are referred to as polysaccharides . Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are three extremely common polysaccharides made entirely out of glucose molecules. The differences lie in the types of bonds between the glucose units and the extent of branching in the carbohydrate chain. Starch is found in plants and is consumed as part of our diet. Glycogen is made by the body and is a storage form of glucose for when the cells need extra energy. Cellulose is another long-chain polysaccharide found in plants. Unlike starch and glycogen, the human body cannot break cellulose down into molecules of glucose. Although cellulose does not have any nutritional value in terms of calories, it is a major component of dietary fiber, which has other digestive benefits. Answer: polysaccharides", "output": [ "What is the term for longer chains of monosaccharides ?" ] }, { "id": "task594-126fd29a313741a69cb3b18dd87d1b7b", "input": "Passage: The saguaro cactus pictured in Figure below has adapted in all three ways. When it was still a very small plant, just a few inches high, its shallow roots already reached out as much as 2 meters (7 feet) from the base of the stem. By now, its root system is much more widespread. It allows the cactus to gather as much moisture as possible from rare rainfalls. The saguaro doesn’t have any leaves to lose water by transpiration. It also has a large, barrel-shaped stem that can store a lot of water. Thorns protect the stem from thirsty animals that might try to get at the water inside. Answer: adaptation", "output": [ "In desert cactus, thorns that protect the water held in a large, barrel-shaped stem are an example of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c4880bf5d71d4ba1bb616fb46c6167bd", "input": "Passage: When heat flows into an object, its thermal energy increases and so does its temperature. Answer: temperature", "output": [ "When heat flows into an object, its thermal energy increases and so does its what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4185f05f43894444b67c96abfee8b0a3", "input": "Passage: Fractures are breaks in bone, usually caused by excessive stress on bone. Fractures heal when osteoblasts form new bone. The animation at this link shows how this happens: http://www. youtube. com/watch?v=qVougiCEgH8 . Soon after a fracture, the body begins to repair the break. The area becomes swollen and sore. Within a few days, bone cells travel to the break site and begin to rebuild the bone. It takes about two to three months before compact and spongy bone form at the break site. Sometimes the body needs extra help in repairing a broken bone. In such a case, a surgeon will piece a broken bone together with metal pins. Moving the broken pieces together will help keep the bone from moving and give the body a chance to repair the break. Answer: fractures", "output": [ "What is it called when breaks in bone occur that is usually caused by excessive stress on the bone?" ] }, { "id": "task594-32ca7e00cb6d4d3b9e6d0099991040fc", "input": "Passage: Gases assume the shape of their container. Answer: gas", "output": [ "Which form of matter assumes the shape of its container?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5e276336d0d24a66853ac223e25d9a6d", "input": "Passage: Solutions of Liquids in Liquids We know that some liquids mix with each other in all proportions; in other words, they have infinite mutual solubility and are said to be miscible. Ethanol, sulfuric acid, and ethylene glycol (popular for use as antifreeze, pictured in Figure 11.14) are examples of liquids that are completely miscible with water. Two-cycle motor oil is miscible with gasoline. Answer: solubility", "output": [ "Liquids that mix with each other in all proportions are said to be miscible, maning they have infinite mutual what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e96818ed18534e34aefbc1790c9b2438", "input": "Passage: Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in matter. Answer: temperature", "output": [ "What is the term for the measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in matter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2f8a868d340a4b20b1c5a0b41b250037", "input": "Passage: Now we move on to recycle. Sometimes it may be difficult to understand the differences between reusing and recycling. Recycling involves processing used materials in order to make them suitable for other uses. That usually means taking a used item, breaking it down, and reusing the pieces. Even though recycling requires extra energy, it does often make use of items which are broken, worn out, or cannot be reused. Answer: recycling", "output": [ "What is the process of processing used material into new ones called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4013ff2f44a24d94b6a6b60071be313f", "input": "Passage: The two photos in Figure above represent two different biomes. A biome is a group of similar ecosystems with the same general abiotic factors and primary producers. Producers are organisms that produce food for themselves and other organisms. Biomes may be terrestrial or aquatic. Answer: biome", "output": [ "What is a group of similar ecosystems with the same general abiotic factors and primary producers?" ] }, { "id": "task594-11a9510a21a7469fa9af85422126c57e", "input": "Passage: Empirical formulas can be determined from the percent composition of a compound. In order to determine its molecular formula, it is necessary to know the molar mass of the compound. Chemists use an instrument called a mass spectrometer to determine the molar mass of compounds. In order to go from the empirical formula to the molecular formula, follow these steps:. Answer: molar mass", "output": [ "In order to determine its molecular formula, it is necessary to know what about the compound?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ca6fb99769734f3a824e57f45aa1d533", "input": "Passage: Prokaryotes include Bacteria and Archaea. An individual prokaryote consists of a single cell without a nucleus. Answer: prokaryotes", "output": [ "What are bacteria and archaea examples of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ade2ff3d7373431b9c4e30257f718be0", "input": "Passage: A: Other examples of liquid mixtures include salt water and salad dressing. Air is a mixture of gases, mainly nitrogen and oxygen. The rock pictured in the Figure below is a solid mixture. Answer: nitrogen and oxygen", "output": [ "What two gases are the main components of air?" ] }, { "id": "task594-457fb25c0b434b5b9ccad9f65b5d17fd", "input": "Passage: Another example is carbon dioxide. This gas is produced from a variety of reactions, often by the burning of materials. The structure of the gas consists of one atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen. Carbon dioxide production is of interest in many areas, from the amount we breather out to the amount of the gas produced by burning wood or fossil fuels. By knowing the exact composition of carbon dioxide, we can make predictions as to the effects of different chemical processes. Answer: oxygen", "output": [ "The structure of the gas carbon dioxide consists of one atom of carbon and two atoms of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c777743e4dc14c3e9d23285971df01ca", "input": "Passage: There are also six types of leptons, including electrons. Leptons have an electric charge of either -1 or 0. Electrons, for example, have a charge of -1. Leptons have mass, although the mass of electrons is extremely small. Answer: six", "output": [ "How many types of leptons are there?" ] }, { "id": "task594-59749cc3066745e1a1e1625dfd69f3e5", "input": "Passage: Oxidation often involves the loss of hydrogen, the gain of oxygen, or the loss of electrons. Answer: oxidation", "output": [ "What often involves the loss of hydrogen, the gain of oxygen, or the loss of electrons?" ] }, { "id": "task594-69fa51cb345744a888d2f0ba11cc715c", "input": "Passage: Epiphytic roots enable a plant to grow on another plant. For example, the epiphytic roots of orchids develop a spongy tissue to absorb moisture. The banyan tree (Ficus sp. ) begins as an epiphyte, germinating in the branches of a host tree; aerial roots develop from the branches and eventually reach the ground, providing additional support (Figure 30.20). In screwpine (Pandanus sp. ), a palm-like tree that grows in sandy tropical soils, aboveground prop roots develop from the nodes to provide additional support. Answer: epiphytic", "output": [ "What type of roots enable a plant to grow on another plant?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e8291274ab7a47e4ba9ef85be7f32486", "input": "Passage: Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. So in other words, acceleration tells you how quickly the velocity is increasing or decreasing. An acceleration of indicates that the velocity is increasing by in the positive direction every second. Answer: acceleration", "output": [ "What is the rate of change of velocity called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-01e6dfa9ff8e4413b1a36c843e7da882", "input": "Passage: Loudness refers to how loud or soft a sound seems to a listener. The loudness of sound is determined, in turn, by the intensity, or amount of energy, in sound waves. The unit of intensity is the decibel (dB). Answer: decibel", "output": [ "What is the term used to measure the intensity of sound waves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-292fb72fc76b475da11f792c259317e0", "input": "Passage: Eat well, get enough sleep, and be active every day. These healthy lifestyle choices will help keep your immune system healthy so it can fight off respiratory infections and other diseases. Answer: infections and other dieases", "output": [ "What does a healthy immune system fight off?" ] }, { "id": "task594-81c2f98f8d304f7b9bcd59e7a97c2b62", "input": "Passage: Did you notice that none of these statements relates to the identity of the gas? This means that all gases should behave similarly. A gas that follows these statements perfectly is called an ideal gas. Most gases show slight deviations from these statements and are called real gases. However, the existence of real gases does not diminish the importance of the kinetic theory of gases. One of the statements of the kinetic theory mentions collisions. As gas particles are constantly moving, they are also constantly colliding with each other and with the walls of their container. There are forces involved as gas particles bounce off the container walls (Figure 8.9 \"Gas Pressure\"). The force generated by gas particles divided by the. Answer: ideal", "output": [ "Gases can be classifed as real or what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-874ecebeed2f4ed3a5e155bd5fe76a96", "input": "Passage: Circle graphs are especially useful for showing percents of a whole. The circle graph in Figure below shows the percent of all vehicles counted that were of each type. Answer: circle graphs", "output": [ "What type of graph is useful for showing percents of a whole?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fa2a9daf85de40b38ff6e024b14e1e05", "input": "Passage: The chloroplast is the site of photosynthesis. Part of the photosynthesis reactions occur in an internal membrane within the organelle. Many of the pigments and other molecules necessary for photosynthesis are embedded within these internal membranes, The chloroplast contains many of these internal membranes, allowing numerous photosynthetic reactions to occur simultaneously, and making photosynthesis very efficient. These internal membranes stack on top of each other, just like a stack of pancakes. Answer: the chloroplast", "output": [ "Where is the site of photosynthesis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-515285eb14454b458e9690f01696516a", "input": "Passage: Relief , or terrain, includes all the landforms of a region. A topographic map shows the height, or elevation , of features in an area. This includes mountains, craters, valleys, and rivers. For example, Figure below shows the San Francisco Peaks in northern Arizona. Features on the map include mountains, hills and lava flows. You can recognize these features from the differences in elevation. We will talk about some different landforms in the next section. Answer: topographic", "output": [ "What type of map shows the elevation and features in an area?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8f7e0a64c5cb4a54a281c78ebb20d10a", "input": "Passage: 28.5 Adjustments of the Infant at Birth and Postnatal Stages The first breath a newborn takes at birth inflates the lungs and dramatically alters the circulatory system, closing the three shunts that directed oxygenated blood away from the lungs and liver during fetal life. Clamping and cutting the umbilical cord collapses the three umbilical blood vessels. The proximal umbilical arteries remain a part of the circulatory system, whereas the distal umbilical arteries and the umbilical vein become fibrotic. The newborn keeps warm by breaking down brown adipose tissue in the process of nonshivering thermogenesis. The first consumption of breast milk or formula floods the newborn’s sterile gastrointestinal tract with beneficial bacteria that eventually establish themselves as the bacterial flora, which aid in digestion. Answer: bacteria", "output": [ "The first consumption of breast milk or formula floods the newborn’s sterile gastrointestinal tract with beneficial what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-28049dd326f842a1ad4bcc00ef9180be", "input": "Passage: The partial geologic time scale in Figure below shows when some of the major events in animal evolution took place. The oldest animal fossils are about 630 million years old, so presumably animals evolved around that time or somewhat earlier. The earliest animals were aquatic invertebrates. The first vertebrates evolved around 550 million years ago. By 500 million years ago, most modern phyla of animals had evolved. The first terrestrial animals evolved about 50 million years after that. Answer: aquatic", "output": [ "The earliest animals were which kind of invertebrates?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e14f90dd64e1498087ee8cd909013b61", "input": "Passage: An inclined plane is also a simple machine. The resistance is the weight of the box resting on the inclined plane. In order to lift this box straight up, the effort force would need to be equal to its weight. However, assuming no friction, less effort (a smaller effort force) is required to slide the box up the incline. We know this intuitively; when movng boxes into a truck or onto a platform, we use angled platforms instead of lifting it straight up. Answer: simple", "output": [ "An inclined plane is a good example of what kind of machine?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d9e25d70e8824038bac034c1c0dcac5c", "input": "Passage: The sample in an experiment or other investigation consists of the individuals or events that are studied. Typically, the sample is much smaller than all such individuals or events that exist in the world. Whether the results based on the sample are true in general cannot be known for certain. However, the larger the sample is, the more likely it is that the results are generally true. Similarly, the more times that an experiment is repeated and the same results obtained, the more likely the results are valid. This is why scientific experiments should always be repeated. Answer: sample", "output": [ "What part of an experiment or other investigation consists of the individuals or events that are studied?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ade91681ec764ee6baea52c68c0b76d5", "input": "Passage: Felsic lavas are more viscous and erupt explosively or do not erupt. Mafic lavas are less viscous and erupt effusively. Answer: mafic", "output": [ "Which type of lava lavas are less viscous and erupt effusively?" ] }, { "id": "task594-475359c308cc4d00b5cf962194bacecf", "input": "Passage: An electric motor is a device that uses an electromagnet to change electrical energy to kinetic energy. When current flows through the motor, the electromagnet rotates, causing a shaft to rotate as well. The rotating shaft moves other parts of the device. Answer: electric motor", "output": [ "What device uses an electromagnet to change electrical energy to kinetic energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b73624dc710e4af6810842f944d3a9ea", "input": "Passage: Eukaryotes evolved about 2 billion years ago. Unlike prokaryotes, eukaryotes have a cell nucleus. They have more structures and are better organized. Organelles within a eukaryote can perform certain functions. Some supply energy; some break down wastes. Eukaryotes were better able to live and so became the dominant life form. Answer: cell nucleus", "output": [ "Unlike prokaryotes, eukaryotes have what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dc4639dfe82842efa48528eeca82d355", "input": "Passage: Regional metamorphism occurs over a large area when a rock is buried or compressed. Answer: regional metamorphism", "output": [ "What occurs over a large area when a rock is buried or compressed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6625827df7b242288eabec6b55540083", "input": "Passage: This bottle of water models the semicircular canals in your ears. When you tip the bottle, the water moves up or down the sides of the bottle; when you tip your head, the liquid inside the semicircular canals moves up and down the sides of the canals. Tiny hair cells lining the canals sense the movement of liquid and send messages to the brain. Answer: hair cells", "output": [ "What senses the movement of liquid in ear canals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5a24dcd019fb4d6b9d942f77dc0dda8f", "input": "Passage: Cleaning groundwater in an aquifer requires bioremediation or chemical remediation. Bioremediation uses microorganisms to consume a pollutant. Chemical remediation destroys the contaminant. Answer: bioremediation", "output": [ "What do you call a process that uses microorganisms to consume a pollutant?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4d598b729bd7430cae38575e53138452", "input": "Passage: [PCl 3][Cl 2] (0.135)(0.135) = = 0.021 0.87 [PCl 5] The equilibrium constant calculated from the equilibrium concentrations is equal to the value of Kc given in the problem (when rounded to the proper number of significant figures). Thus, the calculated equilibrium concentrations check. Kc =. Answer: in nature", "output": [ "Because of their reactivity, we do not find most representative metals as free elements where?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b12860728a424979a39978f8408c00b8", "input": "Passage: Building Phylogenetic Trees with Analysis of DNA Sequence Alignments All living organisms display patterns of relationships derived from their evolutionary history. Phylogeny is the science that describes the relative connections between organisms, in terms of ancestral and descendant species. Phylogenetic trees, such as the plant evolutionary history shown in Figure 26.7, are tree-like branching diagrams that depict these relationships. Species are found at the tips of the branches. Each branching point, called a node, is the point at which a single taxonomic group (taxon), such as a species, separates into two or more species. Answer: phylogeny", "output": [ "What is the science that describes the ancestral and descendant connections between organisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-21396c20e50a47aba2678b07338e8bd1", "input": "Passage: Figure 10.1 The mention of a tornado conjures up images of raw destructive power. Tornadoes blow houses away as if they were made of paper and have been known to pierce tree trunks with pieces of straw. They descend from clouds in funnel-like shapes that spin violently, particularly at the bottom where they are most narrow, producing winds as high as 500 km/h. (credit: Daphne Zaras, U. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration). Answer: tornadoes", "output": [ "What descend from clouds in funnel-like shapes that spin violently, producing powerful winds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2a2ff707e8e0482ca3a3547c0f80ae74", "input": "Passage: Along with the skin, the integumentary system includes the nails and hair. Both the nails and hair contain the tough protein, keratin. The keratin forms fibers, which makes your nails and hair tough and strong. Keratin is similar in toughness to chitin, the carbohydrate found in the exoskeleton of arthropods. Answer: keratin", "output": [ "What is the name of the protein that is found in hairs and nails?" ] }, { "id": "task594-22692a33f1e34c36ad15673234ec9624", "input": "Passage: Figure 11.7 Meiosis and mitosis are both preceded by one round of DNA replication; however, meiosis includes two nuclear divisions. The four daughter cells resulting from meiosis are haploid and genetically distinct. The daughter cells resulting from mitosis are diploid and identical to the parent cell. Answer: dna replication", "output": [ "Meiosis and mitosis are both preceded by one round of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-072ad80c39974b798ab2775b42f6f04e", "input": "Passage: Plants also detect and respond to the daily cycle of light and darkness. For example, some plants open their leaves during the day to collect sunlight and then close their leaves at night to prevent water loss. Answer: sunlight", "output": [ "Some plants open their leaves during the day to collect what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4107f8ec5229464295fbba14684a3299", "input": "Passage: A circuit that consists of one loop is called a series circuit . You can see a simple series circuit below. If a series circuit is interrupted at any point in its single loop, no current can flow through the circuit and no devices in the circuit will work. In the series circuit below, if one light bulb burns out, the other light bulb won’t work because it won’t receive any current. Series circuits are commonly used in flashlights. You can see an animation of a series circuit at this URL: http://regentsprep. org/regents/physics/phys03/bsercir/default. htm. Answer: series circuit", "output": [ "What do you call a circuit that consists of one loop, which if interrupted at any point, causes cessation of the whole circuit's electric current?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8a881715996b4b4ba05f5d0c2865bdd3", "input": "Passage: 39.3 | Breathing By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Describe how the structures of the lungs and thoracic cavity control the mechanics of breathing • Explain the importance of compliance and resistance in the lungs • Discuss problems that may arise due to a V/Q mismatch Mammalian lungs are located in the thoracic cavity where they are surrounded and protected by the rib cage, intercostal muscles, and bound by the chest wall. The bottom of the lungs is contained by the diaphragm, a skeletal muscle that facilitates breathing. Breathing requires the coordination of the lungs, the chest wall, and most importantly, the diaphragm. Answer: thoracic", "output": [ "Mammalian lungs are located in what cavity, where they are surrounded and protected by the rib cage, intercostal muscles, and chest wall?" ] }, { "id": "task594-31e8056661b84d5c9eb1578765442599", "input": "Passage: Matter is anything that has mass and volume. Mass is the amount of matter in a substance. Volume is the amount of space matter takes up. Answer: matter", "output": [ "What is the term for anything that has mass and volume?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2bcc90aed2354c81b640e7fd52013102", "input": "Passage: When wood burns, it changes to ashes, carbon dioxide, water vapor, and other gases. You can see ashes in the wood fire pictured here. The gases are invisible. Answer: carbon dioxide", "output": [ "What is the primary gas produced from burning of wood?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5ead232ec6c345eab9dbdd9dc4d600ae", "input": "Passage: Pulmonary circulation is the part of the circulatory system that carries blood between the heart and lungs (the term pulmonary means “of the lungs”). It is illustrated in Figure below . Deoxygenated blood leaves the right ventricle through pulmonary arteries, which transport it to the lungs. In the lungs, the blood gives up carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen. The oxygenated blood then returns to the left atrium of the heart through pulmonary veins. Answer: oxygen", "output": [ "While in the lungs, blood gives up carbon dioxide and picks up what element before returning to the heart?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c3d079eaa86141ffa9106ec19daeff84", "input": "Passage: Nuclear power is clean. It does not pollute the air. However, the use of nuclear energy does create other environmental problems. Uranium must be mined ( Figure below ). The process of splitting atoms creates radioactive waste. This waste may be dangerous for thousands or hundreds of thousands of years. As yet, there is no long-term solution for storing the radioactive waste. Answer: radioactive", "output": [ "The process of splitting atoms creates what kind of waste?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9753b353d5984666ad0735715908ef21", "input": "Passage: 7.4 The Thoracic Cage The thoracic cage protects the heart and lungs. It is composed of 12 pairs of ribs with their costal cartilages and the sternum. The ribs are anchored posteriorly to the 12 thoracic vertebrae. The sternum consists of the manubrium, body, and xiphoid process. The manubrium and body are joined at the sternal angle, which is also the site for attachment of the second ribs. Ribs are flattened, curved bones and are numbered 1–12. Posteriorly, the head of the rib articulates with the costal facets located on the bodies of thoracic vertebrae and the rib tubercle articulates with the facet located on the vertebral transverse process. The angle of the ribs forms the most posterior portion of the thoracic cage. The costal groove in the inferior margin of each rib carries blood vessels and a nerve. Anteriorly, each rib ends in a costal cartilage. True ribs (1–7) attach directly to the sternum via their costal cartilage. The false ribs (8–12) either attach to the sternum indirectly or not at all. Ribs 8–10 have their costal cartilages attached to the cartilage of the next higher rib. The floating ribs (11–12) are short and do not attach to the sternum or to another rib. Answer: thoracic", "output": [ "What cage composed of 12 pairs of ribs, with their costal cartilages and the sternum, protects the heart and lungs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-24bc39141fe64004bf18f26c4f00cdca", "input": "Passage: The three general transfers are believed to occur normally in most cells. These describe the normal flow of biological information. DNA is replicated, DNA is transcribed into RNA, and RNA is translated into protein. The three special transfers are known to occur under special conditions, such as with some viruses. The three unknown transfers are not believed to occur. Answer: rna", "output": [ "What is dna transcribed into after being replicated?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b4e760b8489549c2b900fd416e3bfa92", "input": "Passage: The human body produces many enzymes that help digest food. Here are just two examples. Answer: enzymes", "output": [ "What does the human body produce to help digest food?" ] }, { "id": "task594-81c57701cb714b02bf170c2587ced59c", "input": "Passage: Cardiac muscle is found only in the walls of the heart. It is striated, or striped, because its muscle fibers are arranged in bundles. Contractions of cardiac muscle are involuntary. This means that they are not under conscious control. When cardiac muscle contracts, the heart beats and pumps blood. Answer: pumps blood", "output": [ "When cardiac muscle contracts, the heart does what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-17e958091fbf44c1b8c2f710f445ed6d", "input": "Passage: Science is a process for developing knowledge. Change in knowledge about the natural world is expected because there is often room for new observations which may challenge current views. No matter how well one theory explains a set of observations, it is possible that a different theory may explain them just as well or better, or may also encompass a wider range of observations. Scientists are always testing and attempting to improve theories. Scientists know that even if there is no way to gain complete knowledge about something, an increasingly accurate understanding of nature will develop over time. Answer: science", "output": [ "What is the process for developing knowledge called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6b0ddd98a8c745eaa4b66ae9e5450494", "input": "Passage: A compound is a substance that consists of two or more elements. A compound has a unique composition that is always the same. The smallest particle of a compound is called a molecule. Answer: molecule", "output": [ "What is the smallest part of a compound?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f70ac3a6a028431791c2111036a30662", "input": "Passage: The vertebrate endoskeleton is made of bone and cartilage. Cartilage is a tough, flexible tissue that contains a protein called collagen. Bone is a hard tissue consisting of a collagen framework that is filled in with minerals such as calcium. Bone is less flexible than cartilage but stronger. A bony endoskeleton allows an animal to grow larger and heavier than a cartilage endoskeleton would. Bone also provides more protection for soft tissues and internal organs. Answer: cartilage", "output": [ "The vertebrate endoskeleton is made of bone and what tough, flexible tissue?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5b1734c74252443a966522b3eda2f3f2", "input": "Passage: A substance is stored in a reservoir. The amount of time it stays in that reservoir is its residence time. Answer: residence time", "output": [ "What do we call the amount of time a substance is stored in a reservoir?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3489a62f1dfe40a29076894494386117", "input": "Passage: You don’t have to be a musician to know that playing a wind instrument like the trumpet takes a lot of air. Having healthy lungs is necessary to play a trumpet or other wind instrument. The lungs are part of the respiratory system. Answer: healthy lungs", "output": [ "What is necessary in a person who wishes to play wind instruments?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4a650f92f0e447a895bb9bc154456214", "input": "Passage: A common way to keep track of valence electrons is with Lewis electron dot structures . In an electron dot structure, each atom is represented by its chemical symbol, and each valence electron is represented by a single dot. Note that only valence electrons are shown explicitly in these diagrams. For the main group elements, the number of valence electrons for a neutral atom can be determined by looking at which group the element belongs to. In the s block, Group 1 elements have one valence electron, while Group 2 elements have two valence electrons. In the p block, the number of valence electrons is equal to the group number minus ten. Group 13 elements have three valence electrons, Group 14 elements have four, and so on. The noble gases in Group 18 have eight valence electrons, and the full outer s and p sublevels are what give these elements their special stability. Representative dot diagrams are shown in the Figure below :. Answer: noble", "output": [ "The group 18 gases that have 8 valence electrons are referred to as what type of gases?" ] }, { "id": "task594-48eb43ec4df341dd9596dacbc00b9cc8", "input": "Passage: Binary fission occurs when a parent cell simply splits into two daughter cells. This method is described in detail in the lesson \"Cell Division. \" Bacteria reproduce this way. You can see a bacterial cell reproducing by binary fission in Figure below . Answer: binary fission", "output": [ "How does bacteria reproduce?" ] }, { "id": "task594-53e402ee26a942cf8c330fd10f277c1c", "input": "Passage: Cycle of Sexual Reproduction. Sexual reproduction involves the production of haploid gametes by meiosis. This is followed by fertilization and the formation of a diploid zygote. The number of chromosomes in a gamete is represented by the letter n. Why does the zygote have 2n, or twice as many, chromosomes?. Answer: meiosis", "output": [ "Sexual reproduction involves the production of haploid gametes by what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8e1c376f2f3b4a27881cb65b613eae8e", "input": "Passage: Figure below shows the main gases in air. Nitrogen and oxygen make up 99 percent of air. Argon and carbon dioxide make up much of the rest. These percentages are the same just about everywhere in the atmosphere. Answer: nitrogen and oxygen", "output": [ "What makes up 99 percent of air?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dbe9ee755766463e8531d12081c1baf1", "input": "Passage: Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to break along certain planes. When a mineral breaks along a plane it makes a smooth surface. Minerals with different crystal structures will break or cleave in different ways, as in Figure below . Halite tends to form cubes with smooth surfaces. Mica tends to form sheets. Fluorite can form octahedrons. Answer: cleavage", "output": [ "What term means the tendency of a mineral to break along certain planes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-39596322172d4196aa6aa67ecffd54bd", "input": "Passage: characteristics of males, or the development of the male genital organs and the continuous production of sperm. Androgens are also responsible for the development of secondary male characteristics, such as facial hair, deep voice, and muscle strength. Two kinds of sex hormones are of particular importance in females: progesterone, which prepares the uterus for pregnancy and prevents the further release of eggs from the ovaries during pregnancy, and the estrogens, which are mainly responsible for the development of female secondary sexual characteristics, such as breast development and increased deposition of fat tissue in the breasts, the buttocks, and the thighs. Both males and females produce androgens and estrogens, differing in the amounts of secreted hormones rather than in the presence or absence of one or the other. Sex hormones, both natural and synthetic, are sometimes used therapeutically. For example, a woman who has had her ovaries removed may be given female hormones to compensate. Some of the earliest chemical compounds employed in cancer chemotherapy were sex hormones. For example, estrogens are one treatment option for prostate cancer because they block the release and activity of testosterone. Testosterone enhances prostate cancer growth. Sex hormones are also administered in preparation for sex-change operations, to promote the development of the proper secondary sexual characteristics. Oral contraceptives are synthetic derivatives of the female sex hormones; they work by preventing ovulation. Answer: fat", "output": [ "Two kinds of sex hormones are of particular importance in females: progesterone, which prepares the uterus for pregnancy and prevents the further release of eggs from the ovaries during pregnancy, and the estrogens, which are mainly responsible for the development of female secondary sexual characteristics, such as breast development and increased deposition of this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-02fc6ab3b1da41b8aaa6dd2cb89ccd46", "input": "Passage: The force of gravity is called weight. Near the surface of a planet, it has magnitude and is directed perpendicular to its surface. This is different from the Gravitational Constant, and differs from planet to planet. Answer: weight", "output": [ "What is the force of gravity called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ede0d7d5c9604fa684a52d427162e23e", "input": "Passage: Temperature increases with altitude in the thermosphere. Surprisingly, it may be higher than 1000° C (1800° F) near the top of this layer! The Sun’s energy there is very strong. The molecules absorb the Sun’s energy and are heated up. But there are so few gas molecules that the air still feels very cold. Molecules in the thermosphere gain or lose electrons. They then become charged particles called ions. Answer: temperature increases", "output": [ "As altitude rises, what happens to the temperature in the thermosphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-63e0ae1c1a694fd5884ea888854dcf03", "input": "Passage: Compounds form when atoms of different elements combine. This process is a chemical reaction. Answer: chemical reaction", "output": [ "In which type of reaction are compounds formed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a676999ddf3b48f08ff319143819899d", "input": "Passage: An electromagnetic wave is a transverse wave that can travel across space as well as through matter. When it travels through space, it doesn’t lose energy to a medium as a mechanical wave does. Answer: energy", "output": [ "When traveling through space what do mechanical waves lose?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8569ae37005644768754f9ac9467245e", "input": "Passage: The cations are simply named as the parent element. The sodium cation is still called “sodium. ” Often, the charge would be attached for clarity, so the sodium cation might be referred to as “sodium one plus. ”. Answer: the parent element", "output": [ "What are cations simply named after?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ae7e6655e46f467cb380b3735336c292", "input": "Passage: Gap genes themselves are under the effect of maternal effect genes, such as bicoid and nanos. Gap genes also regulate each other to achieve their precise striped expression patterns. The maternal effect is when the phenotype of offspring is partly determined by the phenotype of its mother, irrespective of genotype. This often occurs when the mother supplies mRNA or proteins to the egg, affecting early development. In developing Drosophila, maternal effects include axis determination. Answer: maternal effect", "output": [ "What is the term for when the phenotype of offspring is partly determined by the phenotype of its mother, irrespective of genotype?" ] }, { "id": "task594-26c85437bf6c4b40a8bcd0f31d4b0893", "input": "Passage: The major cause of outdoor air pollution is the burning of fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are burned in power plants, factories, motor vehicles, and home heating systems. Ranching and using chemicals such as fertilizers also cause outdoor air pollution. Erosion of soil in farm fields, mining activities, and construction sites adds dust particles to the air as well. Some specific outdoor air pollutants are described in Table below . Answer: burning fossil fuels", "output": [ "What is the major cause of outdoor air pollution?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ac05222ff020408bacce2364b6d371cd", "input": "Passage: Not so fast. The mesosphere is the least known layer of the atmosphere. The mesosphere lies above the highest altitude an airplane can go. It lies below the lowest altitude a spacecraft can orbit. Maybe that's just as well. If you were in the mesosphere without a space suit, your blood would boil! This is because the pressure is so low that liquids would boil at normal body temperature. Answer: mesosphere", "output": [ "What atmospheric layer lies above the highest altitude an airplane can go and below the lowest altitude a spacecraft can orbit?" ] }, { "id": "task594-92c3d7ccfed94c88b75a5e66045bf357", "input": "Passage: Proteins are the most numerous and diverse biochemical compounds, and they have many different functions. Some of their functions include:. Answer: proteins", "output": [ "What are the most numerous and diverse biochemical compounds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6f971be6076e441f88725d6e5da9a536", "input": "Passage: Figure 40.5 The cells and cellular components of human blood are shown. Red blood cells deliver oxygen to the cells and remove carbon dioxide. White blood cells—including neutrophils, monocytes, lymphocytes, eosinophils, and basophils—are involved in the immune response. Platelets form clots that prevent blood loss after injury. Answer: white blood cell", "output": [ "Neutrophils and lymphocytes are examples of what type of cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d526a4eae63c4d138b00142e1e3863e2", "input": "Passage: Maturation of the ovum. Notice only 1 mature ovum, or egg, forms during meiosis from the primary oocyte. Three polar bodies may form during oogenesis. These polar bodies will not form mature gametes. Conversely, four haploid spermatids form during meiosis from the primary spermatocyte. Answer: the primary spermatocyte", "output": [ "Four haploid spermatids form during meiosis from what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9fd1f04ce4f64138bd2047474bda2868", "input": "Passage: Metallic Iron\"). Instead, the rust continually flakes off to expose a fresh metal surface vulnerable to reaction with oxygen and water. Because both oxygen and water are required for rust to form, an iron nail immersed in. Answer: water", "output": [ "Oxygen and what are required for rust to form?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0bef78543d2a4c2780f206e3b1d7c0f6", "input": "Passage: Galaxies can be spiral, elliptical, or irregular. Answer: irregular", "output": [ "Galaxies can be spiral, elliptical, or which other type?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0824cb03d753479ebcd2f6d87ea02e28", "input": "Passage: Thalamus The thalamus is a collection of nuclei that relay information between the cerebral cortex and the periphery, spinal cord, or brain stem. All sensory information, except for the sense of smell, passes through the thalamus before processing by the cortex. Axons from the peripheral sensory organs, or intermediate nuclei, synapse in the thalamus, and thalamic neurons project directly to the cerebrum. It is a requisite synapse in any sensory pathway, except for olfaction. The thalamus does not just pass the information on, it also processes that information. For example, the portion of the thalamus that receives visual information will influence what visual stimuli are important, or what receives attention. The cerebrum also sends information down to the thalamus, which usually communicates motor commands. This involves interactions with the cerebellum and other nuclei in the brain stem. The cerebrum interacts with the basal nuclei, which involves connections with the thalamus. The primary output of the basal nuclei is to the thalamus, which relays that output to the cerebral cortex. The cortex also sends information to the thalamus that will then influence the effects of the basal nuclei. Answer: cerebral cortex", "output": [ "The primary output of the basal nuclei is to the thalamus, which relays that output to where?" ] }, { "id": "task594-587723382b714adc919fc551cf42a025", "input": "Passage: Monocots Plants in the monocot group are primarily identified as such by the presence of a single cotyledon in the seedling. Other anatomical features shared by monocots include veins that run parallel to the length of the leaves, and flower parts that are arranged in a three- or six-fold symmetry. True woody tissue is rarely found in monocots. In palm trees, vascular and parenchyma tissues produced by the primary and secondary thickening meristems form the trunk. The pollen from the first angiosperms was monosulcate, containing a single furrow or pore through the outer layer. This feature is still seen in the modern monocots. Vascular tissue of the stem is not arranged in any particular pattern. The root system is mostly adventitious and unusually positioned, with no major tap root. The monocots include familiar plants such as the true lilies (which are at the origin of their alternate name of Liliopsida), orchids, grasses, and palms. Many important crops are monocots, such as rice and other cereals, corn, sugar cane, and tropical fruits like bananas and pineapples (Figure 26.17). Answer: monocot", "output": [ "What is the type of plant that has a single cotelydon in the seedling?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cb70d9d8239440dba105486c7ee3c989", "input": "Passage: Muscles cannot contract on their own. They need a stimulus from a nerve cell to “tell” them to contract. Let’s say you decide to raise your hand in class. Your brain sends electrical messages to nerve cells, called motor neurons, in your arm and shoulder. The motor neurons, in turn, stimulate muscle fibers in your arm and shoulder to contract, causing your arm to rise. Involuntary contractions of cardiac and smooth muscles are also controlled by nerves. Answer: stimulus", "output": [ "What do muscles need to contract?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b68cc0bdcafa4955bab0cb1857eb7134", "input": "Passage: Unsaturated fatty acids have at least one double bond between carbon atoms. As a result, some carbon atoms are not bonded to as many hydrogen atoms as possible. They are unsaturated with hydrogens. Unsaturated fatty acids are found in oils. Answer: oil", "output": [ "Where are unsaturated fatty acids commonly found?" ] }, { "id": "task594-80a389a3a40042beb5cb6e711e84b173", "input": "Passage: Absorptive protists absorb food molecules across their cell membranes. This occurs by diffusion . These protists are important decomposers. Answer: absorptive", "output": [ "What protists absorb food molecules across their cell membranes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e21558984ae9433b8c5a548a2686ba0b", "input": "Passage: An unconformity is a gap in rock layers. They occur where older rock layers eroded away completely before new rock layers were deposited. Answer: an unconformity", "output": [ "What is a gap in rock layers called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fedb9f32048c4d32b6f6a6aa6ef08252", "input": "Passage: Latitude means how far a biome is from the equator. Moving from the poles to the equator, you will find (in order) Arctic, boreal, temperate, subtropical, and tropical biomes. Answer: subtropical", "output": [ "What biome is located between the temperate and tropical biomes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-11637af652b74583b508d73edf2f76ce", "input": "Passage: Different radioisotopes may vary greatly in their rate of decay. The more unstable their nuclei are, the faster they decay. Answer: unstable", "output": [ "Radioisotopes may vary greatly in their rate of decay, decaying faster if their nuclei are more what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-adb226f99776438e936a7bf2fd7d8c0a", "input": "Passage: Acceleration is a vector, and thus has a both a magnitude and direction. Acceleration can be caused by either a change in the magnitude or the direction of the velocity. Instantaneous acceleration a is the acceleration at a specific instant in time. Deceleration is an acceleration with a direction opposite to that of the velocity. Answer: direction", "output": [ "Acceleration is a vector, and thus has a both a magnitude and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-69b102d72fb94ce1a9ecf60c29e39294", "input": "Passage: Deposition also occurs when a stream or river empties into a large body of still water. In this case, a delta forms. A delta is shaped like a triangle. It spreads out into the body of water. An example is pictured below ( Figure above ). Answer: still water", "output": [ "Deposition also occurs when a stream or river empties into a large body of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a952da78f0074a79a553035e551bf415", "input": "Passage: The Sun heats some areas more than others, which causes wind. The Sun's energy also drives the water cycle, which moves water over the surface of the Earth. Both wind and water power can be used as renewable resources. Answer: the water cycle", "output": [ "What is driven by the sun's energy and moves water over the surface of earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-17fd5cfb13d54b6e899069a018b0f557", "input": "Passage: Examples of protozoa include amoebas and paramecia. Answer: protozoa", "output": [ "Amoebas and paramecia are examples of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0d37594b780343a59de22611373b18a3", "input": "Passage: When a fluorine atom gains an electron, it becomes a negative fluoride ion. Answer: fluoride ion", "output": [ "When a fluorine atom gains an electron, it becomes a negative what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4ba5f0f7e8c64d778d36a72d7fabae37", "input": "Passage: Prokaryotes, the First Inhabitants of Earth When and where did life begin? What were the conditions on Earth when life began? Prokaryotes were the first forms of life on Earth, and they existed for billions of years before plants and animals appeared. The Earth and its moon are thought to be about 4.54 billion years old. This estimate is based on evidence from radiometric dating of meteorite material together with other substrate material from Earth and the moon. Early Earth had a very different atmosphere (contained less molecular oxygen) than it does today and was subjected to strong radiation; thus, the first organisms would have flourished where they were more protected, such as in ocean depths or beneath the surface of the Earth. At this time too, strong volcanic activity was common on Earth, so it is likely that these first organisms—the first prokaryotes—were adapted to very high temperatures. Early Earth was prone to geological upheaval and volcanic eruption, and was subject to bombardment by mutagenic radiation from the sun. The first organisms were prokaryotes that could withstand these harsh conditions. Microbial Mats Microbial mats or large biofilms may represent the earliest forms of life on Earth; there is fossil evidence of their presence starting about 3.5 billion years ago. A microbial mat is a multi-layered sheet of prokaryotes (Figure 22.2) that includes mostly bacteria, but also archaea. Microbial mats are a few centimeters thick, and they typically grow where different types of materials interface, mostly on moist surfaces. The various types of prokaryotes that comprise them carry out different metabolic pathways, and that is the reason for their various colors. Prokaryotes in a microbial mat are held together by a glue-like sticky substance that they secrete called extracellular matrix. The first microbial mats likely obtained their energy from chemicals found near hydrothermal vents. A hydrothermal vent is a breakage or fissure in the Earth’s surface that releases geothermally heated water. With the evolution of photosynthesis about 3 billion years ago, some prokaryotes in microbial mats came to use a more widely available energy source—sunlight—whereas others were still dependent on chemicals from hydrothermal vents for energy and food. Answer: prokaryotes", "output": [ "What were the first forms of life on earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f08237f7d98e4981b1dae35b890629c9", "input": "Passage: The jointed appendages of arthropods may be used as legs for walking. Being jointed makes them more flexible. Try walking or climbing stairs without bending your knees, and you’ll see why joints are helpful. In most arthropods, the appendages on the head have been modified for other functions. Figure below shows some of the head appendages found in arthropods. Sensory organs such as eyes are also found on the head. Answer: walking", "output": [ "What may the jointed appendages of arthropods be used for?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8991623b858344638ad80995dd425395", "input": "Passage: A space station was established far from the gravitational field of Earth. Extended stays in zero gravity are not healthy for human beings. Thus, for the comfort of the astronauts, the station is rotated so that the astronauts feel there is an internal gravity. The rotation speed is such that the apparent acceleration of gravity is . The direction of rotation is counter-clockwise. If the radius of the station is , what is its rotational speed, ?. Answer: internal gravity", "output": [ "Extended stays in zero gravity are not healthy for human beings. thus, for the comfort of the astronauts, the station is rotated so that the astronauts feel there is what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cd09695111fe42f1885894aad92fed34", "input": "Passage: Ecologists also study how individuals in a population are spread across an environment. This spacing of individuals within a population is called dispersion . Some species may be clumped or clustered ( Figure below ) in an area. Others may be evenly spaced ( Figure below ). Still others may be spaced randomly within an area. The population density and dispersion have an effect on reproduction and population size. What do you think the relationship is between population density, dispersion and size?. Answer: dispersion", "output": [ "What is the term for the spacing of individuals within a population?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6c67cf4835624db79d758bfdf9bdf054", "input": "Passage: Mollusks are invertebrates such as snails, scallops, and squids. They have a hard outer shell. There is a layer of tissue called the mantle between the shell and the body. Most mollusks have tentacles for feeding and sensing, and many have a muscular foot. Mollusks also have a coelom, a complete digestive system, and specialized organs for excretion. The majority of mollusks live in the ocean. Different classes of mollusks have different ways of obtaining food. Answer: mollusk", "output": [ "Snails, scallops, and squids are what type of invertebrate?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b5938ded4bc340698f17b260a2d221ba", "input": "Passage: waves of muscle contractions in the organs of the gastrointestinal tract that keep food moving through the tract. Answer: muscles", "output": [ "What contracts to move food throughout the gastrointestinal tract?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bf75bda753c447a28c0c4318ff1597f1", "input": "Passage: Most populations do not live under ideal conditions and grow logistically instead. Answer: logistically", "output": [ "Because conditions are not ideal, most populations grow ____________." ] }, { "id": "task594-f157db0fd5904bdf887b686ccd6c816b", "input": "Passage: Polyamides Just as the reaction of a diol and a diacid forms a polyester (Section 15.8 \"Preparation of Esters\"), the reaction of a diacid and a diamine yields a polyamide. The two difunctional monomers often employed are adipic acid and 1,6-hexanediamine. The monomers condense by splitting out water to form a new product, which is still difunctional and thus can react further to yield a polyamide polymer. Answer: polyamide", "output": [ "Just as the reaction of a diol and a diacid forms a polyester, the reaction of a diacid and a diamine yields this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2efca06db7794cf193edce56a4c79579", "input": "Passage: Today, evolution is still questioned by some people. Often, people who disagree with the theory of evolution do not really understand it. For example, some people think that the theory of evolution explains how life on Earth first began. In fact, the theory explains only how life changed after it first appeared. Some people think the theory of evolution means that humans evolved from modern apes. In fact, the theory suggests humans and modern apes have a common ancestor that lived several million years ago. These and other misconceptions about evolution contribute to the controversy that still surrounds this fundamental principle of biology. Answer: theory of evolution", "output": [ "Misconceptions about what theory contribute to the controversy that still surrounds this fundamental principle of biology?" ] }, { "id": "task594-952cb890b327486cadb81a0f3f0e45d0", "input": "Passage: Milk and other dairy foods are not the only sources of calcium. This important nutrient is also found in green leafy vegetables, broccoli, and intact salmon and canned sardines with their soft bones. Nuts, beans, seeds, and shellfish provide calcium in smaller quantities. Except for fatty fish like salmon and tuna, or fortified milk or cereal, vitamin D is not found naturally in many foods. The action of sunlight on the skin triggers the body to produce its own vitamin D (Figure 6.22), but many people, especially those of darker complexion and those living in northern latitudes where the sun’s rays are not as strong, are deficient in vitamin D. In cases of deficiency, a doctor can prescribe a vitamin D supplement. Answer: vitamin d", "output": [ "The action of sunlight on the skin triggers the body to produce what vitamin?" ] }, { "id": "task594-08643303884744c9928cf9a4a8efc7ce", "input": "Passage: Weather is always changing. One day might be cold and cloudy. The next day might be warm and sunny. Even on the same day, the weather can change a lot. A beautiful morning might be followed by a stormy afternoon. Why does weather change? The main reason is moving air masses. Answer: moving air masses", "output": [ "What is the main reason for weather change?" ] }, { "id": "task594-379c04dec24a49e2a26804058538f7e1", "input": "Passage: Hearing is the ability to sense sound waves, and the ear is the organ that senses sound. Sound waves enter the auditory canal and travel to the eardrum (see Figure below ). They strike the eardrum and make it vibrate. The vibrations then travel through several other structures inside the ear and reach the cochlea. The cochlea is a coiled tube filled with liquid. The liquid moves in response to the vibrations, causing tiny hair cells lining the cochlea to bend. In response, the hair cells send nerve impulses to the auditory nerve , which carries the impulses to the brain. The brain interprets the impulses and “tells” us what we are hearing. Answer: ear", "output": [ "What is the organ that senses sound?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d5c0bf257ed44395a3bcc1b0d1a9b2e6", "input": "Passage: Use a machine. The polymerase chain reaction has revolutionized biological and biomedical research and applications. Luckily many machines have been developed that allow this process to be performed rapidly and with precision. Answer: polymerase chain reaction", "output": [ "What has has revolutionized biological and biomedical research and applications?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6bef802d8db44611a785ee5ea86e347b", "input": "Passage: which is identical to the Rydberg equation for R ∞ = k . When Bohr calculated his theoretical value for the hc Rydberg constant, R ∞, and compared it with the experimentally accepted value, he got excellent agreement. Since the Rydberg constant was one of the most precisely measured constants at that time, this level of agreement was astonishing and meant that Bohr’s model was taken seriously, despite the many assumptions that Bohr needed to derive it. The lowest few energy levels are shown in Figure 6.14. One of the fundamental laws of physics is that matter is most stable with the lowest possible energy. Thus, the electron in a hydrogen atom usually moves in the n = 1 orbit, the orbit in which it has the lowest energy. When the electron is in this lowest energy orbit, the atom is said to be in its ground electronic state (or simply ground state). If the atom receives energy from an outside source, it is possible for the electron to move to an orbit with a higher n value and the atom is now in an excited electronic state (or simply an excited state) with a higher energy. When an electron transitions from an excited state (higher energy orbit) to a less excited state, or ground state, the difference in energy is emitted as a photon. Similarly, if a photon is absorbed by an atom, the energy of the photon moves an electron from a lower energy orbit up to a more excited one. We can relate the energy of electrons in atoms to what we learned previously about energy. The law of conservation of energy says that we can neither create nor destroy energy. Thus, if a certain amount of external energy is required to excite an electron from one energy level to another, that same amount of energy will be liberated when the electron returns to its initial state (Figure 6.15). In effect, an atom can “store” energy by using it to promote an electron to a state with a higher energy and release it when the electron returns to a lower state. The energy can be released as one quantum of energy, as the electron returns to its ground state (say, from n = 5 to n = 1), or it can be released as two or more smaller quanta as the electron falls to an intermediate state, then to the ground state (say, from n = 5 to n = 4, emitting one quantum, then to n = 1, emitting a second quantum). Since Bohr’s model involved only a single electron, it could also be applied to the single electron ions He+, Li2+, Be3+, and so forth, which differ from hydrogen only in their nuclear charges, and so one-electron atoms and ions are collectively referred to as hydrogen-like atoms. The energy expression for hydrogen-like atoms is a generalization of the hydrogen atom energy, in which Z is the nuclear charge (+1 for hydrogen, +2 for He, +3 for Li, and so on) and k has a value of 2.179 × 10–18 J. E n = − kZ2 n. Answer: photon", "output": [ "When an electron transitions from an excited state to a less excited state, or ground state, the difference in energy is emitted as a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4fb87c2a12674bf99bfa645f09983b7a", "input": "Passage: Warmer oceans are hostile to algae and cytoplankton , which are the most important absorbers of carbon dioxide. The loss of these two photosynthesizers would remove the most important natural sink. Answer: warmer", "output": [ "What type of oceans are hostile to algae and cytoplankton?" ] }, { "id": "task594-31763a2cf0374e47b6e341ad44ced9c5", "input": "Passage: In the previous lesson, we discussed pure substances and mixtures. We indicated that the components of a mixture could be separated by physical means, but the components of a pure substance could not. Pure substances can only be broken down further through chemical means. In this lesson, we list several methods for separating mixtures. We will also be looking at chemical changes which alter the chemical identity of a substance, and how to recognize when a chemical change is taking place. Answer: chemical", "output": [ "While components of a mixture can be separated by physical means, the components of a pure substance can only be broken down through what means?" ] }, { "id": "task594-343249c696b94b8ca97559269b6eac5f", "input": "Passage: Female monotremes lack a uterus and vagina. Instead, they have a cloaca with one opening, like the cloacas of reptiles and birds. The opening is used to excrete wastes as well as lay eggs. Answer: cloaca", "output": [ "Female monotremes lack a uterus and vagina. instead they have what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-40eb7f8322cc4333a19c1d04e5aacb89", "input": "Passage: Secretion of the hormone cholecystokinin, which stimulates release of pancreatic juices and bile. Answer: pancreatic juices, bile", "output": [ "What does the secretion of the hormone cholecystokinin stimulate the release of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-038d5774b3084f5d8237ae80faaebc62", "input": "Passage: The electrons in the outer energy level of an atom are called valence electrons . It is valence electrons that are potentially involved in chemical reactions. The number of valence electrons determines an element’s reactivity, or how likely the element is to react with other elements. The number of valence electrons also determines whether the element can conduct electric current. That’s because electric current is the flow of electrons. Table below shows how these properties vary in elements from each class. Answer: valence electrons", "output": [ "What are electrons in the outer energy level of an atom called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0f5b51c04b434f36b63849522005665f", "input": "Passage: 15.11 Amines: Structures and Names LEARNING OBJECTIVES Identify the general structure for an amine. Identify the functional group for amines. Determine the structural feature that classifies amines as primary, secondary, or tertiary. Use nomenclature systems to name amines. Amines are classified according to the number of carbon atoms bonded directly to the nitrogen atom. A primary (1°) amine has one alkyl (or aryl) group on the nitrogen atom, a secondary (2°) amine has two, and a tertiary (3°) amine has three (http://catalog. flatworldknowledge. com/bookhub/reader/2547. Answer: nitrogen", "output": [ "Amines are classified according to the number of carbon atoms bonded directly to what atom?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d506b49a4e69497b84eafa3474108d27", "input": "Passage: Adolescence includes the physical changes of puberty among other changes. Answer: adolescence", "output": [ "Puberty and other physical changes occurs during which stage of development?" ] }, { "id": "task594-aed085298121488f883bdc16919f40d7", "input": "Passage: Cells are found in all different types of environments, and these environments are constantly changing. For example, one-celled organisms, like bacteria, can be found on your skin, in the ground, or in all different types of water. Therefore, cells need a way to protect themselves. This job is done by the cell membrane, which is also known as the plasma membrane. Answer: bacteria", "output": [ "Name a one-celled organism that can be found on your skin, in the ground, or in all different types of water." ] }, { "id": "task594-aec184b60efb4b668b383d9c6c201931", "input": "Passage: An amino acid is a compound that contains both an amino group (−NH 2 ) and a carboxyl group (−COOH) in the same molecule. While any number of amino acids can possibly be imagined, biochemists generally reserve the term for a group of 20 amino acids which are formed and used by living organisms. The Figure below shows the general structure of an amino acid. Answer: amino acid", "output": [ "What do you call a compound that contains both an amino group and a carboxyl group in the same molecule?" ] }, { "id": "task594-39c1124d32e143abb44d4c1f25bb4e17", "input": "Passage: When most people think of muscles, they think of the muscles that are visible just under the skin, particularly of the limbs. These are skeletal muscles, so-named because most of them move the skeleton. But there are two other types of muscle in the body, with distinctly different jobs. Cardiac muscle, found in the heart, is concerned with pumping blood through the circulatory system. Smooth muscle is concerned with various involuntary movements, such as having one’s hair stand on end when cold or frightened, or moving food through the digestive system. This chapter will examine the structure and function of these three types of muscles. Answer: cardiac", "output": [ "What kind of muscle is found in the heart?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2cc7ca0fa3874ede93d56eabaf52b65d", "input": "Passage: Vibrating objects such as drumheads produce sound energy. Answer: sound energy", "output": [ "Vibrating objects such as drumheads produce what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f36bccbcb4304aedbbc104e65b60d20d", "input": "Passage: Beneath the lithosphere, the asthenosphere is solid rock that can flow. Answer: asthenosphere", "output": [ "What is located beneath the lithosphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-54d10f3e65b44320a34b87260db12080", "input": "Passage: Much of the time, you probably aren’t aware of your digestive system. It works well without causing any problems. But most people have problems with their digestive system at least once in a while. Did you ever eat something that didn’t “agree” with you? Maybe you had a stomachache or felt sick to your stomach. Perhaps you had diarrhea. These can be symptoms of food poisoning. Answer: digestive system", "output": [ "Diarrhea due to food poisoning is an example of a problem involving what organ system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-809f9e09464046ca9b3f009b834cd5f2", "input": "Passage: In alcoholic fermentation, glycolysis is followed by a step that produces alcohol and carbon dioxide. This step also forms additional molecules of ATP. It occurs in yeast, such as the yeast in bread. Carbon dioxide from alcoholic fermentation creates gas bubbles in bread dough. The bubbles leave little holes in the bread after it bakes. You can see them in the bread in Figure below . The holes make the bread light and fluffy. Answer: carbon dioxide", "output": [ "Bubbles in bread dough are created by what gas produced during alcoholic fermentation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c72c3cc7b82e4548a632413f96490161", "input": "Passage: CHAPTER SUMMARY 1.1 Themes and Concepts of Biology Biology is the science of life. All living organisms share several key properties such as order, sensitivity or response to stimuli, reproduction, adaptation, growth and development, regulation, homeostasis, and energy processing. Living things are highly organized following a hierarchy that includes atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. Organisms, in turn, are grouped as populations, communities, ecosystems, and the biosphere. Evolution is the source of the tremendous biological diversity on Earth today. A diagram called a phylogenetic tree can be used to show evolutionary relationships among organisms. Biology is very broad and includes many branches and sub disciplines. Examples include molecular biology, microbiology, neurobiology, zoology, and botany, among others. Answer: biosphere", "output": [ "Living things are highly organized following a hierarchy that includes atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. organisms, in turn, are grouped as populations, communities, ecosystems, and this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ae5f6caf0b3f4c649bdcdc4c4a23a60c", "input": "Passage: The electrons in an atom tend to be arranged in such a way that the energy of the atom is as low as possible. The ground state of an atom is the lowest energy state of the atom. When those atoms are given energy, the electrons absorb the energy and move to a higher energy level. These energy levels of the electrons in atoms are quantized, meaning again that the electron must move from one energy level to another in discrete steps rather than continuously. An excited state of an atom is a state where its potential energy is higher than the ground state. An atom in the excited state is not stable. When it returns back to the ground state, it releases the energy that it had previously gained in the form of electromagnetic radiation. Answer: ground state", "output": [ "What is the lowest energy state of the atom called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2828dfb2b20444738a5ef316fc1809fb", "input": "Passage: Sublimation occurs when ice and snow change directly to water vapor. This also happens because of heat from the sun. Answer: when the ice and snow change directly into water vapors", "output": [ "When does sublimation occur?" ] }, { "id": "task594-464f2cb602184c39bb08de814400241e", "input": "Passage: Connective tissue consists of cells that form the body’s structure. Examples include bone and cartilage, which protect and support the body. Blood is also a connective tissue. It circulates and connects cells throughout the body. Answer: connective", "output": [ "What tissue consists of cells that form the body’s structure?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d630e4480e0549b6838b3c8ada078475", "input": "Passage: Most ocean waves are caused by winds. The size of a wave depends on how fast, how far, and how long the wind blows. Tsunamis are waves caused by earthquakes. Answer: winds", "output": [ "What is the cause of most ocean waves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dc4cd81b1c6a45c6a1ac009f5a28b65c", "input": "Passage: Ethanol and resveratrol, a phenol, are representatives of two of the families of oxygencontaining compounds that we consider in this chapter. Two other classes, aldehydes and ketones, are formed by the oxidation of alcohols. Ethers, another class, are made by the dehydration of alcohols. Answer: ethers", "output": [ "What class of oxygencontaining compounds is formed by the dehydration of alcohols?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6b8b10d579b24b6188e034ddd1a1924a", "input": "Passage: Hyperopia is commonly called farsightedness. People with hyperopia can see distant objects clearly, but nearby objects appear blurry. Hyperopia occurs when images focus in back of the retina because the eyeball is too short. This vision problem can be corrected with convex lenses, which curve outward. The lenses focus images correctly on the retina. Answer: hyperopia", "output": [ "What is the scientific term for farsightedness?" ] }, { "id": "task594-90c7c445625f49f9aeda78e426144933", "input": "Passage: Using fossil fuels and nuclear energy creates other problems as well. The burning of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. This is one of the major greenhouse gases causing global climate change. Nuclear power creates another set of problems, including the disposal of radioactive waste. Answer: carbon dioxide", "output": [ "What gets released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels are burned?" ] }, { "id": "task594-65da7a83bda6490685aa6f11ec9c26af", "input": "Passage: Composite volcanoes are common along convergent plate boundaries. When a tectonic plate subducts, it melts. This creates the thick magma needed for these eruptions. The Pacific Ring of Fire is dotted by composite volcanoes. Answer: it melts", "output": [ "What happens to a tectonic plate when it subducts?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1f10f315e6984517a99ded9e34aca385", "input": "Passage: As food is pushed through the GI tract by peristalsis, it undergoes digestion. Digestion is the process of breaking down food into nutrients. There are two types of digestion: mechanical digestion and chemical digestion. Answer: digestion", "output": [ "The process of breaking down food into nutrients is known as __________" ] }, { "id": "task594-415dbb7cfd034c18b1687e6208a6707d", "input": "Passage: Roundworms have a tough covering of cuticle on the surface of their body. It prevents their body from expanding. This allows the buildup of fluid pressure in their partial body cavity. The fluid pressure adds stiffness to the body. This provides a counterforce for the contraction of muscles, allowing roundworms to move easily over surfaces. Answer: tough cuticle covering", "output": [ "Which body part helps roundworm prevent their body from expanding?" ] }, { "id": "task594-59c671092955404bb762d10f1b108243", "input": "Passage: Each kind of pigment absorbs specific wavelengths (colors) of light (dashed lines). Sunlight contains many different wavelengths, which you see when they separate into a rainbow. Not all colors of light are used in photosynthesis (solid line). Most plants, algae, and photosynthetic bacteria appear green because they reflect green wavelengths. Their pigments have absorbed the violet-blue and red wavelengths. The amount of photosynthesis depends on the wavelength of light available. Beta-carotene is another type of pigment that absorbs sunlight. Answer: rainbow", "output": [ "Sunlight contains many different wavelengths, which you see when they separate into what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f97b0f7f0401499e87c60c3e47646521", "input": "Passage: CHAPTER SUMMARY 38.1 Types of Skeletal Systems The three types of skeleton designs are hydrostatic skeletons, exoskeletons, and endoskeletons. A hydrostatic skeleton is formed by a fluid-filled compartment held under hydrostatic pressure; movement is created by the muscles producing pressure on the fluid. An exoskeleton is a hard external skeleton that protects the outer surface of an organism and enables movement through muscles attached on the inside. An endoskeleton is an internal skeleton composed of hard, mineralized tissue that also enables movement by attachment to muscles. The human skeleton is an endoskeleton that is composed of the axial and appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton is composed of the bones of the skull, ossicles of the ear, hyoid bone, vertebral column, and ribcage. The skull consists of eight cranial bones and 14 facial bones. Six bones make up the ossicles of the middle ear, while the hyoid bone is located in the neck under the mandible. The vertebral column contains 26 bones, and it surrounds and protects the spinal cord. The thoracic cage consists of the sternum, ribs, thoracic vertebrae, and costal cartilages. The appendicular skeleton is made up of the limbs of the upper and lower limbs. The pectoral girdle is composed of the clavicles and the scapulae. The upper limb contains 30 bones in the arm, the forearm, and the hand. The pelvic girdle attaches the lower limbs to the axial skeleton. The lower limb includes the bones of the thigh, the leg, and the foot. Answer: endoskeleton", "output": [ "Of the three types of skeleton designs - hydrostatic skeletons, exoskeletons, and endoskeletons - which do humans possess?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0fdb6d456f094b4d8e791d5c4b6f7679", "input": "Passage: It can be really exciting to explore a big underground cave like the one in this picture. Do you know how caves form? Believe it or not, water is the answer. Water slowly dissolves rocks, especially certain types of rocks such as limestone. How does something as mild and harmless as water cause hard rocks to dissolve? In this chapter, you’ll find out. Answer: water", "output": [ "Caves form over time when what causes rocks like limestone to dissolve?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dbf32045367843dda585093ec2fabc16", "input": "Passage: The breasts are not directly involved in reproduction, but they nourish a baby after birth. Each breast contains mammary glands , which secrete milk. The milk drains into ducts leading to the nipple. A suckling baby squeezes the milk out of the ducts and through the nipple. Answer: mammary glands", "output": [ "What are the glands that secrete milk in a woman's breasts?" ] }, { "id": "task594-954166fb35874630b413871413b40a53", "input": "Passage: Landslides are sudden and massive falls of rock down a slope. Landslides may be very destructive or even deadly. Slump and creep are slower types of mass wasting. Answer: landslide", "output": [ "What occurs when there is a sudden and large falling of rocks down a slope?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f270c89a35924598a9594223c8a62a08", "input": "Passage: Assume that some members of a species become geographically separated from the rest of the species. If they remain separated long enough, they may evolve genetic differences. If the differences prevent them from interbreeding with members of the original species, they have evolved into a new species. Speciation that occurs in this way is called allopatric speciation . An example is described in the Figure below . Answer: interbreeding", "output": [ "A new species is said to have evolved if separated members of a species evolve genetic differences that prevent what from occurring with the original members??" ] }, { "id": "task594-b563b8872134486cb302152f6ba4dc77", "input": "Passage: Density is defined as the mass of an object divided by its volume. Propose a unit of density in terms of the fundamental SI units. Answer: volume", "output": [ "Density is defined as the mass of an object divided by its what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-641ef00e876c4b8ea8efa8311b9972c7", "input": "Passage: Compared to Earth, the solar system is a big place. But galaxies are bigger - a lot bigger. A galaxy is a very large group of stars held together by gravity. How enormous a galaxy is and how many stars it contains are impossible for us to really understand. A galaxy contains up to a few billion stars! Our solar system is in the Milky Way Galaxy. It is so large that if our solar system were the size of your fist, the galaxy’s disk would be wider than the entire United States! There are several different types of galaxies, and there are billions of galaxies in the universe. Answer: milky way", "output": [ "What galaxy is our solar system a part of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dc5a0623111e4d2e9d9f274fe1223127", "input": "Passage: We see many objects out in space that emit light. This matter is contained in stars, and the stars are contained in galaxies. Scientists think that stars and galaxies make up only a small part of the matter in the universe. The rest of the matter is called dark matter . Answer: dark matter", "output": [ "Scientists think that stars and galaxies make up only a small part of the matter in the universe. what is the rest of the matter called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e48ee86be17c4797964a3a2adaf9d0fd", "input": "Passage: Figure below shows a simple diagram of the expanding universe. Imagine a balloon covered with tiny dots. When you blow up the balloon, the rubber stretches. The dots slowly move away from each other as the space between them increases. In an expanding universe, the space between galaxies is expanding. We see this as the other galaxies moving away from us. We also see that galaxies farther away from us move away faster than nearby galaxies. Answer: it increases", "output": [ "How does the distance between galaxies change as the universe expands?" ] }, { "id": "task594-661331b08d5d48acb55aca5890ee2706", "input": "Passage: Nervous Innervation Dilation and constriction of the airway are achieved through nervous control by the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems. The parasympathetic system causes bronchoconstriction, whereas the sympathetic nervous system stimulates bronchodilation. Reflexes such as coughing, and the ability of the lungs to regulate oxygen and carbon dioxide levels, also result from this autonomic nervous system control. Sensory nerve fibers arise from the vagus nerve, and from the second to fifth thoracic ganglia. The pulmonary plexus is a region on the lung root formed by the entrance of the nerves at the hilum. The nerves then follow the bronchi in the lungs and branch to innervate muscle fibers, glands, and blood vessels. Answer: pulmonary plexus", "output": [ "What do we call the region on the lung root formed by the entrance of the nerves at the hilum?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d70038a5c4b146a4a595303f8489f31a", "input": "Passage: Larger amounts of sulfur also come from hydrogen sulfide recovered during the purification of natural gas. Sulfur exists in several allotropic forms. The stable form at room temperature contains eight-membered rings, and so the true formula is S8. However, chemists commonly use S to simplify the coefficients in chemical equations; we will follow this practice in this book. Answer: eight-membered rings", "output": [ "What does the stable form of sulfur at room temperature contain?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bcce1724096c494990dc5d8cc9ea8449", "input": "Passage: Earth goes through regular changes in its position relative to the Sun. Its orbit changes slightly. Earth also wobbles on its axis of rotation. The planet also changes the tilt on its axis. These changes can affect Earth’s temperature. Answer: the sun", "output": [ "Earth goes through regular changes in its position relative to?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1ca113786aa6424e97c2ececb177a651", "input": "Passage: 20.3 Capillary Exchange Small molecules can cross into and out of capillaries via simple or facilitated diffusion. Some large molecules can cross in vesicles or through clefts, fenestrations, or gaps between cells in capillary walls. However, the bulk flow of capillary and tissue fluid occurs via filtration and reabsorption. Filtration, the movement of fluid out of the capillaries, is driven by the CHP. Reabsorption, the influx of tissue fluid into the capillaries, is driven by the BCOP. Filtration predominates in the arterial end of the capillary; in the middle section, the opposing pressures are virtually identical so there is no net exchange,. Answer: filtration", "output": [ "What is the movement of fluid out of the capillaries called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6a8f1e64a8db4baeae08b6602ee8dfde", "input": "Passage: Heat and light are forms of energy. Other forms are chemical and electrical energy. Energy can’t be created or destroyed. It can change form. For example, a piece of wood has chemical energy stored in its molecules. When the wood burns, the chemical energy changes to heat and light energy. Answer: stiff stems", "output": [ "How do plants support themselves above the ground to get light and oxygen?" ] }, { "id": "task594-83c8a32745b040c1afbb2eb684be8df8", "input": "Passage: Often, new diseases result from the spread of an existing disease from animals to humans. A disease that can be spread from animals to humans is called a zoonosis . When a disease breaks out, scientists called epidemiologists investigate the outbreak, looking for its cause. Epidemiologists are like detectives trying to solve a crime. The information epidemiologists learn is important to understand the pathogen, and help prevent future outbreaks of disease. Answer: zoonosis", "output": [ "What is a disease that can be spread from animals to humans called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c3ce30e5c9be4ae98842b4a618c61d4e", "input": "Passage: Observations can happen on many scales. You can use a microscope to observe tiny things. You can use a telescope to observe distant things in space. To learn about the effects of climate change, you could observe Earth's surface. How would you make observations of Earth's surface? You could do this from the land surface or from space. Many important observations are made by orbiting satellites. These satellites have a bird's eye view of how the planet is changing ( Figure below ). Answer: satellites", "output": [ "What man-made devices in space are used to observe the earth's surface?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f7e4bfcb72dd44c1ac8dd015f767a1d9", "input": "Passage: Introduction to Dynamics: Newton’s Laws of Motion Motion draws our attention. Motion itself can be beautiful, causing us to marvel at the forces needed to achieve spectacular motion, such as that of a dolphin jumping out of the water, or a pole vaulter, or the flight of a bird, or the orbit of a satellite. The study of motion is kinematics, but kinematics only describes the way objects move—their velocity and their acceleration. Dynamics considers the forces that affect the motion of moving objects and systems. Newton’s laws of motion are the foundation of dynamics. These laws provide an example of the breadth and simplicity of principles under which nature functions. They are also universal laws in that they apply to similar situations on Earth as well as in space. Isaac Newton’s (1642–1727) laws of motion were just one part of the monumental work that has made him legendary. The development of Newton’s laws marks the transition from the Renaissance into the modern era. This transition was characterized by a revolutionary change in the way people thought about the physical universe. For many centuries natural philosophers had debated the nature of the universe based largely on certain rules of logic with great weight given to the thoughts of earlier classical philosophers such as Aristotle (384–322 BC). Among the many great thinkers who contributed to this change were Newton and Galileo. Answer: newton", "output": [ "Whose laws of motion are the foundation of dynamics?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f406e8c3797e4f199e8020d65380aa16", "input": "Passage: A three-prong plug is generally used on metal appliances. The two flat prongs carry current to and from the appliance. The round prong is for safety. It connects with a wire inside the outlet that goes down into the ground. If any stray current leaks from the circuit or if there is a short circuit, the ground wire carries the current into the ground, which harmlessly absorbs it. Answer: 3 prong", "output": [ "What type of plug is generally used on metal appliances?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1c4e2c232fcf486587cd8d839c080d6e", "input": "Passage: Air quality is a measure of the pollutants in air. Poor air quality started to become a serious problem during the Industrial Revolution. After 1900, motor vehicles added greatly to the problem. The Clean Air Act of 1970 improved the quality of the air over the U. S. Answer: pollutants", "output": [ "Air quality is a measure of what in the air?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a942b8be9a094092a82e529a4d05eedc", "input": "Passage: There are two ways to control the current in a circuit. Since the current is directly proportional to the potential difference and inversely proportional to the resistance, you can increase the current in a circuit by increasing the potential or by decreasing the resistance. Answer: decreasing the resistance", "output": [ "Besides increasing the potential, how else can you increase current in a circuit?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d4f66c27a504416a89212307d275302c", "input": "Passage: Aqua regia, a mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid, is one of the few materials that will dissolve gold. This material, translated to \"royal water\" in English, was named so because it could dissolve the royal metal gold. First noted in the fourteenth century, aqua regia could be used to help ascertain whether a particular material was actually gold or was some trickery of the alchemist. Nitric acid by itself will not dissolve gold, but will in combination with hydrochloric acid. The chemistry of the process is rather complex, with both acids reacting with the metal to form soluble gold compounds. The gold can be recovered from the solution, making the process useful for purification purposes. Answer: aqua regia", "output": [ "What a mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid?" ] }, { "id": "task594-13a11d3bf72540499efc7a2a317f8ae5", "input": "Passage: Producers are living things that use energy to make food. Producers make food for themselves and other living things. There are two types of producers:. Answer: producers", "output": [ "Living things that use energy to make food, both for themselves and other living things, are what part of an ecosystem?" ] }, { "id": "task594-df02dbf8ebf241bfa001c46f6c9709f5", "input": "Passage: Seismic waves show that the outer core is liquid. The inner core is solid. Answer: it is solid", "output": [ "What do seismic waves prove about the inner core?" ] }, { "id": "task594-56ddc82e50a84cc1a491868278807f00", "input": "Passage: Palatine Bone The palatine bone is one of a pair of irregularly shaped bones that contribute small areas to the lateral walls of the nasal cavity and the medial wall of each orbit. The largest region of each of the palatine bone is the horizontal plate. The plates from the right and left palatine bones join together at the midline to form the posterior quarter of the hard palate (see Figure 7.8a). Thus, the palatine bones are best seen in an inferior view of the skull and hard palate. Answer: horizontal plate", "output": [ "The largest region of each of the palatine bone is the what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-506e505b2575497fb1e2da529dbe6914", "input": "Passage: A mirror is typically made of glass with a shiny metal backing that reflects all the light that strikes it. When a mirror reflects light, it forms an image. An image is a copy of an object that is formed by reflection or refraction. Mirrors may have flat or curved surfaces. The shape of a mirror’s surface determines the type of image it forms. For example, some mirrors form real images, and other mirrors form virtual images. What’s the difference between real and virtual images?. Answer: an image", "output": [ "What is a copy of an image formed by reflection or refraction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b9e32ba9ac884db1924cf4ad211c58f4", "input": "Passage: Bacteria lack many of the structures that eukaryotic cells contain. For example, they don't have a nucleus. They also lack membrane-bound organelles, such as mitochondria or chloroplasts. The DNA of a bacterial cell is also different from a eukaryotic cell. Bacterial DNA is contained in one circular chromosome, located in the cytoplasm. Eukaryotes have several linear chromosomes. Bacteria also have two additional unique features: a cell wall and flagella. Some bacteria also have a capsule outside the cell wall. Answer: one circular chromosome", "output": [ "How many chromosomes do bacterial dna have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3cada8232051486ab13ecbdd1cc17cb8", "input": "Passage: Opaque matter is matter that does not let any light pass through it. Matter may be opaque because it absorbs light, reflects light, or does some combination of both. Answer: opaque", "output": [ "What is the term for matter that does not let any light pass through?" ] }, { "id": "task594-81da7b4c913e42ecb8a27d7a8cabbf32", "input": "Passage: Thermal energy is converted to the kinetic energy of the moving piston inside the cylinder. The moving piston, in turn, can be used to turn a turbine or do other useful work. Answer: kinetic energy", "output": [ "Inside a cylinder, thermal energy is converted to what type of energy of the moving piston?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9fbd0f9ba2ff4831b9efaf7cacb35620", "input": "Passage: Saponification describes the alkaline hydrolysis reaction of an ester. The term saponification originally described the hydrolysis of long-chain esters called fatty acid esters to produce soap molecules, which are the salts of fatty acids. One such soap molecule is sodium stearate, formed from the hydrolysis of ethyl stearate. Answer: saponification", "output": [ "What is the alkaline hydrolysis reaction of an ester called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b7866559ccf048d7bcf1573a0113378e", "input": "Passage: Viruses were assumed to exist before they were first seen with an electron microscope in the 1930s. Multiple hypotheses for viral origins have been proposed. Answer: 1930 ' s", "output": [ "Viruses were assumed to exist before they were first seen with an electron microscope in which decade?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9014df38a2104965996e35a91835c885", "input": "Passage: In many species, including humans, circadian rhythms are controlled by a tiny structure called the biological clock . This structure is located in a gland at the base of the brain. The biological clock sends signals to the body. The signals cause regular changes in behavior and body processes. The amount of light entering the eyes helps control the biological clock. The clock causes changes that repeat every 24 hours. Answer: light", "output": [ "The amount of what entering the eyes helps control the biological clock?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b5536538607747bc9675a75dbc9d8bc6", "input": "Passage: The Energy Cycle Whether the organism is a bacterium, plant, or animal, all living things access energy by breaking down carbohydrate molecules. But if plants make carbohydrate molecules, why would they need to break them down, especially when it has been shown that the gas organisms release as a “waste product” (CO2) acts as a substrate for the formation of more food in photosynthesis? Remember, living things need energy to perform life functions. In addition, an organism can either make its own food or eat another organism—either way, the food still needs to be broken down. Finally, in the process of breaking down food, called cellular respiration, heterotrophs release needed energy and produce “waste” in the form of CO2 gas. In nature, there is no such thing as waste. Every single atom of matter and energy is conserved, recycling over and over infinitely. Substances change form or move from one type of molecule to another, but their constituent atoms never disappear (Figure 8.20). CO2 is no more a form of waste than oxygen is wasteful to photosynthesis. Both are byproducts of reactions that move on to other reactions. Photosynthesis absorbs light energy to build carbohydrates in chloroplasts, and aerobic cellular respiration releases energy by using oxygen to metabolize carbohydrates in the cytoplasm and mitochondria. Both processes use electron transport chains to capture the energy necessary to drive other reactions. These two powerhouse processes, photosynthesis and cellular respiration, function in biological, cyclical harmony to allow organisms to access life-sustaining energy that originates millions of miles away in a burning star humans call the sun. Answer: carbohydrate molecules", "output": [ "Whether the organism is a bacterium, plant, or animal, all living things access energy by breaking down these?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9d493a5594ce4875927e97b285ea2be2", "input": "Passage: Figure 21.4 Viruses can be either complex in shape or relatively simple. This figure shows three relatively complex virions: the bacteriophage T4, with its DNA-containing head group and tail fibers that attach to host cells; adenovirus, which uses spikes from its capsid to bind to host cells; and HIV, which uses glycoproteins embedded in its envelope to bind to host cells. Notice that HIV has proteins called matrix proteins, internal to the envelope, which help stabilize virion shape. (credit “bacteriophage, adenovirus”: modification of work by NCBI, NIH; credit “HIV retrovirus”: modification of work by NIAID, NIH). Answer: matrix proteins", "output": [ "Hiv has proteins called what, internal to the envelope, which help stabilize virion shape?" ] }, { "id": "task594-90f86f9232944a64966427035c901095", "input": "Passage: The ozone in smog is also harmful to human health. The image below shows the levels of ozone to watch out for ( Figure below ). Some people are especially sensitive to ozone. They can be harmed by levels of ozone that would not affect most other people. These people include those with lung or heart problems. Answer: ultraviolet light", "output": [ "What harmful light does ozone reduce in the upper atmospheres?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7abd79c0056a4aa68da739c873c472a5", "input": "Passage: Reptiles are a class of tetrapod vertebrates that produce amniotic eggs. They include crocodiles, alligators, lizards, snakes, and turtles. The reptile class is one of the largest classes of vertebrates. It consists of all amniotes except birds and mammals. Answer: reptiles", "output": [ "What are a class of tetrapod vertebrates that produce amniotic eggs called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8064e21a145d430895d0f08f803d4bb0", "input": "Passage: Children as young as 2 years of age can be vaccinated against viral meningitis. Answer: vaccination", "output": [ "What preventive measure can protect even young children against diseases such as viral meningitis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c3fee479cb064fee9d6f7891173d3efb", "input": "Passage: Surface waves travel along the ground outward from an earthquake’s epicenter. Surface waves are the slowest of all seismic waves. They travel at 2.5 km (1.5 miles) per second. There are two types of surface waves. Love waves move side-to-side, much like a snake. Rayleigh waves produce a rolling motion as they move up and backward ( Figure above ). Surface waves cause objects to fall and rise. They also cause objects to sway back and forth. These motions cause damage to rigid structures during an earthquake. Answer: two", "output": [ "How many types of surface waves are there?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ccb83c1caa8044ed9da671339035785d", "input": "Passage: Biochemical reactions are chemical reactions that take place inside living things. Thousands of biochemical reactions continuously take place inside each cell. The sum of all these biochemical reactions is called metabolism. Answer: metabolism", "output": [ "What is the sum of all biochemical reactions in cells called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3783a0d736b845f0bc86250ae15e5a15", "input": "Passage: For photosynthesis, stomata must control the transpiration of water vapor and the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen. Stomata are flanked by guard cells that swell or shrink by taking in or losing water through osmosis. When they do, they open or close the stomata. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "Stomata must control the transpiration of water vapor and the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen that take place during what process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ca1c899ae6bf423bba847acc15c5caa0", "input": "Passage: In a Down’s cell, the liquid sodium ions are reduced at the cathode to liquid sodium metal. At the anode, liquid chloride ions are oxidized to chlorine gas. The reactions and cell potentials are shown below. Answer: chlorine gas", "output": [ "At the anode, liquid chloride ions are oxidized to what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-90095c9d64694313b06314ba36fca68c", "input": "Passage: At a given temperature, individual particles of a substance have a range of kinetic energies. Answer: hypothesis", "output": [ "A statement is considered what if it is open to being falsified?" ] }, { "id": "task594-201a9bfa687341238de2e7a19e1fd65d", "input": "Passage: Dimensional analysis can be used to carry out metric unit conversions. Answer: dimensional analysis", "output": [ "What is used to carry out metric unit conversions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-07684423248244849b964a0880f6ed82", "input": "Passage: Most modern plants, like the skunk cabbage, produce flowers. However, flowers evolved relatively late in the history of plants. The earliest plants not only lacked flowers. They also lacked leaves, roots, and stems. They probably resembled the alga in Figure below . Answer: plants", "output": [ "The earliest types of what lacked flowers, leaves, roots and stems?" ] }, { "id": "task594-657143b2973b45fda75f53e9dbc6bda5", "input": "Passage: Protection. The skeleton supports and protects the soft organs of the body. For example, the skull surrounds the brain to protect it from injury. The bones of the rib cage help protect the heart and lungs. Answer: skeleton", "output": [ "What supports and protects the soft organs of the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d396ea1fef3c49b8a6fa91d739efe589", "input": "Passage: CHAPTER SUMMARY 37.1 Types of Hormones There are three basic types of hormones: lipid-derived, amino acid-derived, and peptide. Lipid-derived hormones are structurally similar to cholesterol and include steroid hormones such as estradiol and testosterone. Amino acid-derived hormones are relatively small molecules and include the adrenal hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine. Peptide hormones are polypeptide chains or proteins and include the pituitary hormones, antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin), and oxytocin. Answer: peptide", "output": [ "There are three basic types of hormones: lipid-derived, amino acid-derived, and what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-72b0523dce5e41928f9b5e20a189f868", "input": "Passage: Living things consist of matter, which can be an element or a compound. A compound consists of two or more elements and forms as a result of a chemical reaction. Answer: compound", "output": [ "What consists of two or more elements and forms as a result of a chemical reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-85d6b0d6bb764570bb35addc99df776a", "input": "Passage: Infectious diseases are diseases that spread from person to person. They are caused by pathogens such as bacteria, viruses or fungi. What can you do to avoid infectious diseases? Eating right and getting plenty of sleep are a good start. These habits will help keep your immune system healthy. With a healthy immune system, you will be able to fight off many pathogens. The next best way is to avoid pathogens. Though this is difficult, there are steps you can take to limit your exposure to pathogens. Answer: immune system", "output": [ "What system is responsible for defending your body against sickness?" ] }, { "id": "task594-029400ab3716441e96a03d567eb7ce38", "input": "Passage: Did you ever hear of hay fever? It’s not really a fever at all. It’s an allergy to plant pollens. People with this type of allergy have symptoms such as watery eyes, sneezing, and a runny nose. A common cause of hay fever is the pollen of ragweed. Many people are also allergic to poison ivy ( Figure below ). Skin contact with poison ivy leads to an itchy rash in people who are allergic to the plant. Answer: pollen", "output": [ "Hay fever is actually an allergy to what substance, vital to plant reproduction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-70f2f2db460f48df89785220555f9d5d", "input": "Passage: Some solutions have special properties because they are acids. Orange juice is an example. It contains an acid called citric acid. It makes orange juice taste sour. Some solutions are bases rather than acids. Answer: citric acid", "output": [ "What in orange juice makes it taste sour?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b95970268528414cafb763ffe37ea857", "input": "Passage: The valence shell is the outermost occupied shell of electrons in an atom. This shell holds the valence electrons, which are the electrons that are involved in bonding and shown in a Lewis structure. Valence-shell electron pair repulsion theory , or VSEPR theory, states that a molecule will adjust its shape so that the valence electron pairs stay as far apart from each other as possible. This makes sense, based on the fact that negatively charged electrons repel one another. We will systematically classify molecules according to the number of bonding pairs of electrons and the number of nonbonding or lone pairs around the central atom. For the purposes of the VSEPR model, a double or triple bond is no different in terms of repulsion than a single bond. We will begin by examining molecules in which the central atom does not have any lone pairs. Answer: valence shell", "output": [ "What is the outermost occupied shell of electrons in an atom." ] }, { "id": "task594-578a521fb7a54397a56cf66dbc11adfb", "input": "Passage: Tropomyosin is a protein that winds around the chains of the actin filament and covers the myosin-binding sites to prevent actin from binding to myosin. Tropomyosin binds to troponin to form a troponin-tropomyosin complex. The troponintropomyosin complex prevents the myosin “heads” from binding to the active sites on the actin microfilaments. Troponin also has a binding site for Ca++ ions. To initiate muscle contraction, tropomyosin has to expose the myosin-binding site on an actin filament to allow cross-bridge formation between the actin and myosin microfilaments. The first step in the process of contraction is for Ca++ to bind to troponin so that tropomyosin can slide away from the binding sites on the actin strands. This allows the myosin heads to bind to these exposed binding sites and form cross-bridges. The thin filaments are then pulled by the myosin heads to slide past the thick filaments toward the center of the sarcomere. But each head can only pull a very short distance before it has reached its limit and must be “re-cocked” before it can pull again, a step that requires ATP. Answer: protein", "output": [ "Tropomyosin is a type of what, that winds around the chains of the actin filament and covers the myosin-binding sites to prevent actin from binding to myosin?" ] }, { "id": "task594-72d13c00b2e142478fe3981bd9b07f39", "input": "Passage: Mixtures have different properties depending on the size of their particles. Three types of mixtures based on particle size are solutions, suspensions, and colloids, all of which are described in Table below . You can watch videos about the three types of mixtures at these URLs:. Answer: solutions, suspensions, colloids", "output": [ "What are the three types of mixtures?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0c12df80ff654056b21c46ca850a679c", "input": "Passage: Thyroid Gland The thyroid gland is located in the neck, just below the larynx and in front of the trachea, as shown in Figure 37.16. It is a butterfly-shaped gland with two lobes that are connected by the isthmus. It has a dark red color due to its extensive vascular system. When the thyroid swells due to dysfunction, it can be felt under the skin of the neck. Answer: butterfly-shaped", "output": [ "What is the shape of the thyroid gland?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c7eb2e43162d4e1593aa9b9cee40169d", "input": "Passage: The addition of electrons always results in an anion that is larger than the parent atom. When the electrons outnumber the protons, the overall attractive force that the protons have for the electrons is decreased. The electron cloud also spreads out because more electrons results in greater electron-electron repulsions. Notice that the group 16 ions are larger than the group 17 ions. The group 16 elements each add two electrons while the group 17 elements add one electron per atom for form the anions. Answer: an anion that is larger than the parent atom", "output": [ "Electrons always result in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4f82e9ab63884a67b6311f2a0437ce72", "input": "Passage: In the predator-prey example, one factor limits the growth of the other factor. As the prey population decreases, the predator population begins to decrease as well. The prey population is a limiting factor. A limiting factor limits the growth or development of an organism, population, or process. Answer: limiting factor", "output": [ "What limits the growth or development of an organism, population, or process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-98719727b46e473fb40a1dd59cdc10d9", "input": "Passage: All the cells of your body need oxygen, which they get from red blood cells. Red blood cells, in turn, get oxygen in the lungs. The lungs are the main organs of the respiratory system. The respiratory system is the body system that exchanges gases with the outside air. It brings air containing oxygen into the body for the cells. It also releases carbon dioxide from the cells into the air. Answer: red blood cells", "output": [ "Where do the cells in your body get oxygen from?" ] }, { "id": "task594-63411bffba1740918ae0fa6d5d8532df", "input": "Passage: Red blood cells carry oxygen, white blood cells defend the body, and platelets help blood clot. Answer: red blood cells", "output": [ "What cells carry oxygen?" ] }, { "id": "task594-47dd6d2b258a42bb9ca8e300bb1b866d", "input": "Passage: Alkaliphiles are organisms that \"love\" bases. Bases are like the opposite of acids. Basic environments where archaeans are found include Mono Lake in California, pictured in Figure below . Mono Lake is the oldest lake in North America. The water is not only unusually basic. It's also saltier than the ocean. So archaeans that live in the water of Mono Lake must have adaptations to both salty and basic conditions. They are haloalkaliphiles. Answer: haloalkaliphiles", "output": [ "What is the term for organisms that have adaptations to both salty and basic conditions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5ee2d06e43604f3f916d643ebdbcc408", "input": "Passage: When a living thing responds to its environment, it is responding to a stimulus. A stimulus ( stimuli, plural ) is something in the environment that causes a reaction in an organism. The reaction a stimulus produces is called a response . Answer: stimulus", "output": [ "What is the term for something in the environment that causes a reaction in an organism?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2d14a7037a0245e8a98724d678402f6b", "input": "Passage: Sometimes an aquifer is confined. A confined aquifer is trapped between two impermeable rock layers. Pressure from the rock layer on top forces the water out where the aquifer reaches the ground surface. Water that flows up to the surface naturally is an artesian spring . If people drill a well into a confined aquifer, the water may flow to the surface without assistance. This is an artesian well ( Figure below ). Answer: confined", "output": [ "What type of aquifer is trapped between two impermeable rock layers?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6cfb160672c34854928d501e3ed25876", "input": "Passage: the conditions, amino acids can act as either acids or bases, which means that proteins act as buffers. The pH at which an amino acid exists as the zwitterion is called theisoelectric point (pI). The amino acids in a protein are linked together by peptide bonds. Protein chains containing 10 or fewer amino acids are usually referred to as peptides, with a prefix such as di- or tri- indicating the number of amino acids. Chains containing more than 50 amino acid units are referred to as proteins orpolypeptides. Proteins are classified globular or fibrous, depending on their structure and resulting solubility in water. Globular proteins are nearly spherical and are soluble in water; fibrous proteins have elongated or fibrous structures and are not soluble in water. Protein molecules can have as many as four levels of structure. The primary structure is the sequence of amino acids in the chain. The secondary structure is the arrangement of adjacent atoms in the peptide chain; the most common arrangements are α-helices or β-pleated sheets. The tertiary structureis the overall three-dimensional shape of the molecule that results from the way the chain bends and folds in on itself. Proteins that consist of more than one chain have quaternary structure, which is the way the multiple chains are packed together. Four types of intramolecular and intermolecular forces contribute to secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure: (1) hydrogen bonding between an oxygen or a nitrogen atom and a hydrogen atom bound to an oxygen atom or a nitrogen atom, either on the same chain or on a neighboring chain; (2) ionic bondingbetween one positively charged side chain and one negatively charged side chain; (3) disulfide linkages between cysteine units; and (4) dispersion forcesbetween nonpolar side chains. Because of their complexity, protein molecules are delicate and easy to disrupt. Adenatured protein is one whose conformation has been changed, in a process called denaturation, so that it can no longer do its physiological job. A variety of conditions, such as heat, ultraviolet radiation, the addition of organic compounds, or changes in pH can denature a protein. Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: peptides", "output": [ "Protein chains containing 10 or fewer amino acids are usually referred to as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fd196aee46b74e42958f6558b5a2104a", "input": "Passage: Eukaryotic cells have many specific functions, so it can be said that a cell is like a factory. A factory has many machines and people, and each has a specific role. Just like a factory, the cell is made up of many different parts. Each part has a special role. The different parts of the cell are called organelles , which means \"small organs. \" All organelles are found in eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells are \"simpler\" than eukaryotic cells. Though prokaryotic cells still have many functions, they are not as specialized as eukaryotic cells, lacking membrane-bound organelles. Thus, most organelles are not found in prokaryotic cells. Answer: prokaryotic cells", "output": [ "In which type of cells are most organelles not found?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e8cf072c4915419e8cf6e45b9efae580", "input": "Passage: Sodium is a highly reactive metal, and chlorine is a poisonous gas (see Figure below ). The compound they synthesize has very different properties. It is table salt, which is neither reactive nor poisonous. In fact, salt is a necessary component of the human diet. Answer: salt", "output": [ "Sodium and chlorine combine to make what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d996c17f544d4235bb836700bcd3638f", "input": "Passage: Salts of weak acids or bases can affect the acidity or basicity of their aqueous solutions. Answer: basicity", "output": [ "Salts of weak acids or bases can affect the acidity or what of their aqueous solution?" ] }, { "id": "task594-163403bcdcae436c85d353664ef5983d", "input": "Passage: water. Sulfur, critical to the 3–D folding of proteins (as in disulfide binding), is released into the atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels, such as coal. The cycling of these elements is interconnected. For example, the movement of water is critical for the leaching of nitrogen and phosphate into rivers, lakes, and oceans. Furthermore, the ocean itself is a major reservoir for carbon. Thus, mineral nutrients are cycled, either rapidly or slowly, through the entire biosphere, from one living organism to another, and between the biotic and abiotic world. Answer: sulfur", "output": [ "What element is released into the atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels?" ] }, { "id": "task594-37675d921f3c4b1db1426064a6d613e9", "input": "Passage: Mollusks are mainly aquatic invertebrates in Phylum Mollusca. They include snails, squids, and clams. Mollusks have a coelom and several organ systems. Most also have a shell, head, foot, and radula, which is a feeding organ. Mollusks are either free-living heterotrophs or parasites. Answer: mollusca", "output": [ "What phylum includes snails, squids and clams?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f268b4f9fe6440b8afaf14277961501c", "input": "Passage: Sympatric speciation While the logic and mechanisms of allopatric speciation are relatively easy to grasp (we hope), there is a second type of speciation, known as sympatric speciation, which was originally more controversial. It occurs when a single population of organisms splits into two reproductively isolated communities within the same physical region. How could this possibly occur? What stop (or inhibits) the distinct sub-populations from inbreeding and reversing the effects of selection and nascent speciation? Recently a number of plausible mechanisms have been identified. One involves host selection.143  In host selection, animals (such as insects) that feed off specific hosts may find themselves reproducing in distinct zones associated with their hosts. For example, organisms that prefer blueberries will mate in a different place, time of day, or time of year than those that prefer raspberries. There are blueberry- and raspberry-specific niches. Through a process of disruptive selection (see above), organisms that live primarily on a particular plant (or part of a plant) can be subject to different selective pressures, and reproductive isolation will enable the populations to more rapidly adapt. Mutations that reinforce an initial, perhaps weak, mating preference can lead reproductive isolation - this is a simple form of sexual selection (which we will discuss soon).144 One population has become two distinct, reproductively independent populations, one species has become two. Answer: speciation", "output": [ "Sympatric type of what occurs when a single population of organisms splits into two reproductively isolated communities within the same physical region?" ] }, { "id": "task594-db37fc5c872d4d83858413df70d785f6", "input": "Passage: How Viruses Infect Specific Organs Specific glycoprotein molecules exposed on the surface of the cell membranes of host cells are exploited by many viruses to infect specific organs. For example, HIV is able to penetrate the plasma membranes of specific kinds of white blood cells called T-helper cells and monocytes, as well as some cells of the central nervous system. The hepatitis virus attacks only liver cells. These viruses are able to invade these cells, because the cells have binding sites on their surfaces that the viruses have exploited with equally specific glycoproteins in their coats. (Figure 3.19). The cell is tricked by the mimicry of the virus coat molecules, and the virus is able to enter the cell. Other recognition sites on the virus’s surface interact with the human immune system, prompting the body to produce antibodies. Antibodies are made in response to the antigens (or proteins associated with invasive pathogens). These same sites serve as places for antibodies to attach, and either destroy or inhibit the activity of the virus. Unfortunately, these sites on HIV are encoded by genes that change quickly, making the production of an effective vaccine against the virus very difficult. The virus population within an infected individual quickly evolves through mutation into different populations, or variants, distinguished by differences in these recognition sites. This rapid change of viral surface markers decreases the effectiveness of the person’s immune system in attacking the virus, because the antibodies will not recognize the new variations of the surface patterns. Answer: liver", "output": [ "The hepatitis virus attacks only cells of what organ?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9cb3367827d242cba36fa583cd712d59", "input": "Passage: Blood is a fluid connective tissue that contains a liquid component called plasma. It also contains dissolved substances and blood cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen, white blood cells defend the body, and platelets help blood clot. Answer: oxygen", "output": [ "What do red blood cells carry?" ] }, { "id": "task594-40fffb832c7443bf855134f62b4113dc", "input": "Passage: Blood enters the kidney through the renal artery , which branches into capillaries. When blood passes through capillaries of the glomerulus of a nephron, blood pressure forces some of the water and dissolved substances in the blood to cross the capillary walls into Bowman’s capsule . Answer: renal artery", "output": [ "Blood enters the kidney through the which artery?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9ee07d1baca54ac68d18b358a5563c68", "input": "Passage: On the left side of the electromagnetic spectrum diagram are radio waves and microwaves. Radio waves have the longest wavelengths and lowest frequencies of all electromagnetic waves. They also have the least amount of energy. Answer: radio waves", "output": [ "Of all the electromagnetic waves, which have the lowest frequencies?" ] }, { "id": "task594-223e6fae619d40b6b5f34fc2ffff4459", "input": "Passage: A community is the biotic component of an ecosystem. It consists of the populations of all the species that live in the same area. Populations in communities often interact with each other. Community interactions are important factors in natural selection. They help shape the evolution of the interacting species. Types of community interactions include predation, competition, and symbiosis. You’ll read about each type of interaction in this lesson. Answer: natural selection", "output": [ "Community interactions are important factors in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-37ea50b52b1d425fa0d464c982efa6ad", "input": "Passage: Geology is the study of the solid Earth. Geologists study how rocks and minerals form. The way mountains rise up is part of geology. The way mountains erode away is another part. Geologists also study fossils and Earth’s history. There are many other branches of geology. There is so much to know about our home planet that most geologists become specialists in one area. For example, a mineralogist studies minerals ( Figure below ). Answer: geology", "output": [ "What branch of science is the study of the solid earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-475850887d404341a628915eec4fc02e", "input": "Passage: cells. The ovaries produce estradiol and progesterone, which cause secondary sex characteristics and prepare the body for childbirth. Answer: childbirth", "output": [ "The ovaries produce estradiol and progesterone, which cause secondary sex characteristics and prepare the body for?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9de6a08f8b1e4bcaa83132dac61318b6", "input": "Passage: The water molecule, like the ammonia and methane molecules, has a tetrahedral domain geometry. In the water molecule, two of the electron pairs are lone pairs rather than bonding pairs. The molecular geometry of the water molecule is referred to as bent . The H-O-H bond angle is 104.5°, which is smaller than the bond angle in NH 3 . Answer: bonding pairs", "output": [ "In the water molecule, two of the electron pairs are lone pairs rather than what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c472e56b8c864b44ae4276e1b10f746a", "input": "Passage: Later, a true coelom evolved. This is a fluid-filled body cavity that is completely enclosed by mesoderm. The coelom lies between the digestive cavity and body wall. You can see it in the invertebrate in Figure below . Modern invertebrates with a coelom include mollusks (Phylum Mollusca) and annelids (Phylum Annelida). Answer: coelom", "output": [ "What is a fluid-filled body cavity that is completely enclosed by mesoderm called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-01964bcecb9a4fd5a6d6204c63d11cf3", "input": "Passage: Metamorphism does not cause a rock to melt completely. It only causes the minerals to change by heat or pressure. If the rock melts completely, it will cool to become an igneous rock. Answer: minerals", "output": [ "What changes from heat or pressure during metamorphism?" ] }, { "id": "task594-239435e5d4754f0797821ab25aba9f2e", "input": "Passage: A headache is a very common nervous system problem. Headaches may be a symptom of serious diseases, but they are more commonly due to muscle tension. A tension headache occurs when muscles in the shoulders, neck, and head become too tense. This often happens when people are “stressed out. ” Just trying to relax may help relieve this type of headache. Mild pain relievers such as ibuprofen may also help. Answer: headache", "output": [ "What common ailment is typically caused by tense muscles in the shoulders, head and neck?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5d03a167650749c4878e492ed3541b08", "input": "Passage: Egg production in the ovary is part of the menstrual cycle. The menstrual cycle is a series of changes in the reproductive system of mature females that repeats every month on average. These changes include the development of an egg and follicle in the ovary. Answer: menstrual cycle", "output": [ "What is the name for a series of changes in the reproductive system of mature females that repeats every month on average?" ] }, { "id": "task594-115350ad01de4354a17e3ac2031725c3", "input": "Passage: Red algae are a very large group of protists making up about 5,000–6,000 species. They are mostly multicellular and live in the ocean. Many red algae are seaweeds and help create coral reefs. Answer: oceans", "output": [ "Where do most red algae species live?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dee9e54c059d41338f9be376c51b0873", "input": "Passage: Figure 13.6 Bacteria are divided into two major groups: Gram-positive and Gram-negative. Both groups have a cell wall composed of peptidoglycans: In Gram-positive bacteria, the wall is thick, whereas in Gram-negative bacteria, the wall is thin. In Gram-negative bacteria, the cell wall is surrounded by an outer membrane. Answer: cell wall", "output": [ "Gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria are distinguished by thickness of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a8e34614908d47109b8ddc47d1372dfc", "input": "Passage: Always properly dispose of hazardous waste. For example, let liquid waste evaporate before placing the container in the trash. Answer: evaporate", "output": [ "What should you let liquid waste do before placing the container in the trash?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4b7a8acf7140402995eca4363074b92c", "input": "Passage: Ionic substances dissociate into ions when they dissolve in water, but most molecular substances do not. Answer: ionic", "output": [ "What substances dissociate into ions when dissolved in water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b395fcde4ca8464abbdd3796d53bcaca", "input": "Passage: The organs of the GI tract are lined with mucous membranes that secrete digestive enzymes and absorb nutrients. The organs are also covered by layers of muscle that enable peristalsis. Peristalsis is an involuntary muscle contraction that moves rapidly along an organ like a wave (see Figure below ). You can watch an animation of peristalsis at this link: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/File:Peristalsis. gif . Answer: peristalsis", "output": [ "What is an involuntary muscle contraction that moves rapidly along an organ like a wave called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-93b1857b1e9d488e9664766202c7214a", "input": "Passage: 24.4 Subphylum Vertebrata (Vertebra from Latin vertere, to turn). Characterized by separate bones or cartilage blocks firmly joined as a backbone. The backbone supports and protects a dorsal nerve cord. Vertebrates have tissues which are organized into organs which in turn are organized into organ systems. All vertebrates share the following characteristics: - segmentation - a true coelom - bilateral symmetry - cephalization - a backbone - a bony skull - a closed circulatory system - chambered heart - two pairs of jointed appendages - tissues organized into organs Vertebrate Organ Systems: - Nervous System - Circulatory System - Digestive System Respiratory System - Reproductive System - Excretory System • Vertebral column: Not present in higher vertebrate adults. (In humans, the gel-like, spongy core of the vertebral column is the only remainder. Ruptured or herniated disc is an injury to this. ) • Cranium: Composite structure of bone/cartilage. Two functions: 1. Supports sensory organs of head and 2. Encloses or partially encloses the brain. What evolutionary relationship could we imagine between sessile echinoderms and the higher chordate animals? Paedomorphic (child-form) hypothesis: basically, evolution of sexual reproduction in what had previously been a larval life stage, or the retention of at least one juvenile characteristic into the adult (adult = sexually reproducing) stage. Some scientists believe that this occurred in a proto-chordate animal lineage. Maybe chordates (and vertebrates) arose from sessile (attached) ancestors. Selection in these proto-chordates maybe began to favor more time in the larval stage, as feeding was more successful or mortality lower in this stage. As larvae got bigger physics shows that the cilia become less efficient for locomotion, favoring the undulating motion allowed by a notochord. Is this hypothesis crazy? A similar example of this today is Epemeroptera, the mayfly, which has almost abandoned its adult stage. Its one-year lifespan is mostly larval with just a brief day of reproduce-and-die as an adult, which doesn’t even have usable mouthparts. Tunicate (sea squirt) larva has all four chordate characteristics, although adult sessile (“attached”). Answer: organ systems", "output": [ "Vertebrates have tissues which are organized into organs which in turn are organized into what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-175cde3a91e543a29311c73516e645be", "input": "Passage: Everyday objects are made up of quarks from the lowest energy family, namely up and down quarks. Quarks in the middle energy family are found in cosmic rays and are produced in particle accelerators. Particles in the high energy family are believed to have existed briefly during the earliest moments of the Big Bang and are created only in high energy collisions. Answer: particle accelerators", "output": [ "Quarks in the middle energy family are found in cosmic rays and are produced in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f345d1c050b144b39580575dd1ed058e", "input": "Passage: A single-replacement reaction is one in which an element replaces another element in a compound. An element is in either the solid, liquid, or gas state and is not an ion. The example below shows the reaction of solid magnesium metal with aqueous silver nitrate to form aqueous magnesium nitrate and silver metal. Answer: single-replacement reaction", "output": [ "In this type of reaction, an element replaces another element in a compound, and the element is in any state of matter but is not an ion?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7517e10c896a4d7d8dc0b5851716f153", "input": "Passage: Rounding is done when one or more ending digits are dropped to get the correct number of significant figures. Simple rules state when to round up and when to round down. Answer: rounding", "output": [ "What is it called when one or more ending digits are dropped to get the correct number of significant figures?" ] }, { "id": "task594-71d8bd82b94d4dcaa7c31aa5595474aa", "input": "Passage: More than one force may act on an object at the same time. In fact, just about all objects on Earth have at least two forces acting on them at all times. One force is gravity, which pulls objects down toward the center of Earth. The other force is an upward force that may be provided by the ground or other surface. Answer: two", "output": [ "How many forces do objects on earth have acting on them at all times?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b59fd546df3a4cf8bbbcf1e5df4d10e6", "input": "Passage: Which of the following statements about the kidney is false? a. The renal pelvis drains into the ureter. The renal pyramids are in the medulla. The cortex covers the capsule. Nephrons are in the renal cortex. Because the kidney filters blood, its network of blood vessels is an important component of its structure and function. The arteries, veins, and nerves that supply the kidney enter and exit at the renal hilum. Renal blood supply starts with the branching of the aorta into the renal arteries (which are each named based on the region of the kidney they pass through) and ends with the exiting of the renal veins to join the inferior vena cava. The renal arteries split into several segmental arteries upon entering the kidneys. Each segmental artery splits further into several interlobar arteries and enters the renal columns, which supply the renal lobes. The interlobar arteries split at the junction of the renal cortex and medulla to form the arcuate arteries. The arcuate “bow shaped” arteries form arcs along the base of the medullary pyramids. Cortical radiate arteries, as the name suggests, radiate out from the arcuate arteries. The cortical radiate arteries branch into numerous afferent arterioles, and then enter the capillaries supplying the nephrons. Veins trace the path of the arteries and have similar names, except there are no segmental veins. As mentioned previously, the functional unit of the kidney is the nephron, illustrated in Figure 41.6. Each kidney is made up of over one million nephrons that dot the renal cortex, giving it a granular appearance when sectioned sagittally. There are two types of nephrons— cortical nephrons (85 percent), which are deep in the renal cortex, and juxtamedullary nephrons (15 percent), which lie in the renal cortex close to the renal medulla. A nephron consists of three parts—a renal corpuscle, a renal tubule, and the associated capillary network, which originates from the cortical radiate arteries. Answer: kidney", "output": [ "What organ is made up of over one million nephrons that dot the renal cortex?" ] }, { "id": "task594-87ee7a58a5884406bd39ba5dbfb5feaf", "input": "Passage: Mistakes may occur during meiosis that result in nondisjunction . This is the failure of replicated chromosomes to separate during meiosis (the animation at the link below shows how this happens). Some of the resulting gametes will be missing a chromosome, while others will have an extra copy of the chromosome. If such gametes are fertilized and form zygotes, they usually do not survive. If they do survive, the individuals are likely to have serious genetic disorders. Table below lists several genetic disorders that are caused by abnormal numbers of chromosomes. Most chromosomal disorders involve the X chromosome. Look back at the X and Y chromosomes and you will see why. The X and Y chromosomes are very different in size, so nondisjunction of the sex chromosomes occurs relatively often. http://learn. genetics. utah. edu/content/begin/traits/predictdisorder/index. html. Answer: nondisjunction", "output": [ "What is the failure of replicated chromosomes during meiosis to separate known as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-283b9912d4b14fbb95b80b6026e30edb", "input": "Passage: Simon Cousins. Ice cubes in cola cause the cola to lose thermal energy . CC BY 2.0. Answer: thermal energy", "output": [ "Ice cubes in cola cause the cola to lose what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-83715595352941b8b19f7cfa4ecd4b06", "input": "Passage: articular processes allow for the greatest range of rotation within the vertebral column. The lumbar region allows for considerable extension, flexion, and lateral flexion, but the orientation of the articular processes largely prohibits rotation. The articulations formed between the skull, the atlas (C1 vertebra), and the axis (C2 vertebra) differ from the articulations in other vertebral areas and play important roles in movement of the head. The atlanto-occipital joint is formed by the articulations between the superior articular processes of the atlas and the occipital condyles on the base of the skull. This articulation has a pronounced U-shaped curvature, oriented along the anterior-posterior axis. This allows the skull to rock forward and backward, producing flexion and extension of the head. This moves the head up and down, as when shaking your head “yes. ” The atlantoaxial joint, between the atlas and axis, consists of three articulations. The paired superior articular processes of the axis articulate with the inferior articular processes of the atlas. These articulating surfaces are relatively flat and oriented horizontally. The third articulation is the pivot joint formed between the dens, which projects upward from the body of the axis, and the inner aspect of the anterior arch of the atlas (Figure 9.14). A strong ligament passes posterior to the dens to hold it in position against the anterior arch. These articulations allow the atlas to rotate on top of the axis, moving the head toward the right or left, as when shaking your head “no. Answer: articular", "output": [ "What processes allow for the greatest range of rotation within the vertebral column and facilitate the movement of the head?" ] }, { "id": "task594-983ac0c186e64ac5ab34d517ceca430f", "input": "Passage: The right ventricle pumps oxygen-poor blood toward the lungs, where it receives oxygen. Answer: oxygen-poor", "output": [ "The right ventricle pumps what type of blood toward the lungs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1e9e04af8d534ff480d4d55854703e21", "input": "Passage: Angiosperms are plants that produce flowers and fruit. Answer: angiosperms", "output": [ "What is the term for plants that produce flowers and fruit?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0d70e8d39f404e9186e499fec23d8a24", "input": "Passage: For thousands of years, humans have understood that characteristics such as eye color, hair color, or even flower color are passed from one generation to the next. The passing of characteristics from parent to offspring is called heredity . Humans have long been interested in understanding heredity. Many hereditary mechanisms were developed by scholars but were not properly tested or quantified. The scientific study of genetics did not begin until the late 19 th century. In experiments with garden peas, Austrian monk Gregor Mendel described the basic patterns of inheritance. Keep in mind that while we know about DNA and its role as the genetic material, Mendel did not know of the existence of DNA. Nor did he understand the concept of the chromosome or the process of meiosis, and yet, he was still able to correctly describe basic inheritance patterns. Answer: inheritance", "output": [ "In experiments with garden peas, austrian monk gregor mendel described the basic patterns of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ef6a7a24e1774745b91fed6e95bd09f3", "input": "Passage: A low level of radiation occurs naturally in the environment. This is called background radiation. It comes from various sources. One source is rocks, which may contain small amounts of radioactive elements such as uranium. Another source is cosmic rays. These are charged particles that arrive on Earth from outer space. Background radiation is generally considered to be safe for living things. Answer: background radiation", "output": [ "What is the low level of radiation that occurs naturally in the environment called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b97406fb5dac4b479b6a453d84af33c8", "input": "Passage: Properties of nonmetals include a relatively low boiling point, so many nonmetals are gases. Nonmetals are also poor conductors of heat, and solid nonmetals are dull and brittle. Answer: low", "output": [ "What type of boiling point do nonmetals normally have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d3b63050da04430a9ba99a04e1423177", "input": "Passage: A wheel and axle is a simple machine that consists of two connected rings or cylinders, one inside the other. Both rings or cylinders turn in the same direction around a single center point. The inner ring or cylinder is called the axle, and the outer one is called the wheel. Besides the Ferris wheel, the doorknob in the Figure below is another example of a wheel and axle. For more examples, go to this URL:. Answer: wheel and axle", "output": [ "A doorknob and a ferris wheel are examples of what type of simple machine?" ] }, { "id": "task594-867cf838a5a94df597bbb88077083c13", "input": "Passage: The ions in ionic compounds are arranged in rigid three-dimensional patterns called crystal lattices. The crystal lattice that is formed is a characteristic property of a given compound. Answer: crystal lattices", "output": [ "The ions in ionic compounds are arranged in rigid three-dimensional patterns called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-931d5922586947b190d0fbbb2f493311", "input": "Passage: The color of light that strikes an object may also affect the color that the object appears. For example, if only blue light strikes green leaves, the blue light is absorbed and no light is reflected. Answer: it is absorbed", "output": [ "If only blue light strikes green leaves what happens to it?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cb29e84ad4f7475e97be044eaaf60208", "input": "Passage: The soil beneath a deciduous forest is a pedalfer. These soils are very fertile. Answer: pedalfer", "output": [ "The soil beneath a deciduous forest is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-26b29bacb48947dc98697474bf36d7b1", "input": "Passage: The stratosphere is the layer above the troposphere. Temperature increases with altitude in this layer. The ozone layer occurs here. Answer: stratosphere", "output": [ "What is the layer above the troposphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ac88157971a64de9b8e4d34d3f07ac3a", "input": "Passage: Free-living roundworms are found mainly in freshwater habitats. Answer: freshwater habitats", "output": [ "Where are free-living roundworms mainly found?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2b2fe013e57f405c8e9f1b919933158f", "input": "Passage: Enthalpy changes also occur when a solute undergoes the physical process of dissolving into a solvent. Hot packs and cold packs (see Figure below ) use this property. Many hot packs use calcium chloride, which releases heat when it dissolves according to the equation below. Answer: enthalpy", "output": [ "When a solute dissolves into a solvent what is that called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ef7b9902e26347bda1fb5daf4f23190b", "input": "Passage: An electric transformer connects two circuits with an iron core that becomes an electromagnet. Answer: electromagnet", "output": [ "An electric transformer connects two circuits with an iron core that becomes what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5dff1c07cf3a4e7287f6f0e4918e9f77", "input": "Passage: When light is refracted its wavelength and speed change; however, its frequency remains the same as the frequency of the light source. Proof of this is that light retains its original color under water. For example, blue light is still blue under water. Answer: frequency", "output": [ "Light retains its original color under water because what remains the same when light is refracted?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0fab97c72c1e403ebe6af60c68b2f545", "input": "Passage: Hyphae : These are thread-like strands which interconnect and bunch up into a mycelium ( Figure below ). Ever see mold on a damp wall or on old bread? The things that you are seeing are really mycelia. The hyphae and mycelia help the fungi absorb nutrients from other organisms. Most of the mycelium is hidden from view deep within the fungal food source, such as rotting matter in the soil, leaf litter, rotting wood, or dead animals. Fungi produce enzymes to digest cellulose and various other materials found in rotting matter, helping with the decaying process. Answer: enzymes", "output": [ "What helps fungus digest cellulose and other materials found in rotting matter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b9d9651b966243cf988130f091d384d9", "input": "Passage: Cartilage The distinctive appearance of cartilage is due to polysaccharides called chondroitin sulfates, which bind with ground substance proteins to form proteoglycans. Embedded within the cartilage matrix are chondrocytes, or cartilage cells, and the space they occupy are called lacunae (singular = lacuna). A layer of dense irregular connective tissue, the perichondrium, encapsulates the cartilage. Cartilaginous tissue is avascular, thus all nutrients need to diffuse through the matrix to reach the chondrocytes. This is a factor contributing to the very slow healing of cartilaginous tissues. The three main types of cartilage tissue are hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage (Figure 4.16). Hyaline cartilage, the most common type of cartilage in the body, consists of short and dispersed collagen fibers and contains large amounts of proteoglycans. Under the microscope, tissue samples appear clear. The surface of hyaline cartilage is smooth. Both strong and flexible, it is found in the rib cage and nose and covers bones where they meet to form moveable joints. It makes up a template of the embryonic skeleton before bone formation. A plate of hyaline cartilage at the ends of bone allows continued growth until adulthood. Fibrocartilage is tough because it has thick bundles of collagen fibers dispersed through its matrix. The knee and jaw joints and the the intervertebral discs are examples of fibrocartilage. Elastic cartilage contains elastic fibers as well as collagen and proteoglycans. This tissue gives rigid support as well as elasticity. Tug gently at your ear lobes, and notice that the lobes return to their initial shape. The external ear contains elastic cartilage. Answer: cartilage", "output": [ "The distinctive appearance of what tissue is due to polysaccharides called chondroitin sulfates?" ] }, { "id": "task594-398d52d04d4a4febb12a5d19e4c051ce", "input": "Passage: Elemental bromine gas can be generated by reacting sodium bromide with elemental chlorine. The other product is sodium chloride. Write a balanced chemical equation for this reaction. Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: elemental bromine gas", "output": [ "What gas can be generated by reacting sodium bromide with elemental chlorine?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d33a0131f05f47dbbd9cfa19b46052b9", "input": "Passage: Treating genetic disorders is one use of biotechnology. Biotechnology is the use of technology to change the genetic makeup of living things for human purposes. It's also called genetic engineering. Besides treating genetic disorders, biotechnology is used to change organisms so they are more useful to people. Answer: genetic engineering", "output": [ "What is the use of technology to change the genetic makeup of living things for human purposes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a0a17c84928248d79c2b3ac6682d107d", "input": "Passage: Ionic solutes separate into individual ions when they dissolve. Covalent solutes separate into individual molecules. Answer: individual molecules", "output": [ "Covalent solutes separate into what when dissolved?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e32c90f754b24af89538561833a56d91", "input": "Passage: A polyatomic ion is an ion composed of more than one atom. For example, the ammonium ion consists of one nitrogen atom and four hydrogen atoms. Together, they comprise a single ion with a 1+ charge and a formula of NH 4 + . The carbonate ion consists of one carbon atom and three oxygen atoms, and it carries an overall charge of 2−. The formula of the carbonate ion is CO 3 2- . The atoms of a polyatomic ion are tightly bonded together, so the entire ion behaves as a single unit. Figure below shows several models, and Table below lists many of the most common polyatomic ions. Answer: atom", "output": [ "A polyatomic ion is an ion composed of more than one what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9421ce757ed346708d0adb951aa3a3e6", "input": "Passage: 16.6 Nervous System The nervous system is made up of neurons and glia. Neurons are specialized cells that are capable of sending electrical as well as chemical signals. Most neurons contain dendrites, which receive these signals, and axons that send signals to other neurons or tissues. Glia are non-neuronal cells in the nervous system that support neuronal development and signaling. There are several types of glia that serve different functions. Neurons have a resting potential across their membranes and when they are stimulated by a strong enough signal from another neuron an action potential may carry an electrochemical signal along the neuron to a synapse with another neuron. Neurotransmitters carry signals across synapses to initiate a response in another neuron. The vertebrate central nervous system contains the brain and the spinal cord, which are covered and protected by three meninges. The brain contains structurally and functionally defined regions. In mammals, these include the cortex (which can be broken down into four primary functional lobes: frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal), basal ganglia, thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, cerebellum, and brainstem—although structures in some of these designations overlap. While functions may be primarily localized to one structure in the brain, most complex functions, like language and sleep, involve neurons in multiple brain regions. The spinal cord is the information superhighway that connects the brain with the rest of the body through its connections with peripheral nerves. It transmits sensory and motor input and also controls motor reflexes. The peripheral nervous system contains both the autonomic and sensory-somatic nervous systems. The autonomic nervous system provides unconscious control over visceral functions and has two divisions: the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic nervous system is activated in stressful situations to prepare the animal for a “fight-orflight” response. The parasympathetic nervous system is active during restful periods. The sensory-somatic nervous system is made of cranial and spinal nerves that transmit sensory information from skin and muscle to the CNS and motor commands from the CNS to the muscles. Answer: neurons", "output": [ "What are specialized cells that are capable of sending electrical as well as chemical signals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ea8afc2dead2441a868804d1a3c55671", "input": "Passage: Summary Subatomic particles of the nucleus (protons and neutrons) are called nucleons. Anuclide is an atom with a particular number of protons and neutrons. An unstable nucleus that decays spontaneously is radioactive, and its emissions are collectively called radioactivity. Isotopes that emit radiation are Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: nucleons", "output": [ "What are the subatomic particles of the nucleus called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-826a66fc6a5a43d6a7fddc1e1d304bf2", "input": "Passage: Immune system organs include bone marrow, the thymus gland, the spleen, and the tonsils. Each organ has a different job in the immune system. Answer: immune system", "output": [ "Bone marrow, the thymus gland, the spleen, and the tonsils are organs in what body system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8f1407403bf74826ba33593b26be0eba", "input": "Passage: Evolution of Angiosperms Undisputed fossil records place the massive appearance and diversification of angiosperms in the middle to late Mesozoic era. Angiosperms (“seed in a vessel”) produce a flower containing male and/or female reproductive structures. Fossil evidence (Figure 26.6) indicates that flowering plants first appeared in the Lower Cretaceous, about 125 million years ago, and were rapidly diversifying by the Middle Cretaceous, about 100 million years ago. Earlier traces of angiosperms are scarce. Fossilized pollen recovered from Jurassic geological material has been attributed to angiosperms. A few early Cretaceous rocks show clear imprints of leaves resembling angiosperm leaves. By the mid-Cretaceous, a staggering number of diverse flowering plants crowd the fossil record. The same geological period is also marked by the appearance of many modern groups of insects, including pollinating insects that played a key role in ecology and the evolution of flowering plants. Although several hypotheses have been offered to explain this sudden profusion and variety of flowering plants, none have garnered the consensus of paleobotanists (scientists who study ancient plants). New data in comparative genomics and paleobotany have, however, shed some light on the evolution of angiosperms. Rather than being derived from gymnosperms, angiosperms form a sister clade (a species and its descendents) that developed in parallel with the gymnosperms. The two innovative structures of flowers and fruit represent an improved reproductive strategy that served to protect the embryo, while increasing genetic variability and range. Paleobotanists debate whether angiosperms evolved from small woody bushes, or were basal angiosperms related to tropical grasses. Both views draw support from cladistics studies, and the so-called woody magnoliid hypothesis—which proposes that the early ancestors of angiosperms were shrubs—also offers molecular biological evidence. Answer: paleobotanists", "output": [ "What term describes scientists who debate the origin of the earliest plants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-975c90e4ee5940819bfd95c109c3239b", "input": "Passage: Chromosomal Disorders Sometimes a genetic disease is not caused by a mutation in a gene, but by the presence of an incorrect number of chromosomes. For example, Down syndrome is caused by having three copies of chromosome 21. This is known as trisomy 21. The most common cause of trisomy 21 is chromosomal nondisjunction during meiosis. The frequency of nondisjunction events appears to increase with age, so the frequency of bearing a child with Down syndrome increases in women over 36. The age of the father matters less because nondisjunction is much less likely to occur in a sperm than in an egg. Whereas Down syndrome is caused by having three copies of a chromosome, Turner syndrome is caused by having just one copy of the X chromosome. This is known as monosomy. The affected child is always female. Women with Turner syndrome are sterile because their sexual organs do not mature. Answer: chromosome", "output": [ "Down syndrome is caused by having three copies of what, a condition known as trisomy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6e5913d2f0ea4128b2352991bcea47f1", "input": "Passage: Kinetic energy is the energy of moving matter. Things with kinetic energy can do work. Kinetic energy depends on an object’s mass and velocity. Answer: kinetic energy", "output": [ "What is the energy of moving matter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-97db136b0f9b48648f9129ad748f7b4f", "input": "Passage: Neurogenesis At one time, scientists believed that people were born with all the neurons they would ever have. Research performed during the last few decades indicates that neurogenesis, the birth of new neurons, continues into adulthood. Neurogenesis was first discovered in songbirds that produce new neurons while learning songs. For mammals, new neurons also play an important role in learning: about 1,000 new neurons develop in the hippocampus (a brain structure involved in learning and memory) each day. While most of the new neurons will die, researchers found that an increase in the number of surviving new neurons in the hippocampus correlated with how well rats learned a new task. Interestingly, both exercise and some antidepressant medications also promote neurogenesis in the hippocampus. Stress has the opposite effect. While neurogenesis is quite limited compared to regeneration in other tissues, research in this area may lead to new treatments for disorders such as Alzheimer’s, stroke, and epilepsy. How do scientists identify new neurons? A researcher can inject a compound called bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) into the brain of an animal. While all cells will be exposed to BrdU, BrdU will only be incorporated into the DNA of newly generated cells that are in S phase. A technique called immunohistochemistry can be used to attach a fluorescent label to the incorporated BrdU, and a researcher can use fluorescent microscopy to visualize the presence of BrdU, and thus new neurons, in brain tissue (Figure 16.20). Answer: neurogenesis", "output": [ "What was first discovered in songbirds that produce new neurons while learning songs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fa1ca369c2b54239ae61d335883d0616", "input": "Passage: Water molds are commonly found in moist soil and surface water. Many water molds are plant pathogens or fish parasites. Answer: surface water", "output": [ "Water molds are commonly found in moist soil and where else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e57693a599384776a28a62a2d98c7f9d", "input": "Passage: deep sea trenches : Trenches are found in the sea. Some are near the edges of continents. Trenches are found near chains of active volcanoes. An example is the line of the very deepest blue, off of western South America. Answer: volcanoes", "output": [ "What kind of mountainous formation can often be found near trenches?" ] }, { "id": "task594-852bc898385947319c88c634bd1738d7", "input": "Passage: Transporting blood is the main job of the heart and blood vessels. Answer: blood vessels", "output": [ "Transporting blood is the main job of the heart and what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a1aeea6a4c1d4388b702c89530c18e6a", "input": "Passage: Electromagnetic induction is the process of generating electric current with a magnetic field. It occurs whenever a magnetic field and an electric conductor move relative to one another so the conductor crosses lines of force in the magnetic field. Answer: electromagnetic induction", "output": [ "What is the process of generating electric current with a magnetic field?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9efa4ca3cd0f4b869e949d1f620277d7", "input": "Passage: Vacuoles are membrane-bound organelles that can have secretory, excretory, and storage functions. They are usually larger than vesicles. Answer: vacuoles", "output": [ "What are the membrane-bound organelles that are usually larger than vesicles and can have secretory, excretory, and storage functions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-519407ae1c52420ab732fbae48bd8245", "input": "Passage: Figure 42.21 The spleen is similar to a lymph node but is much larger and filters blood instead of lymph. Blood enters the spleen through arteries and exits through veins. The spleen contains two types of tissue: red pulp and white pulp. Red pulp consists of cavities that store blood. Within the red pulp, damaged red blood cells are removed and replaced by new ones. White pulp is rich in lymphocytes that remove antigen-coated bacteria from the blood. (credit: modification of work by NCI). Answer: spleen", "output": [ "What organ is similar to a lymph node but is much larger and filters blood instead of lymph?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f79c0b6b70ef4828ada3e23f6d309303", "input": "Passage: The penis is an external genital organ with a long shaft and enlarged tip called the glans penis. The shaft of the penis contains erectile tissues that can fill with blood and cause an erection. When this occurs, the penis gets bigger and stiffer. The urethra passes through the penis. Sperm pass out of the body through the urethra. (During urination, the urethra carries urine from the bladder. ). Answer: glans penis", "output": [ "What is the enlarged tip of the penis called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-216ad29dd0bb430bb89996363f5b3e14", "input": "Passage: The plasma membrane controls what moves inside and outside the cell. Answer: the plasma membrane", "output": [ "What controls what moves inside and outside the cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ff2266972b3e494f9c1a26737fd1c980", "input": "Passage: Pedocal is the soil common in grasslands. The more arid climate increases calcium in the soil. Pedocal is not as fertile. Answer: grasslands", "output": [ "Where is pedocal soil commonly found?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2f399a064884486f9872f07908672549", "input": "Passage: Proteins are organic compounds made up of amino acids. Answer: amino acids", "output": [ "What kinds of acids are proteins made out of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0257456b15ed45f39baba500e8523b07", "input": "Passage: The composition of the magma determines if the rock is mafic, felsic, or intermediate. Answer: intermediate", "output": [ "The composition of the magma determines if the rock is mafic, felsic, or what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-976008fabc0c453f9c48b6e259840744", "input": "Passage: In addition to producing FSH and LH, the anterior portion of the pituitary gland also produces the hormone prolactin (PRL) in females. Prolactin stimulates the production of milk by the mammary glands following childbirth. Prolactin levels are regulated by the hypothalamic hormones prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH) and prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH), which is now known to be dopamine. PRH stimulates the release of prolactin and PIH inhibits it. The posterior pituitary releases the hormone oxytocin, which stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth. The uterine smooth muscles are not very sensitive to oxytocin until late in pregnancy when the number of oxytocin receptors in the uterus peaks. Stretching of tissues in the uterus and cervix stimulates oxytocin release during childbirth. Contractions increase in intensity as blood levels of oxytocin rise via a positive feedback mechanism until the birth is complete. Oxytocin also stimulates the contraction of myoepithelial cells around the milk-producing mammary glands. As these cells contract, milk is forced from the secretory alveoli into milk ducts and is ejected from the breasts in milk ejection (“let-down”) reflex. Oxytocin release is stimulated by the suckling of an infant, which triggers the synthesis of oxytocin in the hypothalamus and its release into circulation at the posterior pituitary. Answer: oxytocin", "output": [ "The posterior pituitary releases which hormone, which stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5afab6ea433d478fb655623e44dabcd8", "input": "Passage: Reptiles have a circulatory system with a heart that pumps blood. Reptiles also have a centralized nervous system with a brain. Their brain is relatively small, but the parts of the brain that control the senses and learning are larger than in amphibians. Reptiles have good senses of sight and smell. They use their tongue to smell scents. That’s what the blue-tongued lizard in Figure below is doing. Some reptiles also have a heat-sensing organ that helps them locate the warm bodies of prey animals such as birds and small mammals. Answer: tongue", "output": [ "Instead of using their nose, reptiles can use what organ to smell scents?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d17e9847827041a1809ec378c2bb9161", "input": "Passage: Electricity and magnetism are inextricably linked. Under certain conditions, electric current causes a magnetic field. Under other conditions, a magnetic field can cause an electric current. A moving charged particle creates a magnetic field around it. Additionally, when a moving charged particle moves through a different magnetic field, the two magnetic fields will interact. The result is a force exerted on the moving charged particle. Answer: magnetic", "output": [ "Under certain conditions, electric current causes what type of field?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b9c6df2d5891411195258fef92b7d131", "input": "Passage: Names of ionic compounds are derived from the names of the ions, with the name of the cation coming first, followed by the name of the anion. If an element can form cations of different charges, there are two alternate systems for indicating the compound’s name. In the Stock system, a roman numeral in parentheses indicates the charge on the cation. An example is the name for FeCl2, which is iron(II) chloride. In the common system, the suffixes -ous and -ic are used to stand for the lower and higher possible charge of the cation, respectively. These suffixes are attached to a stem representing the element (which frequently comes from the Latin form of the element name). An example is the common name for FeCl2, which is ferrous chloride. The formula mass of an ionic compound is the sum of the masses of each individual atom in the formula. Care must be taken when calculating formula masses for formulas containing multiple polyatomic ions because the subscript outside the parentheses refers to all the atoms in the polyatomic ion. Answer: ionic compound", "output": [ "The name of the cation comes first, followed by the name of the anion, in what kind of compound?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f4ad69650de74200b2219e39f7d03e2f", "input": "Passage: Climate conditions in a small area may be different from those of the surroundings. The climate of the small area is called a microclimate . The microclimate of a valley may be cool relative to its surroundings since cold air sinks. The ground surface may be hotter or colder than the air a few feet above it. This is because rock and soil gain and lose heat readily. Different sides of a mountain will have different microclimates. In the Northern Hemisphere, a south-facing slope receives more solar energy than a north-facing slope. Each side supports different amounts and types of vegetation. Answer: microclimate", "output": [ "What is the climate of a small area called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0cc1038c294d41c987c5b98f7fcf67d9", "input": "Passage: Polluted water can form a frothy green scum on the surface. This \"pond scum\" is actually a living organism, algae. The algae are plant-like protists. Usually the algae are too small to notice, but sometimes algae grow in excess because of the excess nutrients in polluted water. Answer: algae", "output": [ "What organism constitutes frothy green \"pond scum\"?" ] }, { "id": "task594-98f4f68c2b77457cac982caa58006bd7", "input": "Passage: Socket diagram: Pearson Scott Foresman; Joint diagram: Zachary Wilson. Ball and socket joints allow for a wide range of flexibility . Socket diagram: Public Domain; Joint diagram: CC BY-NC 3.0. Answer: ball and socket", "output": [ "What kind of joints allow for a wide range of flexibility?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d7f7ebe9f5cb42bd9fd0fbee0feae250", "input": "Passage: A lichen is an organism that results from a mutualistic relationship between a fungus and a photosynthetic organism. The other organism is usually a cyanobacterium or green alga. The fungus grows around the bacterial or algal cells. The fungus benefits from the constant supply of food produced by the photosynthesizer. The photosynthesizer benefits from the water and nutrients absorbed by the fungus. Figure below shows lichen growing on a rock. Answer: supply of food", "output": [ "How does the fungus benefit from the photosynthesizer?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a6dd8c7663704ef8a0ee9fef80593434", "input": "Passage: The processes of evolution are fundamental to much of biology. Why do people have such a hard time understanding them?. Answer: indoors", "output": [ "Where in relation to the home, are levels of vocs found to be higher?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b2bfb7f82fa44383a0795ec23d4866e3", "input": "Passage: Stars are classified by color, which correlates with temperature. Red stars are the coolest and blue are the hottest. Answer: blue", "output": [ "Red stars are the coolest; which are the hottest?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4c602a0a8d1e425c8fac5fdc30074487", "input": "Passage: A few elements, called metalloids, can conduct electricity, but not as well as metals. Examples include silicon and germanium in group 14. Both become better conductors at higher temperatures. These elements are called semiconductors. Answer: metalloids", "output": [ "A few elements, called what, can conduct electricity, but not as well as metals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f23340172f654b9c92d2d712bb2758ba", "input": "Passage: The temperature of the box is related to the average speed of the molecules. Use momentum principles to relate temperature to pressure. Explain conceptually, in words rather than with equations. Answer: molecules", "output": [ "The temperature of the box is related to the average speed of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9c0c5467a08946c5b654fb74f1b88e30", "input": "Passage: Some of the most interesting kinds of evidence for evolution are body parts that have lost their use through evolution ( Figure below ). For example, most birds need their wings to fly. But the wings of an ostrich have lost their original use. Structures that have lost their use through evolution are called vestigial structures . They provide evidence for evolution because they suggest that an organism changed from using the structure to not using the structure, or using it for a different purpose. Answer: vestigial structures", "output": [ "Structures that have lost their use through evolution are called _______" ] }, { "id": "task594-040615652b18450fb0f0fd43356853e4", "input": "Passage: Crystalline solids have particles that are arranged in a regular repeating pattern. They form crystals. Amorphous solids have particles that are arranged more-or-less at random. They do not form crystals. Answer: crystalline solids", "output": [ "What kind of solids have particles that are arranged in a regular repeating pattern?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dbbf8c8427b04c218637b59a6549db02", "input": "Passage: Worldwide Distribution of Malaria. This map shows where malaria is found. The area is determined by the mosquito vector. The mosquito can live year-round only in the red-shaded areas. Answer: mosquito", "output": [ "The vector of what organism is significant on a map showing the location of malaria?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d3cc2354feee4a6c90fd47c483ba4ef9", "input": "Passage: Scientists measure the gases that escape from a volcano to predict eruptions. Gases like sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), hydrochloric acid (HCl), and water vapor can be measured at the site. Gases may also be measured from satellites. The amounts of gases and the ratios of gases are calculated to help predict eruptions. Answer: eruptions", "output": [ "Scientists measure the gases that escape from a volcano to predict what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-626b3e925c2743afa6fe119155b35531", "input": "Passage: View this animation (http://openstaxcollege. org/l/ headblow) to see how a blow to the head may produce a contrecoup (counterblow) fracture of the basilar portion of the occipital bone on the base of the skull. Why may a basilar fracture be life threatening? 3. Osteoporosis is a common age-related bone disease in which bone density and strength is decreased. Watch this video (http://openstaxcollege. org/l/osteoporosis) to get a better understanding of how thoracic vertebrae may become weakened and may fractured due to this disease. How may vertebral osteoporosis contribute to kyphosis? 4. Watch this animation (http://openstaxcollege. org/l/ diskslip) to see what it means to “slip” a disk. Watch this second animation (http://openstaxcollege. org/l/ herndisc) to see one possible treatment for a herniated disc,. Answer: osteoporosis", "output": [ "What is a common age-related bone disease in which bone density and strength is decreased?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b394aae2a6514f0c806d25736ff0fb84", "input": "Passage: There are many blood vessels in the kidneys ( Figure above ). The kidneys remove urea and other wastes from the blood through tiny filtering units called nephrons. Nephrons ( Figure below ) are tiny, tube-shaped structures found inside each kidney. Each kidney has up to a million nephrons. Each nephron collects a small amount of fluid and waste from a small group of capillaries. Answer: nephrons", "output": [ "What are the tiny, tube-shaped structures found inside a kidney called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-32244d5be66445de89f7cc8a452962eb", "input": "Passage: We can see rainbows because they are formed by visible light. Visible light includes all the wavelengths of light that the human eye can detect. It allows us to see objects in the world around us. Without visible light, we would only be able to sense most objects by sound or touch, and we would never see rainbows. Like humans, most other organisms also depend on visible light, either directly or indirectly. Many animals use it to see. All plants use it to make food in the process of photosynthesis. Without the food made by plants, most other organisms could not survive. Answer: visible light", "output": [ "What helps us see rainbows in the sky?" ] }, { "id": "task594-16a1f9b19e7c4066bb7e1bb97434fea3", "input": "Passage: Though viruses are not considered living, they share two important traits with living organisms. They have genetic material like all cells do (though they are not made of cells), and they can evolve. The genetic material of a virus can change (mutate), altering the traits of the virus. As the process of evolution has resulted in all life on the planet today, the classification of viruses has been controversial. It calls into question the very definition of life. Answer: evolution", "output": [ "Though viruses are not considered living, they share two important traits with living organisms: they have genetic material and they can undergo what process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9d6e2b3309f44a9ca248294c085bd179", "input": "Passage: Noble gases are the least reactive of all elements. That’s because they have eight valence electrons, which fill their outer energy level. This is the most stable arrangement of electrons, so noble gases rarely react with other elements and form compounds. Answer: noble", "output": [ "What type of gases are the least reactive of all elements?" ] }, { "id": "task594-68bf6c1b61164b659e5fd6c8de55776c", "input": "Passage: Dolphins are mammals that have adapted to swimming and reproducing in water. Answer: mammal", "output": [ "Dolphins are what type of animal?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5116aff34ec0475ca1a4ec0fc6147127", "input": "Passage: The Precambrian Supereon (4.6 billion–544 million years ago) is the first major division of the geologic time scale. The first living cells may have evolved around 4 billion years ago. By 1 million years ago, the first multicellular eukaryotes had evolved. The Precambrian ended with the first of six mass extinctions that occurred during Earth’s history. Answer: 4 billion years", "output": [ "The first living cells may have evolved around how long ago?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c5b8dfea9c774c19a97e58986b3bb043", "input": "Passage: The reproductive system in both males and females consists of structures that produce reproductive cells, or gametes, and secrete sex hormones. A gamete is a haploid cell that combines with another haploid gamete during fertilization. Sex hormones are chemical messengers that control sexual development and reproduction. The male reproductive system consists of structures that produce male gametes called sperm and secrete the male sex hormone testosterone. Answer: reproductive", "output": [ "What system in both males and females consists of structures that produce reproductive cells, or gametes, and secrete sex hormone?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a673f18b2e8e464fa9def0d273e0406b", "input": "Passage: Animal Cells versus Plant Cells At this point, you know that each eukaryotic cell has a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, a nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria, peroxisomes, and in some, vacuoles, but there are some striking differences between animal and plant cells. While both animal and plant cells have microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs), animal cells also have centrioles associated with the MTOC: a complex called the centrosome. Animal cells each have a centrosome and lysosomes, whereas plant cells do not. Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts and other specialized plastids, and a large central vacuole, whereas animal cells do not. The Centrosome The centrosome is a microtubule-organizing center found near the nuclei of animal cells. It contains a pair of centrioles, two structures that lie perpendicular to each other ( Figure 4.15). Each centriole is a cylinder of nine triplets of microtubules. Answer: centrosome", "output": [ "What is the microtubule-organizing center found near the nuclei of animal cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2d2e17fb1bad41848072d701acbcc497", "input": "Passage: Increasing or decreasing the temperature of a system at equilibrium is also a stress to the system. The equation for the Haber-Bosch process is written again below, as a thermochemical equation. Answer: stress", "output": [ "What effect does changing temperature have on a system at equilibrium?" ] }, { "id": "task594-90eddf10fe214161b5044ef9fa0ff161", "input": "Passage: Lycophytes follow the pattern of alternation of generations seen in the bryophytes, except that the sporophyte is the major stage of the lifecycle. The gametophytes do not depend on the sporophyte for nutrients. Some gametophytes develop underground and form mycorrhizal associations with fungi. In club mosses, the sporophyte gives rise to sporophylls arranged in strobili, cone-like structures that give the class its name. Lycophytes can be homosporous or heterosporous. Answer: fungi", "output": [ "Some gametophytes develop underground and form mycorrhizal associations with what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5a02f4aaedb74d7d9f9ee75efd021812", "input": "Passage: Organs of the lymphatic system include the tonsils, thymus gland and spleen. The thymus gland produces T cells or T-lymphocytes (see below) and the spleen and tonsils help in fighting infections. The spleen’s main function is to filter the blood. The spleen also detects viruses and bacteria and triggers the release of pathogen fighting cells. Answer: t cells", "output": [ "What does the thymus gland produce?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6b06b9654ba34d6c9211cb3308238a62", "input": "Passage: The parasympathetic division controls internal organs and glands during the rest of the time. It controls processes like digestion, heartbeat, and breathing when there is not an emergency. Answer: parasympathetic", "output": [ "Which division of the autonomic nervous system controls processes like digestion, heartbeat, and breathing?" ] }, { "id": "task594-523228fe4c5b4cd6b739d4ea21abf74d", "input": "Passage: Dizygotic twins (fraternal or non-identical) share only about half of their polymorphisms. These twins are helpful to study as they tend to share many aspects of their environment. As they are born in the same place, usually within a few minutes of each other, they share many environmental conditions. They had the same in utero environment, they usually have a similar or the same parenting style during their childhood, and a similar or the same education. Similarities during childhood usually occur with wealth, culture, and their community. Answer: fraternal, non-identical", "output": [ "What are two other terms for dizygotic twins, which make good study subjects because they share many environmental conditions, but only about half of their polymorphisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d3f96c9d0955421c8ea784df6e4387c2", "input": "Passage: Genetics is the branch of biology that focuses on heredity. The basics of heredity are similar for all organisms that reproduce sexually: the offspring receive one set of genetic material from one parent and the other set from the other parent. But are there aspects of genetics that are specific for humans? Let’s find out. Answer: genetics", "output": [ "What branch of biology focuses on heredity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c679e3193eff4ecb8e0e2594cef5f515", "input": "Passage: Xerography Most copy machines use an electrostatic process called xerography—a word coined from the Greek words xeros for dry and graphos for writing. The heart of the process is shown in simplified form in Figure 18.39. A selenium-coated aluminum drum is sprayed with positive charge from points on a device called a corotron. Selenium is a substance with an interesting property—it is a photoconductor. That is, selenium is an insulator when in the dark and a conductor when exposed to light. In the first stage of the xerography process, the conducting aluminum drum is grounded so that a negative charge is induced under the thin layer of uniformly positively charged selenium. In the second stage, the surface of the drum is exposed to the image of whatever is to be copied. Where the image is light, the selenium becomes conducting, and the positive charge is neutralized. In dark areas, the positive charge remains, and so the image has been transferred to the drum. The third stage takes a dry black powder, called toner, and sprays it with a negative charge so that it will be attracted to the positive regions of the drum. Next, a blank piece of paper is given a greater positive charge than on the drum so that it will pull the toner from the drum. Finally, the paper and electrostatically held toner are passed through heated pressure rollers, which melt and permanently adhere the toner within the fibers of the paper. Answer: xerography", "output": [ "What term is used to describe the electrostatic process used by most copy machines?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fc4236abc60f45099901b1bd5b569989", "input": "Passage: Artificial Methods of Asexual Reproduction These methods are frequently employed to give rise to new, and sometimes novel, plants. They include grafting, cutting, layering, and micropropagation. Grafting Grafting has long been used to produce novel varieties of roses, citrus species, and other plants. In grafting, two plant species are used; part of the stem of the desirable plant is grafted onto a rooted plant called the stock. The part that is grafted or attached is called the scion. Both are cut at an oblique angle (any angle other than a right angle), placed in close contact with each other, and are then held together Figure 32.26. Matching up these two surfaces as closely as possible is extremely important because these will be holding the plant together. The vascular systems of the two plants grow and fuse, forming a graft. After a period of time, the scion starts producing shoots, and eventually starts bearing flowers and fruits. Grafting is widely used in viticulture (grape growing) and the citrus industry. Scions capable of producing a particular fruit variety are grated onto root stock with specific resistance to disease. Answer: scion", "output": [ "During grafting, the part of the plant that is grafted is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-26028b176ca3453cae8c5836cd393bd6", "input": "Passage: Solubility is normally expressed in g/L of saturated solution. However, solubility can also be expressed as the moles per liter. Molar solubility is the number of moles of solute in one liter of saturated solution. In other words, the molar solubility of a given compound represents the highest molarity solution that is possible for that compound. The molar mass of a compound is the conversion factor between solubility and molar solubility. Given that the solubility of Zn(OH) 2 is 4.2 × 10 -4 g/L, the molar solubility can be calculated as shown below:. Answer: molar mass", "output": [ "The conversion factor between solubility and molar solubility of a compound is known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3519f22b313e47d199a19815e72b1056", "input": "Passage: Bones consist of four different types of tissue: periosteum, compact bone, spongy bone, and bone marrow. Ossification gradually changes the cartilage skeleton of the fetus to the bony skeleton of the adult. Answer: periosteum", "output": [ "Bones consist of four types of tissue, compact bone, spongy bone, bone marrow, and what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-246071b0de7746e28db980286bb01bc8", "input": "Passage: An addition polymer is a polymer formed by chain addition reactions between monomers that contain a double bond. Molecules of ethene can polymerize with each other under the right conditions to form the polymer called polyethylene. Answer: an addition polymer", "output": [ "What is a polymer formed by chain addition reactions between monomers that contain a double bond called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-503cb55d2ce84570af31549744bdb70c", "input": "Passage: may not be able to use vision as their primary sense to find food. Instead, they are more likely to use taste or chemical cues to find prey. Wetlands Wetlands are environments in which the soil is either permanently or periodically saturated with water. Wetlands are different from lakes because wetlands are shallow bodies of water whereas lakes vary in depth. Emergent vegetation consists of wetland plants that are rooted in the soil but have portions of leaves, stems, and flowers extending above the water’s surface. There are several types of wetlands including marshes, swamps, bogs, mudflats, and salt marshes (Figure 44.25). The three shared characteristics among these types—what makes them wetlands—are their hydrology, hydrophytic vegetation, and hydric soils. Answer: hydric soils", "output": [ "There are several types of wetlands including marshes, swamps, bogs, mudflats, and salt marshes. the three shared characteristics among these types—what makes them wetlands—are their hydrology, hydrophytic vegetation, and this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-38a018ae5f2a4b88a301f1198d2e7150", "input": "Passage: Secondary pollutants form from chemical reactions that occur when pollution is exposed to sunlight. Answer: sunlight", "output": [ "Secondary pollutants form from chemical reactions that occur when pollution is exposed to what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d3a888752a8f48579f0bf14339215116", "input": "Passage: Special bonds form in metals that do not form in other classes of elements. They are called metallic bonds. The bonds explain some of the unique properties of elements in the metals class. Answer: metallic bonds", "output": [ "What type of bonds only form in metals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9767894e4f064a3ebb932720bdd9aad2", "input": "Passage: Light moving from air into water is bent ___________ the normal. Answer: more", "output": [ "Light moving from air into water is bent ___________ the normal?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5191f68a0f20408f8034c0df04e7682e", "input": "Passage: 21.5 | The Immune Response against Pathogens By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Explain the development of immunological competence • Describe the mucosal immune response • Discuss immune responses against bacterial, viral, fungal, and animal pathogens • Describe different ways pathogens evade immune responses Now that you understand the development of mature, naïve B cells and T cells, and some of their major functions, how do all of these various cells, proteins, and cytokines come together to actually resolve an infection? Ideally, the immune response will rid the body of a pathogen entirely. The adaptive immune response, with its rapid clonal expansion, is well suited to this purpose. Think of a primary infection as a race between the pathogen and the immune system. The pathogen bypasses barrier defenses and starts multiplying in the host’s body. During the first 4 to 5 days, the innate immune response will partially control, but not stop, pathogen growth. As the adaptive immune response gears up, however, it will begin to clear the pathogen from the body, while at the same time becoming stronger and stronger. When following antibody responses in patients with a particular disease such as a virus, this clearance is referred to as seroconversion (sero- = “serum”). Seroconversion is the reciprocal relationship between virus levels in the blood and antibody levels. As the antibody levels rise, the virus levels decline, and this is a sign that the immune response is being at least partially effective (partially, because in many diseases, seroconversion does not necessarily mean a patient is getting well). An excellent example of this is seroconversion during HIV disease (Figure 21.26). Notice that antibodies are made early in this disease, and the increase in anti-HIV antibodies correlates with a decrease in detectable virus in the blood. Although these antibodies are an important marker for diagnosing the disease, they are not sufficient to completely clear the virus. Several years later, the vast majority of these individuals, if untreated, will lose their entire adaptive immune response, including the ability to make antibodies, during the final stages of AIDS. Answer: immune", "output": [ "What bodily system is primarily responsible for fighting pathogens in the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4e6e8e66a3b1494ea211ac3f52fdedac", "input": "Passage: A protein molecule is made from one or more long chains of amino acids, each linked to its neighbors by covalent bonds. Multiple chains of a protein are held together by weaker bonds. Answer: protein molecule", "output": [ "What kind of molecule is made from one or more long chains of amino acids?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5115563fb5354727907fb6dd8042d017", "input": "Passage: The disaccharides differ from one another in their monosaccharide constituents and in the specific type of glycosidic linkage connecting them. There are three common disaccharides: maltose, lactose, and sucrose. All three are white crystalline solids at room temperature and are soluble in water. We’ll consider each sugar in more detail. Answer: disaccharides", "output": [ "Maltose, lactose, and sucrose are common types of what, which are distinguished by their monosaccharide constituents?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3d7e66b9db884989a37b4d9ab66f39a8", "input": "Passage: Figure 10.43 Diamond is extremely hard because of the strong bonding between carbon atoms in all directions. Graphite (in pencil lead) rubs off onto paper due to the weak attractions between the carbon layers. An image of a graphite surface shows the distance between the centers of adjacent carbon atoms. (credit left photo: modification of work by Steve Jurvetson; credit middle photo: modification of work by United States Geological Survey) You may be less familiar with a recently discovered form of carbon: graphene. Graphene was first isolated in 2004 by using tape to peel off thinner and thinner layers from graphite. It is essentially a single sheet (one atom thick) of graphite. Graphene, illustrated in Figure 10.44, is not only strong and lightweight, but it is also an excellent conductor of electricity and heat. These properties may prove very useful in a wide range of applications, such as vastly improved computer chips and circuits, better batteries and solar cells, and stronger and lighter structural materials. The 2010 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov for their pioneering work with graphene. Answer: carbon atoms", "output": [ "Diamond is extremely hard because of the strong bonding between ______ in all directions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8ce7e362967c413e835cb7f9d7d12209", "input": "Passage: Heterotrophs cannot make their own food, so they must eat or absorb it. For this reason, heterotrophs are also known as consumers . Consumers include all animals and fungi and many protists and bacteria. They consume either autotrophs or other heterotrophs. Heterotrophs show great diversity and may appear far more fascinating than producers. But heterotrophs are limited by their utter dependence on those autotrophs which originally made the food. If plants, algae, and autotrophic bacteria vanished from Earth, animals, fungi, and other heterotrophs would soon disappear as well. All life requires a constant input of energy. Only autotrophs can transform that ultimate, solar source into the chemical energy in food which powers life, as shown in Figure below . Answer: consumers", "output": [ "Because heterotrophs cannot make their own food, what are they called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e7da0a331ef94a7898780bf2b42a7d8a", "input": "Passage: All of these animal behaviors are important. They help the animals get food for energy, make sure their young survive, or ensure that they, themselves, survive. Behaviors that help animals or their young survive, increase the animals’ fitness. Animals with higher fitness have a better chance of passing their genes on to the next generation. If genes control behaviors that increase fitness, the behaviors become more common in the species. This occurs through the process of evolution by natural selection. Answer: evolution", "output": [ "Fitness and natural selection are parts of what theory that might describe how organisms change over time?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8e87d37a4f4344d098917c78e499100f", "input": "Passage: A snail might travel 2 centimeters in a minute. A cheetah might travel 2 kilometers in the same amount of time. The distance something travels in a given amount of time is its speed. Answer: speed", "output": [ "What is the distance something travels in a given amount of time called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-34905232f1e043df9bfbc15c8cb370a7", "input": "Passage: A force is a push or a pull on an object. When you place a book on a table, the book pushes downward on the table and the table pushes upward on the book. The two forces are equal and there is no resulting motion of the book. If, on the other hand, you hold the book in the air and let go, the force of gravity will pull the book to the ground. Answer: force", "output": [ "What is the term for a push or a pull on an object?" ] }, { "id": "task594-209880ae08474d02b559133631284216", "input": "Passage: Ginkgoes, like cycads, has separate female and male plants. The male trees are usually preferred for landscaping because the seeds produced by the female plants smell terrible when they ripen. Answer: unicellular algae", "output": [ "What is the most common plant-like protist?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b696360a989349bcb760008df6ec7d6d", "input": "Passage: A small child darts in front of your bike as you race down the street. You see the child and immediately react. You put on the brakes, steer away from the child, and yell out a warning, all in just a split second. How do you respond so quickly? Such rapid responses are controlled by your nervous system. The nervous system is a complex network of nervous tissue that carries electrical messages throughout the body. It includes the brain and spinal cord, the central nervous system , and nerves that run throughout the body, the peripheral nervous system (see Figure below ). To understand how nervous messages can travel so quickly, you need to know more about nerve cells. Answer: nervous system", "output": [ "What is the complex network of nervous tissue that carries electrical messages throughout the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cede50a9547245d0b6b8139e6b6c805f", "input": "Passage: Pressure and temperature at constant volume are directly proportional. Answer: pressure", "output": [ "When volume does not change, temperature is proportional to what other property?" ] }, { "id": "task594-26a7895ce8df47c6a6fe9b4c9600cb30", "input": "Passage: In vascular plants, the sporophyte generation is dominant. In seedless vascular plants such as ferns, the sporophyte releases spores from the undersides of leaves. The spores develop into tiny, separate gametophytes, from which the next generation of sporophyte plants grows. Answer: dominant", "output": [ "In vascular plants, the sporophyte generation is what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f93b8516324141c3a99ee11c69f65aad", "input": "Passage: Echinoderms are named for their “spiny skin. ” However, the spines aren’t on their skin. They are part of the endoskeleton. The endoskeleton consists of calcium carbonate plates and spines, covered by a thin layer of skin. Adult echinoderms have radial symmetry . This is easy to see in the sea star and sand dollar in Figure above . However, echinoderms evolved from an ancestor with bilateral symmetry. Evidence for this is the bilateral symmetry of their larvae. Answer: echinoderms", "output": [ "What are named for their “spiny skin”?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8c07f10d84b8484097c67ff41143b939", "input": "Passage: Water is the only substance on Earth that is stable in all three states. Answer: water", "output": [ "What is the only substance on earth that is stable in all three states?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8cbb02b172e146d1b65aa02743b8b0bb", "input": "Passage: Dissolved mineral salts wash into the ocean. As ocean water evaporates, it leaves the salts behind. This makes the water saltier. Ocean water is about 3.5 percent salts. The main salt is sodium chloride. Answer: salts", "output": [ "Concentration of what, the substance left behind when ocean water evaporates, is about 3.5 percent?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1046585c72814adaa9a8bbf329f59242", "input": "Passage: Alkenes Organic compounds that contain one or more double or triple bonds between carbon atoms are described as unsaturated. You have likely heard of unsaturated fats. These are complex organic molecules with long chains of carbon atoms, which contain at least one double bond between carbon atoms. Unsaturated hydrocarbon molecules that contain one or more double bonds are called alkenes. Carbon atoms linked by a double bond are bound together by two bonds, one σ bond and one π bond. Double and triple bonds give rise to a different geometry around the carbon atom that participates in them, leading to important differences in molecular shape and properties. The differing geometries are responsible for the different properties of unsaturated versus saturated fats. Ethene, C2H4, is the simplest alkene. Each carbon atom in ethene, commonly called ethylene, has a trigonal planar structure. The second member of the series is propene (propylene) (Figure 20.7); the butene isomers follow in the series. Four carbon atoms in the chain of butene allows for the formation of isomers based on the position of the double bond, as well as a new form of isomerism. Answer: unsaturated", "output": [ "What are alkenes organic compounds that contain one or more double or triple bonds between carbon atoms described as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f35f24e67c1547e8a5e1408d9b60a740", "input": "Passage: The atomic mass is the weighted average of the masses of all isotopes of an element. Answer: atomic mass", "output": [ "What is the weighted average of the masses of all isotopes of an element called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d5defb693c2246e2bce389b762ce7517", "input": "Passage: Measurement is the process of making an observation in terms of a numerical scale and recording the value. Answer: measurement", "output": [ "What is the process of making an observation in terms of a numerical scale and recording the value?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c61f967907404cc98933aaa2f67d4d31", "input": "Passage: 28.2 Simultaneity And Time Dilation • Two events are defined to be simultaneous if an observer measures them as occurring at the same time. They are not necessarily simultaneous to all observers—simultaneity is not absolute. • Time dilation is the phenomenon of time passing slower for an observer who is moving relative to another observer. • Observers moving at a relative velocity v do not measure the same elapsed time for an event. Proper time Δt 0 is the time measured by an observer at rest relative to the event being observed. Proper time is related to the time by an Earth-bound observer by the equation. Answer: same time", "output": [ "Two events are defined to be simultaneous if an observer measures them as occurring at what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0c01cebe53564de792b171d4f793d440", "input": "Passage: polar, while others are strongly polar. Ionic bonds can be considered the ultimate in polarity, with electrons being transferred rather than shared. To judge the relative polarity of a covalent bond, chemists use electronegativity, which is a relative measure of how strongly an atom attracts electrons when it forms a covalent bond. There are various numerical scales for rating electronegativity. Figure 4.4 \"Electronegativities of Various Elements\" shows one of the most popular—the Pauling scale. The polarity of a covalent bond can be judged by determining the difference in the electronegativities of the two atoms making the bond. The greater the difference in electronegativities, the greater the imbalance of electron sharing in the bond. Although there are no hard and fast rules, the general rule is if the difference in electronegativities is less than about 0.4, the bond is considered nonpolar; if the difference is greater than 0.4, the bond is considered polar. If the difference in electronegativities is large enough (generally greater than about 1.8), the resulting compound is considered ionic rather than covalent. An electronegativity difference of zero, of course, indicates a nonpolar covalent bond. Answer: ionic bonds", "output": [ "What kind of bonds, where electrons are transferred rather than shared, are considered the ultimate in polarity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-233961fc383c4a0ba0be54f88759aebd", "input": "Passage: Halogens have filled valence electron configurations. Halogens tend to form salts with metals. As the free elements, halogens are monatomic. Halogens have appreciable nonmetallic character. Halogens tend to have an oxidation state of −1. Halogens are good reductants. Answer: metals", "output": [ "Halogens tend to form salts with what type of element?" ] }, { "id": "task594-64660bb59e5f4bfaa7a442a6d8a3316c", "input": "Passage: Blood flows into the kidney through the renal artery. The renal artery connects to capillaries inside the kidney. Capillaries and nephrons lie very close to each other in the kidney. Answer: renal artery", "output": [ "Blood flows into the kidney through which artery?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4eeb2947476648438fe6b302a4341a57", "input": "Passage: Sensory neurons carry nerve impulses from tissues and organs to the spinal cord and brain. Answer: sensory neurons", "output": [ "What can carry nerve impulses from tissues and organs to the spinal cord and brain?" ] }, { "id": "task594-22b16219b0e44788a276018a3f730f39", "input": "Passage: Ginkgo trees are gymnosperms with broad leaves. Answer: leaves", "output": [ "Ginkgo trees are gymnosperms with broad?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4d712681db4e46bc8411cbc4d5449b95", "input": "Passage: The convection zone surrounds the radiative zone. In the convection zone, hot material from near the Sun’s center rises. This material cools at the surface, and then plunges back downward. The material then receives more heat from the radiative zone. Answer: convection zone", "output": [ "Hot material from near the sun’s center rises in which zone?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f8f5e6dd45e44c51817ed01b54e4bf67", "input": "Passage: Dense Connective Tissue Dense connective tissue contains more collagen fibers than does loose connective tissue. As a consequence, it displays greater resistance to stretching. There are two major categories of dense connective tissue: regular and irregular. Dense regular connective tissue fibers are parallel to each other, enhancing tensile strength and resistance to stretching in the direction of the fiber orientations. Ligaments and tendons are made of dense regular connective tissue, but in ligaments not all fibers are parallel. Dense regular elastic tissue contains elastin fibers in addition to collagen fibers, which allows the ligament to return to its original length after stretching. The ligaments in the vocal folds and between the vertebrae in the vertebral column are elastic. In dense irregular connective tissue, the direction of fibers is random. This arrangement gives the tissue greater strength in all directions and less strength in one particular direction. In some tissues, fibers crisscross and form a mesh. In other tissues, stretching in several directions is achieved by alternating layers where fibers run in the same orientation in each layer, and it is the layers themselves that are stacked at an angle. The dermis of the skin is an example of dense irregular connective tissue rich in collagen fibers. Dense irregular elastic tissues give arterial walls the strength and the ability to regain original shape after stretching (Figure 4.15). Answer: stretching", "output": [ "Dense connective tissue contains more collagen fibers than does loose connective tissue. as a consequence, it displays greater resistance to what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3199afe3bc4648f9a6b6d8693e14a2d6", "input": "Passage: Protozoa are one-celled organisms with a nucleus, making them eukaryotic organisms. They cause diseases such as malaria. Malaria is a serious disease that is common in warm climates. The protozoa infect people when they are bit by a mosquito. More than a million people die of malaria each year. Other protozoa cause diarrhea. An example is Giardia lamblia ( Figure below ). Answer: protozoa", "output": [ "_________ are one-celled organisms with a nucleus which cause diseases such as malaria." ] }, { "id": "task594-154dba63bcfe43579258c6d17742d514", "input": "Passage: In food chemistry, the substances known as antioxidants are reducing agents. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C; C6H8O6) is thought to retard potentially damaging oxidation of living cells. In the process, it is oxidized to dehydroascorbic acid (C6H6O6). In the stomach, ascorbic acid reduces the nitrite ion (NO2−) to nitric oxide (NO): C6H8O6 + 2H+ + 2NO2− → C6H6O6 + 2H2O + 2NO If this reaction did not occur, nitrite ions from foods would oxidize the iron in hemoglobin, destroying its ability to carry oxygen. Tocopherol (vitamin E) is also an antioxidant. In the body, vitamin E is thought to act by scavenging harmful by-products of metabolism, such as the highly reactive molecular fragments called free radicals. In foods, vitamin E acts to prevent fats from being oxidized and thus becoming rancid. Vitamin C is also a good antioxidant. Finally, and of greatest importance, green plants carry out the redox reaction that makes possible almost all life on Earth. They do this through a process calledphotosynthesis, in which carbon dioxide and water are converted to glucose (C6H12O6). The synthesis of glucose requires a variety of proteins called enzymes and a green pigment called chlorophyll that converts sunlight into chemical energy (Figure 5.7 \"Life on Earth\"). The overall change that occurs is as follows:. Answer: glucose", "output": [ "Photosynthesis converts carbon dioxide and water into what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-42c48d95adc74789a4e3428fe646ecfc", "input": "Passage: Sound is a form of energy that travels in waves. Sound waves cannot travel through empty space, but they can travel through gases. Gases in the air allow us to hear most of the sounds in our world. Because of air, you can hear birds singing, horns tooting, and friends laughing. Without the atmosphere, the world would be a silent, eerie place. Answer: gases", "output": [ "What helps sound travel in waves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-88c396ec64c540dab1ba6b065c711d4e", "input": "Passage: In addition to having a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, a nucleus and ribosomes, eukaryotic cells also contain membrane-bound organelles . Each organelle in a eukaryote has a distinct function. Because of their complex level of organization, eukaryotic cells can carry out many more functions than prokaryotic cells. The main differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are shown in Figure below and listed in Table below . Keep in mind that some eukaryotic cells may have characteristics or features that other eukaryotic cells lack, such as the cell wall. Answer: eukaryotic cells", "output": [ "Which type of cell can carry out more functions, eukaryotic cells or prokaryotic cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-94803e722c6c4f3e86493e1e6790b937", "input": "Passage: The rising air cools as it goes higher in the atmosphere. If it is moist, the water vapor may condense. Clouds may form, and precipitation may fall. Answer: decrease", "output": [ "Does air temperature increase or decrease as it rises higher in the atmosphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e8835018d6ab472c9fe695eee857137b", "input": "Passage: In cross-pollination , sperm from the pollen of one flower fertilizes the egg of another flower. Like other types of sexual reproduction, cross-pollination allows new combinations of traits. Cross-pollination occurs when pollen is carried by the wind to another flower. It can also occur when animal pollinators, like honeybees or butterflies ( Figure below ), carry the pollen from flower to flower. Answer: cross-pollination", "output": [ "What is the process where sperm from the pollen of one flower fertilizes the egg of another flower?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f4ab4854303a42248aecb95da649a35a", "input": "Passage: Centrioles are a very important part of centrosomes, which are involved in organizing microtubules in the cytoplasm. Centrosomes are associated with the nuclear membrane during prophase of the mitosis. In mitosis, the nuclear membrane breaks down and the microtubule organizing center (MTOC) of the centrosome arranges microtubules such that they interact with the chromosomes to build the mitotic spindle. Answer: centrosomes", "output": [ "Centrioles are a very important part of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6ed417242ce346d38155585c2e98e769", "input": "Passage: All three types of convergent plate boundaries produce massive earthquakes. Answer: earthquake", "output": [ "All three types of convergent plate boundaries produce what destructive phenomenon?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fac2d10f393048e4bc181b5e8f107ca7", "input": "Passage: Many compounds form molecules, but ionic compounds form crystals instead. A crystal consists of many alternating positive and negative ions bonded together in a matrix. Look at the crystal of sodium chloride (NaCl) in the Figure below . The sodium and chloride ions are attracted to each other because they are oppositely charged, so they form ionic bonds. Answer: ionic compounds", "output": [ "What type of compounds can form crystals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fec74feac2454aad9a4beb2921214f4c", "input": "Passage: Imagine that you are a scientist. While collecting water samples at a local pond, you notice a frog with five legs instead of four ( Figure below ). As you start to look around, you discover that many of the frogs have extra limbs, extra eyes, or no eyes. One frog even has limbs coming out of its mouth. These are your observations , or things you notice about an environment using your five senses. Answer: observations", "output": [ "In terms of scientific investigation, things you notice about an environment using your five senses are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1ae51e5dbe594a5496c25842d03922ab", "input": "Passage: Bioterrorism is the intentional release or spread of agents of disease. The agents may be viruses, bacteria, or toxins produced by bacteria. The agents may spread through the air, food, or water; or they may come into direct contact with the skin. Two of the best known bioterrorism incidents in the U. S. occurred early in this century:. Answer: bioterrorism", "output": [ "The intentional release or spread of agents of disease is known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b0d76dd9108343cc9db0d08ef9f294d4", "input": "Passage: Carboxylic acids can form esters with alcohols. Answer: esters", "output": [ "Carboxylic acids can form what with alcohols?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4f0ace60ca954614aa125c9f97ef3287", "input": "Passage: Some samples of matter appear to have properties of solids, liquids, and/or gases at the same time. This can occur when the sample is composed of many small pieces. For example, we can pour sand as if it were a liquid because it is composed of many small grains of solid sand. Matter can also have properties of more than one state when it is a mixture, such as with clouds. Clouds appear to behave somewhat like gases, but they are actually mixtures of air (gas) and tiny particles of water (liquid or solid). The mass of an object is a measure of the amount of matter in it. One way to measure an object’s mass is to measure the force it takes to accelerate the object. It takes much more force to accelerate a car than a bicycle because the car has much more mass. A more common way to determine the mass of an object is to use a balance to compare its mass with a standard mass. Although weight is related to mass, it is not the same thing. Weight refers to the force that gravity exerts on an object. This force is directly proportional to the mass of the object. The weight of an object changes as the force of gravity changes, but its mass does not. An astronaut’s mass does not change just because she goes to the moon. But her weight on the moon is only one-sixth her earth-bound weight because the moon’s gravity is only one-sixth that of the earth’s. She may feel “weightless” during her trip when she experiences negligible external forces (gravitational or any other), although she is, of course, never “massless. ” The law of conservation of matter summarizes many scientific observations about matter: It states that there is no detectable change in the total quantity of matter present when matter converts from one type to another (a chemical change) or changes among solid, liquid, or gaseous states (a physical change). Brewing beer and the operation of batteries provide examples of the conservation of matter (Figure 1.8). During the brewing of beer, the ingredients (water, yeast, grains, malt, hops, and sugar) are converted into beer (water, alcohol, carbonation, and flavoring substances) with no actual loss of substance. This is most clearly seen during the bottling process, when glucose turns. Answer: small pieces", "output": [ "Some samples of matter appear to have properties of solids, liquids, and/or gases at the same time. this can occur when the sample is composed of many what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-21afac5063cf47c3b6ed2e00558b06c6", "input": "Passage: Energy is the ability to do work. When work is done, energy is transferred from one object to another. Energy can exist in different forms, such as electrical and chemical energy. Most forms of energy can also be classified as kinetic or potential energy. Answer: energy", "output": [ "Kinetic and potential are two forms of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-48711ab2d23648b9a90e02afb9606241", "input": "Passage: Pneumonia is an illness that occurs when the alveoli, the tiny sacs in the lungs where gas exchange takes place, become inflamed and filled with fluid. When a person has pneumonia, gas exchange cannot occur properly across the alveoli. Pneumonia can be caused by many things. Infection by bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites can cause pneumonia. An injury caused by chemicals or a physical injury to the lungs can also cause pneumonia. Symptoms of pneumonia include cough, chest pain, fever, and difficulty breathing. Treatment depends on the cause of pneumonia. Bacterial pneumonia is treated with antibiotics. Answer: alveoli", "output": [ "What are the tiny sacs in the lungs where gas exchange takes place?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9376350bb8fb4628a2393c46d1819667", "input": "Passage: Cartilaginous Fish Cartilaginous fish include sharks, rays, and ratfish. Their endoskeleton is made of cartilage instead of bone. They also lack a swim bladder. However, they have a complete vertebral column and jaws. They also have a relatively big brain. shark. Answer: cartilaginous", "output": [ "Lacking a bony endoskeleton, sharks, rays, and ratfish belong to what group of fish?" ] }, { "id": "task594-39cf52c4fa624883a843f420eaf736b1", "input": "Passage: Light is one type of electromagnetic radiation . Light is energy that travels in the form of an electromagnetic wave. Figure below shows a diagram of an electromagnetic wave. An electromagnetic (EM) wave has two parts: an electric field and a magnetic field. The electric and magnetic fields vibrate up and down, which makes the wave. Answer: electromagnetic", "output": [ "Light is energy that travels in the form of what type of wave?" ] }, { "id": "task594-96b99ec973d84cada6085847ee356ec7", "input": "Passage: The crystal structure of ionic compounds is strong and rigid. It takes a lot of energy to break all those ionic bonds. As a result, ionic compounds are solids with high melting and boiling points. You can see the melting and boiling points of several different ionic compounds in the Table below . To appreciate how high they are, consider that the melting and boiling points of water, which is not an ionic compound, are 0°C and 100°C, respectively. Answer: one hundred degrees", "output": [ "In celsius, what is the boiling point of water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0f9da56817254f1887015b434cb1edd1", "input": "Passage: Fossils are preserved remains or traces of organisms that lived in the past. Most fossils form in sedimentary rock. Fossils can also be preserved in other ways. Fossilization is rare. It’s very unlikely for any given organism to become a fossil. Answer: fossils", "output": [ "What is the term for preserved remains or traces of organisms that lived in the past?" ] }, { "id": "task594-66fd61cfd5a54b58939a25e0bba8e735", "input": "Passage: down to supply the blood and other tissues with these minerals. Phosphate is a normal constituent of nucleic acids; hence, blood levels of phosphate will increase whenever nucleic acids are broken down. Excretion of ions occurs mainly through the kidneys, with lesser amounts lost in sweat and in feces. Excessive sweating may cause a significant loss, especially of sodium and chloride. Severe vomiting or diarrhea will cause a loss of chloride and bicarbonate ions. Adjustments in respiratory and renal functions allow the body to regulate the levels of these ions in the ECF. Table 26.1 lists the reference values for blood plasma, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and urine for the six ions addressed in this section. In a clinical setting, sodium, potassium, and chloride are typically analyzed in a routine urine sample. In contrast, calcium and phosphate analysis requires a collection of urine across a 24-hour period, because the output of these ions can vary considerably over the course of a day. Urine values reflect the rates of excretion of these ions. Bicarbonate is the one ion that is not normally excreted in urine; instead, it is conserved by the kidneys for use in the body’s buffering systems. Answer: kidneys", "output": [ "Excretion of ions occurs mainly through what organ?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9c10bd759b5d47ddb0e5b82dd3effb6e", "input": "Passage: Refer again to water’s phase diagram ( Figure above ). Notice point E, labeled the critical point . What does that mean? At 373.99°C, particles of water in the gas phase are moving very, very rapidly. At any temperature higher than that, the gas phase cannot be made to liquefy, no matter how much pressure is applied to the gas. The critical pressure (P c ) is the pressure that must be applied to the gas at the critical temperature in order to turn it into a liquid. For water, the critical pressure is very high, 217.75 atm. The critical point is the intersection point of the critical temperature and the critical pressure. Answer: critical point", "output": [ "What is the intersection point of the critical temperature and the critical pressure called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-596abf76df58422490e1fd28d7e4c322", "input": "Passage: Lysosomes are vesicles that are formed by the Golgi apparatus. They contain powerful enzymes that could break down (digest) the cell. Lysosomes break down harmful cell products, waste materials, and cellular debris and then force them out of the cell. They also digest invading organisms such as bacteria. Lysosomes also break down cells that are ready to die, a process called autolysis. Answer: lysosomes", "output": [ "What is the name of vesicles that are formed by the golgi apparatus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-52d0341438d24a65b62372fd7833201c", "input": "Passage: Mammals breathe with the help of a diaphragm. This is the large muscle that extends across the bottom of the chest below the lungs. When the diaphragm contracts, it increases the volume of the chest. This decreases pressure on the lungs and allows air to flow in. When the diaphragm relaxes, it decreases the volume of the chest. This increases pressure on the lungs and forces air out. Answer: diaphragm", "output": [ "What muscle in the chest helps inflate and deflate the lungs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2331a9b4e7a44d9292344d5b101b133e", "input": "Passage: The vas deferens is a tube that carries sperm from the epididymis to the urethra. Answer: vas deferens", "output": [ "What is the name of the tube that carries sperm from the epididymis to the urethra?" ] }, { "id": "task594-743a7942607549c8985a32b6fe8cd494", "input": "Passage: CHAPTER SUMMARY 11.1 Discovering How Populations Change Evolution by natural selection arises from three conditions: individuals within a species vary, some of those variations are heritable, and organisms have more offspring than resources can support. The consequence is that individuals with relatively advantageous variations will be more likely to survive and have higher reproductive rates than those individuals with different traits. The advantageous traits will be passed on to offspring in greater proportion. Thus, the trait will have higher representation in the next and subsequent generations leading to genetic change in the population. The modern synthesis of evolutionary theory grew out of the reconciliation of Darwin’s, Wallace’s, and Mendel’s thoughts on evolution and heredity. Population genetics is a theoretical framework for describing evolutionary change in populations through the change in allele frequencies. Population genetics defines evolution as a change in allele frequency over generations. In the absence of evolutionary forces allele frequencies will not change in a population; this is known as Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium principle. However, in all populations, mutation, natural selection, genetic drift, and migration act to change allele frequencies. Answer: population genetics", "output": [ "What is the term for a theoretical framework for describing evolutionary change in populations through the change in allele frequencies?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4fc744632cf343bead59f9b773551418", "input": "Passage: Birds are endothermic tetrapod vertebrates. They are bipedal, which means they walk on two legs. Birds also lay amniotic eggs with hard, calcium carbonate shells. Although birds are the most recent class of vertebrates to evolve, they are now the most numerous vertebrates on Earth. Why have birds been so successful? What traits allowed them to increase and diversify so rapidly? Birds can vary considerably in size, as you can see from the world’s smallest and largest birds, pictured in Figure below . The tiny bee hummingbird is just 5 centimeters (2 inches) long, whereas the ostrich towers over people at a height of 2.7 meters (9 feet). All modern birds have wings, feathers, and beaks. They have a number of other unique traits as well, most of which are adaptations for flight. Flight is used by birds as a means of locomotion in order to find food and mates and to avoid predators. Although not all modern birds can fly, they all evolved from ancestors that could. Answer: on two legs", "output": [ "How do bipedal creatures walk?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7cd877817b674ba89d21ca884c99b254", "input": "Passage: The liquid to gas transition is called boiling. Answer: boiling", "output": [ "What is the transition from liquid to gas is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e90ccc4e81e84b7995c8555c4a28295c", "input": "Passage: Kevin Walsh. Cows are able to digest grass with the help of the bacteria methanogens in their gut . CC BY 2.0. Answer: bacteria", "output": [ "A type of what in a cow's gut enables the animal to digest grass?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8936a8bfe11c4c92af893fe1d92be65f", "input": "Passage: Figure 20.8 shows the schematic for a simple circuit. A simple circuit has a single voltage source and a single resistor. The wires connecting the voltage source to the resistor can be assumed to have negligible resistance, or their resistance can be included in R . Answer: simple circuit", "output": [ "What has a single voltage source and a single resistor" ] }, { "id": "task594-7fc8603344834459b0baf9650709bb8f", "input": "Passage: Arachnids also have two additional pairs of appendages. The first pair, the chelicerae , serve in feeding and defense. The next pair, the pedipalps , help the organisms feed, move, and reproduce. Answer: arachnid", "output": [ "What class of invertebrate animals has additional appendages called the chelicerae and the pedipalps?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4e9e390827704b588945b771ff532d03", "input": "Passage: Fish are covered with scales. Scales are overlapping tissues, like shingles on a roof. They reduce friction with the water. They also provide a flexible covering that lets fish move their body to swim. Answer: scales", "output": [ "What covers the body of a fish to help the move their body to swim?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3145c69622994f0e8d61aecc19758302", "input": "Passage: Segmented worms include the common earthworm and leeches. Answer: segmented", "output": [ "The common earthworm and leeches are examples of what type of worm?" ] }, { "id": "task594-97b24a08279e4296a300c185e066845f", "input": "Passage: Capillaries are the smallest type of blood vessels. They connect the smallest arteries (arterioles) and veins (venules). Exchange of substances between cells and the blood takes place across the walls of capillaries, which may be only one cell thick. Answer: capillaries", "output": [ "What is the term for the smallest blood vessels?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a258ffb5b2ab4596968ae9aa2bf454b6", "input": "Passage: Rechargeable batteries are renewable because they can be refilled with energy. Is the energy they are refilled with always renewable?. Answer: electricity", "output": [ "What do industries use water to generate?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2b10150f33e34f99b830fc80b3e525be", "input": "Passage: Hypersensitivities Maladaptive immune responses toward harmless foreign substances or self antigens that occur after tissue sensitization are termed hypersensitivities. The types of hypersensitivities include immediate, delayed, and autoimmunity. A large proportion of the population is affected by one or more types of hypersensitivity. Allergies The immune reaction that results from immediate hypersensitivities in which an antibody-mediated immune response occurs within minutes of exposure to a harmless antigen is called an allergy. In the United States, 20 percent of the population exhibits symptoms of allergy or asthma, whereas 55 percent test positive against one or more allergens. Upon initial exposure to a potential allergen, an allergic individual synthesizes antibodies of the IgE class via the typical process of APCs presenting processed antigen to TH cells that stimulate B cells to produce IgE. This class of antibodies also mediates the immune response to parasitic worms. The constant domain of the IgE molecules interact with mast cells embedded in connective tissues. This process primes, or sensitizes, the tissue. Upon subsequent exposure to the same allergen, IgE molecules on mast cells bind the antigen via their variable domains and stimulate the mast cell to release the modified amino acids histamine and serotonin; these chemical mediators then recruit eosinophils which mediate allergic responses. Figure 42.26 shows an example of an allergic response to ragweed pollen. The effects of an allergic reaction range from mild. Answer: immune", "output": [ "Hypersensitivity may refer to a maladaptive response of what system toward a harmless foreign substance?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bc3fe083de4a41648223f443e5df0050", "input": "Passage: Vertebrates have a closed circulatory system with a heart. Blood is completely contained within blood vessels that carry the blood throughout the body. The heart is divided into chambers that work together to pump blood. There are between two and four chambers in the vertebrate heart. With more chambers, there is more oxygen in the blood and more vigorous pumping action. Answer: chlorophyll", "output": [ "Leaves respond to these environmental stimuli by producing less what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9c8fe083514244d097e61414e6bff365", "input": "Passage: Fossils are the remains or traces of living organisms. Answer: fossils", "output": [ "What is the term for the remains or traces of living organisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8471076e51ab44b28b1d121aae4bfbf6", "input": "Passage: As the atoms approach one another, their electron clouds gradually begin to overlap. Now there are several interactions which begin to occur. One is that the single electrons that each hydrogen atom possesses begin to repel each other. This repulsive force would tend to make the potential energy of the system increase. However, the electron of each atom begins to be attracted to the nucleus of the other atom. This attractive force tends to make the potential energy of the system decrease. Answer: overlap", "output": [ "As the atoms approach one another, their electron clouds gradually begin to do what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d374376477c640e78c8c5a3c2ca3ab08", "input": "Passage: Weather refers to conditions of the atmosphere at a given time and place. It occurs because of unequal heating of the atmosphere. Humidity, clouds, and precipitation are important weather factors. Answer: uneven heating of the atmosphere", "output": [ "How are weather patterns formed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3f8d8b805ce04dff8211e880be082e98", "input": "Passage: Mollusks are probably most closely related to organisms in the phylum Annelida , also known as segmented worms. This phylum includes the earthworm and leech. Scientists believe these two groups are related because, when they are in the early stage of development, they look very similar. Mollusks also share features of their organ systems with segmented worms. Unlike segmented worms, however, mollusks do not have body segmentation. The basic mollusk body shape is usually quite different as well. Answer: segmented worms", "output": [ "Mollusks are probably most closely related to organisms in the phylum annelida , also known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d2d6147621db4c47945a94cfe907523d", "input": "Passage: View the University of Michigan WebScope at http://virtualslides. umich. edu/Histology/EMsmallCharts/ 3%20Image%20Scope%20finals/054%20-%20Peripheral%20nerve_001. svs/view. apml?listview=1& (http://openstaxcollege. org/l/nervefiber) to see an electron micrograph of a cross-section of a myelinated nerve fiber. The axon contains microtubules and neurofilaments that are bounded by a plasma membrane known as the axolemma. Outside the plasma membrane of the axon is the myelin sheath, which is composed of the tightly wrapped plasma membrane of a Schwann cell. What aspects of the cells in this image react with the stain to make them a deep, dark, black color, such as the multiple layers that are the myelin sheath?. Answer: axolemma", "output": [ "The axon contains microtubules and neurofilaments that are bounded by a plasma membrane known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e635fabcf82c4fddb36d56720f81b0ca", "input": "Passage: Reading the Genetic Code. The genetic code is read three bases at a time. Codons are the code words of the genetic code. Which amino acid does codon 2 in the drawing stand for?. Answer: codons", "output": [ "What are the \"code words\" of the genetic code?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5e84f1f42e1e44a58dcea772945f76cb", "input": "Passage: The energy effects of a wave depend on time as well as amplitude. For example, the longer deep-heat ultrasound is applied, the more energy it transfers. Waves can also be concentrated or spread out. Sunlight, for example, can be focused to burn wood. Earthquakes spread out, so they do less damage the farther they get from the source. In both cases, changing the area the waves cover has important effects. All these pertinent factors are included in the definition of intensity I as power per unit area:. Answer: amplitude", "output": [ "The energy of a wave depends on time as well as what other property of the wave?" ] }, { "id": "task594-31e6458889454d93942944538721b673", "input": "Passage: The other ammonium ions are changed into nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria. Answer: denitrifying bacteria", "output": [ "The other ammonium ions are changed into nitrogen gas by what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-542dcef9c0fc420c9777f1936e69a64f", "input": "Passage: Nucleotides are composed of a phosphate group, a sugar, and one of five different nitrogenous bases. Answer: nucleotides", "output": [ "What are composed of a phosphate group, a sugar, and one of five different nitrogenous bases." ] }, { "id": "task594-da97cc808692448d93551266fe125f0a", "input": "Passage: All crocodilians have, like humans, teeth set in bony sockets. But unlike mammals, they replace their teeth throughout life. Crocodiles and gharials (large crocodilians with longer jaws) have salivary glands on their tongue, which are used to remove salt from their bodies. This helps with life in a saltwater environment. Crocodilians are often seen lying with their mouths open, a behavior called gaping . One of its functions is probably to cool them down. Answer: cooling down", "output": [ "Lying with their mouths open, a behavior called gaping, probably serves what function for crocodiles?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a5d6236f1d6848e781df60727bba5324", "input": "Passage: All of the outer planets have numerous moons. They also have planetary rings made of dust and other small particles. Only the rings of Saturn can be easily seen from Earth. Answer: saturn", "output": [ "The rings of what planet can be easily seen from earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-246b4d8cf8804c7586cfdd82af07b156", "input": "Passage: Visible light is only a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum. There are parts of the electromagnetic spectrum that humans cannot see. This radiation exists all around you. You just can’t see it! Every star, including our Sun, emits radiation of many wavelengths. Astronomers can learn a lot from studying the details of the spectrum of radiation from a star. Answer: radiation", "output": [ "What does every star emit that humans cannot see?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3462bbb6ff484198a5c34308245130dc", "input": "Passage: CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 19. How are neurons similar to other cells? How are they unique? 20. Multiple sclerosis causes demyelination of axons in the brain and spinal cord. Why is this problematic?. Answer: infinite", "output": [ "The existence of (virtual) photons is possible only by virtue of the heisenberg uncertainty principle and can travel an unlimited distance, so the range ofthe electromagnetic for is what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-70908f9b5d49491ea550260199140459", "input": "Passage: The table salt pictured in the Figure below contains two elements that are so reactive they are rarely found alone in nature. Instead, they undergo chemical reactions with other elements and form compounds. Table salt is the compound named sodium chloride (NaCl). It forms when an atom of sodium (Na) gives up an electron and an atom of chlorine (Cl) accepts it. When this happens, sodium becomes a positively charged ion (Na + ), and chlorine becomes a negatively charged ion (Cl - ). The two ions are attracted to each and join a matrix of interlocking sodium and chloride ions, forming a crystal of salt. Answer: sodium chloride", "output": [ "Another name for table salt is?" ] }, { "id": "task594-82954e4752e64722a7e46961e0b70489", "input": "Passage: Defecating, urination, and even childbirth involve cooperation between the diaphragm and abdominal muscles (this cooperation is referred to as the “Valsalva maneuver”). You hold your breath by a steady contraction of the diaphragm; this stabilizes the volume and pressure of the peritoneal cavity. When the abdominal muscles contract, the pressure cannot push the diaphragm up, so it increases pressure on the intestinal tract (defecation), urinary tract (urination), or reproductive tract (childbirth). The inferior surface of the pericardial sac and the inferior surfaces of the pleural membranes (parietal pleura) fuse onto the central tendon of the diaphragm. To the sides of the tendon are the skeletal muscle portions of the diaphragm, which insert into the tendon while having a number of origins including the xiphoid process of the sternum anteriorly, the inferior six ribs and their cartilages laterally, and the lumbar vertebrae and 12th ribs posteriorly. The diaphragm also includes three openings for the passage of structures between the thorax and the abdomen. The inferior vena cava passes through the caval opening, and the esophagus and attached nerves pass through the esophageal hiatus. The aorta, thoracic duct, and azygous vein pass through the aortic hiatus of the posterior diaphragm. Answer: abdominal muscles", "output": [ "Defecating, urination, and even childbirth involve cooperation between the diaphragm and these?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4ab3698642e74e96bf4567d5a41e7413", "input": "Passage: Neurons that innervate the muscles of the respiratory system are responsible for controlling and regulating pulmonary ventilation. The major brain centers involved in pulmonary ventilation are the medulla oblongata and the pontine respiratory group (Figure 22.20). Answer: neurons", "output": [ "What basic structures of the nervous system innervate the muscles of the respiratory system and are responsible for controlling and regulating pulmonary ventilation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-97eb0926605e4f2fb3b174e3f50fe96f", "input": "Passage: Binary fission occurs when a parent cell splits into two identical daughter cells of the same size. Answer: binary fission", "output": [ "What occurs when a parent cell splits into two identical daughter cells of the same size?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4bd30a3b1668417eb0bfb00af6a74165", "input": "Passage: Centripetal Force is an umbrella term that refers to any force that makes something move in a circle. Examples of forces that can be centripetal forces are as follows: Gravity (the gravity between the Earth and Sun causes the Earth to go in a circle), Friction (the friction force between a car’s tires and the road causes the car to turn), Tension (when swinging a bucket around in a circle by holding onto the string, the tension of the string is the centripetal force). Answer: centripetal force", "output": [ "What do you call any force that makes something move in a circle?" ] }, { "id": "task594-92f85cb29dad4d9db69f11d913e29284", "input": "Passage: New species develop naturally through the process of natural selection . Due to natural selection, organisms with traits that better enable them to adapt to their environment will tend to survive and reproduce in greater numbers. Natural selection causes beneficial heritable traits to become more common in a population and unfavorable heritable traits to become less common. For example, a giraffe’s neck is beneficial because it allows the giraffe to reach leaves high in trees. Natural selection caused this beneficial trait to become more common than short necks. Answer: natural selection", "output": [ "What is it called when organisms with traits that better enable them to adapt to their environment tend to survive and reproduce in greater numbers?" ] }, { "id": "task594-19a3089dc4594b07a60766abc7520783", "input": "Passage: In almost all cases, chemical bonds are formed by interactions of valence electrons in atoms. To facilitate our understanding of how valence electrons interact, a simple way of representing those valence electrons would be useful. A Lewis electron dot diagram (or electron dot diagram or a Lewis diagram or a Lewis structure) is a representation of the valence electrons of an atom that uses dots around the symbol of the element. The number of dots equals the number of valence electrons in the atom. These dots are arranged to the right and left and above and below the symbol, with no more than two dots on a side. (It does not matter what order the positions are used. ) For example, the Lewis electron dot diagram for hydrogen is simply. Answer: lewis structure", "output": [ "What is a representation of the valence electrons of an atom that uses dots around the symbol of the element?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8e4cabaf4a8a41e0bdcc90ebf9ac46fe", "input": "Passage: - For lenses, the distance from the center of the lens to the focus is . Focal lengths are positive for converging lens and negative for diverging lens. The distance from the center of the lens to the object in question is , where distances to the left of the lens are positive in sign. The distance from the center of the lens to the image is . This number is positive for real images (formed to the right of the lens), and negative for virtual images (formed to the left of the lens). Answer: focal lengths", "output": [ "What lengths are positive for converging lens and negative for diverging lens?" ] }, { "id": "task594-56c39a8d016c4e84be52064997290e00", "input": "Passage: The concentration of an acid or base can be determined by titration. Answer: concentration", "output": [ "Titration is a method to determine what in acids or bases?" ] }, { "id": "task594-293efc1d361b40fc9037d195691b41b9", "input": "Passage: Movements of the body occur at joints. Describe how muscles are arranged around the joints of the body. Answer: body movements", "output": [ "What occurs at joints?" ] }, { "id": "task594-435d0232e889406ab4b4d35015576623", "input": "Passage: This plot of temperature shows what happens to a 75 g sample of ice initially at 1 atm and −23°C as heat is added at a constant rate: A–B: heating solid ice; B–C: melting ice; C–D: heating liquid water; D– E: vaporizing water; E–F: heating steam. Thus the temperature of a system does not change during a phase change. In this example, as long as even a tiny amount of ice is present, the temperature of the system remains at 0°C during the melting process, and as long as even a small amount of liquid water is present, the temperature of the system remains at 100°C during the boiling process. The rate at which heat is added does not affect the temperature of the ice/water or water/steam mixture because the added heat is being used exclusively to overcome the attractive forces that hold the more condensed phase together. Many cooks think that food will cook faster if the heat is turned up higher so that the water boils more rapidly. Instead, the pot of water will boil to dryness sooner, but the temperature of the water does not depend on how vigorously it boils. Answer: remains constant", "output": [ "What happens to the temperature of a system during phase change?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6b958c76ffb046a98cc2fa01fdd28298", "input": "Passage: redox reaction will occur. The only question is whether lead will be oxidized to Pb(II) or Pb(IV). Because BrF3 is a powerful oxidant and fluorine is able to stabilize high oxidation states of other elements, it is likely that PbF4 will be the product. The two possible reduction products for BrF3 are BrF and Br2. The actual product will likely depend on the ratio of the reactants used. With excess BrF3, we expect the more oxidized product (BrF). With lower ratios of oxidant to lead, we would probably obtain Br2 as the product. Exercise Predict the products of each reaction and write a balanced chemical equation for each reaction. Answer: brf and br2", "output": [ "What are the two possible reduction products for brf3?" ] }, { "id": "task594-948d643d33b24bab9bbb55bc997d7294", "input": "Passage: Living things are made of matter. In fact, matter is the “stuff” of which all things are made. Anything that occupies space and has mass is known as matter. Matter, in turn, consists of chemical substances. A chemical substance is a material that has a definite chemical composition. It is also homogeneous, so the same chemical composition is found uniformly throughout the substance. A chemical substance may be an element or a chemical compound. Answer: matter", "output": [ "What is the 'stuff' that all things are made of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-897c03660d2941158359f0fc1c46666e", "input": "Passage: mid-ocean ridges : A long chain of mountains that rises up high above the deep seafloor. An example is the light blue gash in middle of Atlantic Ocean. Light blue is higher elevation than dark blue. Answer: mid-ocean ridges", "output": [ "A long chain of mountains that rises up high above the deep seafloor is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3c63e2beabb74a93a28a05bb41f32862", "input": "Passage: Fruits may be classified as simple, aggregate, multiple, or accessory, depending on their origin (Figure 32.22). If the fruit develops from a single carpel or fused carpels of a single ovary, it is known as a simple fruit, as seen in nuts and beans. An aggregate fruit is one that develops from more than one carpel, but all are in the same flower: the mature carpels fuse together to form the entire fruit, as seen in the raspberry. Multiple fruit develops from an inflorescence or a cluster of flowers. An example is the pineapple, where the flowers fuse together to form the fruit. Accessory fruits (sometimes called false fruits) are not derived from the ovary, but from another part of the flower, such as the receptacle (strawberry) or the hypanthium (apples and pears). Answer: fruits", "output": [ "What plant products may be classified as simple, aggregate, multiple, or accessory, depending on their origin?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5fd628c8cc964b3eaf5a9a44ad26acb9", "input": "Passage: Human organs are organized into organ systems. An organ system is a group of organs that work together to carry out a complex function. Each organ of the system does part of the overall job. For example, the heart is an organ in the circulatory system. The circulatory system also includes the blood vessels and blood. There are many different human organ systems. Figure below shows six of them and gives their functions. Answer: circulatory system", "output": [ "The heart is an organ in which system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a5fad93dc2d64a4499368cfe8a705337", "input": "Passage: The most important source of electromagnetic waves on Earth is the sun. Electromagnetic waves travel from the sun to Earth across space and provide virtually all the energy that supports life on our planet. Many other sources of electromagnetic waves depend on technology. Radio waves, microwaves, and X rays are examples. We use these electromagnetic waves for communications, cooking, medicine, and many other purposes. Answer: the sun", "output": [ "What is the most important source of electromagnetic waves on earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3838b707d53b4d7c859bf69c426d9168", "input": "Passage: The way a mineral cleaves or fractures depends on the crystal structure of the mineral. Answer: the crystal structure", "output": [ "The way a mineral cleaves or fractures depends on what part of the mineral?" ] }, { "id": "task594-56a88f4e624a410489be548626989e47", "input": "Passage: Introduction Virtually every task performed by living organisms requires energy. Energy is needed to perform heavy labor and exercise, but humans also use a great deal of energy while thinking, and even during sleep. In fact, the living cells of every organism constantly use energy. Nutrients and other molecules are imported, metabolized (broken down) and possibly synthesized into new molecules, modified if needed, transported around the cell, and may be distributed to the entire organism. For example, the large proteins that make up muscles are actively built from smaller molecules. Complex carbohydrates are broken down into simple sugars that the cell uses for energy. Just as energy is required to both build and demolish a building, energy is required for both the synthesis and breakdown of molecules. Additionally, signaling molecules such as hormones and neurotransmitters are transported between cells. Pathogenic bacteria and viruses are ingested and broken down by cells. Cells must also export waste and toxins to stay healthy, and many cells must swim or move surrounding materials via the beating motion of cellular appendages like cilia and flagella. The cellular processes listed above require a steady supply of energy. From where, and in what form, does this energy come? How do living cells obtain energy, and how do they use it? This chapter will discuss different forms of energy and the physical laws that govern energy transfer. This chapter will also describe how cells use energy and replenish it, and how chemical reactions in the cell are performed with great efficiency. Answer: energy", "output": [ "What is required for both the synthesis and breakdown of molecules?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ee931a85bb444d5e8e527553b82c946a", "input": "Passage: When a series of straight waves strike an impenetrable barrier, the waves stop at the barrier. However, the last particle of the medium at the back corner of the barrier will create circular waves from that point, called the point source. This can be seen in the image below. This phenomenon is called diffraction , and it occurs in liquid, sound, and light waves. While the waves become circular waves at the point source, they continue as straight waves where the barrier does not interfere with the waves. Answer: diffraction", "output": [ "What is the phenomenon in which light and sound waves become circular at the point source of a barrier?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1bcf3fd6f2fd49b5b02aa25e4582cc90", "input": "Passage: Natural gas is delivered to homes, where it is used for cooking and heating. Natural gas is also a major energy source for powering turbines to make electricity. Natural gas releases most of its energy as heat when it burns. The power plant is able to use this heat, either in the form of hot gases or steam, to spin turbines. The spinning turbines turn generators, and the generators create electricity. Answer: natural gas", "output": [ "What type of gas is delivered to homes to use for cooking and heating?" ] }, { "id": "task594-567b8b80195c42baaa6de9c9c7ca1144", "input": "Passage: Oceanography is the study of the oceans. The word oceanology might be more accurate, since “ology” is “the study of. ” “Graph” is “to write” and refers to map making. But mapping the oceans is how oceanography started. Answer: study of", "output": [ "What does the ending 'ology' refer to?" ] }, { "id": "task594-32e1d2cb03eb48d19d5f343c3c704337", "input": "Passage: Nearsightedness, or myopia, is the condition in which nearby objects are seen clearly, but distant objects appear blurry. The Figure below shows how it occurs. The eyeball is longer (from front to back) than normal. This causes images to be focused in front of the retina instead of on the retina. Myopia can be corrected with concave lenses. The lenses focus images farther back in the eye, so they fall on the retina instead of in front of it. Answer: myopia", "output": [ "What is another term for nearsightedness?" ] }, { "id": "task594-20d076981e5248ada8e422d863596ef1", "input": "Passage: Though not particularly beautiful machines, calorimeters are incredibly useful ones. They are used to determine the calories (food energy) in food, as well as the average heat yield from burning various grades of coal and oil. The price of coal is often dependent on the heat yield from samples burned in a calorimeter. Answer: calorimeter", "output": [ "What machine is used to determine the calories in food, as well as the average heat yield from burning various grades of coal and oil?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e03046af97af4a17b4d4283071ba3360", "input": "Passage: As the fast-moving cold air mass keeps advancing, so does the cold front. Cold fronts often bring sudden changes in the weather. There may be a thin line of storms right at the front that moves as it moves. In the spring and summer, these storms may be thunderstorms and tornadoes. In the late fall and winter, snow storms may occur. After a cold front passes, the cold air mass behind it brings cooler temperatures. The air is likely to be less humid as well. Can you explain why?. Answer: snow storm", "output": [ "Cold fronts in winter may bring what type of storm?" ] }, { "id": "task594-24236ccd80924af59a6876eae6ffb059", "input": "Passage: In the nematic phase, only the long axes of the molecules are parallel, and the ends are staggered at random intervals. In the smectic phase, the long axes of the molecules are parallel, and the molecules are also arranged in planes. Finally, in thecholesteric phase, the molecules are arranged in layers; each layer is rotated with respect to the ones above and below it to give a spiral structure. The molecular order increases from the nematic phase to the smectic phase to the cholesteric phase, and the phases become increasingly opaque. Molecules that form liquid crystals tend to be rigid molecules with polar groups that exhibit relatively strong dipole–dipole or dipole–induced dipole interactions, hydrogen bonds, or some combination of both. Some examples of substances that form liquid crystals are listed in Figure 11.27 \"Structures of Typical Molecules That Form Liquid Crystals*\" along with their characteristic phase transition temperature ranges. In most cases, the intermolecular interactions are due to the presence of polar or polarizable groups. Aromatic rings and multiple bonds between carbon and nitrogen or oxygen are especially common. Moreover, many liquid crystals are composed of molecules with two similar halves connected by a unit having a multiple bond. Figure 11.27 Structures of Typical Molecules That Form Liquid Crystals*. Answer: spiral structure", "output": [ "In the nematic phase, only the long axes of the molecules are parallel, and the ends are staggered at random intervals. in the smectic phase, the long axes of the molecules are parallel, and the molecules are also arranged in planes. finally, in thecholesteric phase, the molecules are arranged in layers; each layer is rotated with respect to the ones above and below it to give it this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-722fed29908c41d78205b00dfb8514fd", "input": "Passage: Cellular slime molds are used as model organisms in molecular biology and genetics. They may be the key to how multicellular organisms evolved. Can you explain why?. Answer: cellular slime molds", "output": [ "What are used as model organisms in molecular biology and genetics?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7f161bc0e6ed4c7e9b343eec87eacc08", "input": "Passage: 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells Like a prokaryotic cell, a eukaryotic cell has a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes, but a eukaryotic cell is typically larger than a prokaryotic cell, has a true nucleus (meaning its DNA is surrounded by a membrane), and has other membrane-bound organelles that allow for compartmentalization of functions. The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins. The nucleus’s nucleolus is the site of ribosome assembly. Ribosomes are either found in the cytoplasm or attached to the cytoplasmic side of the plasma membrane or endoplasmic reticulum. They perform protein synthesis. Mitochondria participate in cellular respiration; they are responsible for the majority of ATP produced in the cell. Peroxisomes hydrolyze fatty acids, amino acids, and some toxins. Vesicles and vacuoles are storage and transport compartments. In plant cells, vacuoles also help break down macromolecules. Animal cells also have a centrosome and lysosomes. The centrosome has two bodies perpendicular to each other, the centrioles, and has an unknown purpose in cell division. Lysosomes are the digestive organelles of animal cells. Plant cells and plant-like cells each have a cell wall, chloroplasts, and a central vacuole. The plant cell wall, whose primary component is cellulose, protects the cell, provides structural support, and gives shape to the cell. Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts. The central vacuole can expand without having to produce more cytoplasm. Answer: compartmentalization of functions", "output": [ "Cells like a prokaryotic cell, a eukaryotic cell has a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes, but a eukaryotic cell is typically larger than a prokaryotic cell, has a true nucleus (meaning its dna is surrounded by a membrane), and has other membrane-bound organelles that allow for what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dee85ba232d14595b9c316cf00eab8a7", "input": "Passage: The liver secretes bile acids. Bile acids help digest fat. Some liver bile is secreted directly into the small intestine. Answer: fat", "output": [ "What does bile help to digest ?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d96d2f1b06f74e58a79a22500599b98a", "input": "Passage: Innate behaviors occur in all animals. However, the more intelligent a species is, the fewer innate behaviors it generally has. The human species is the most intelligent animal species, and it has very few innate behaviors. The only innate behaviors in humans are reflex behaviors. A reflex behavior is a simple response that always occurs when a certain stimulus is present. Answer: reflex behaviors", "output": [ "What are the only innate behaviors in humans?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d4cd226f06f4420aab79436e4034999c", "input": "Passage: All mammals have lungs that are the main organs for breathing. Lung capacity has evolved to support the animal’s activities. During inhalation, the lungs expand with air, and oxygen diffuses across the lung’s surface and enters the bloodstream. During exhalation, the lungs expel air and lung volume decreases. In the next few sections, the process of human breathing will be explained. Answer: lungs", "output": [ "What are the main organs for breathing in a mammal?" ] }, { "id": "task594-99f9c5124dcc4adcad069b046e9d42af", "input": "Passage: The red liquid in this thermometer is alcohol. Alcohol expands uniformly over a wide range of temperatures. This makes it ideal for use in thermometers. Answer: uniformly", "output": [ "How does alcohol expand over a wide range of temperatures?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ac399adccff44b6a839ee6702fc64bf5", "input": "Passage: A bowling ball rolls down a lane at a constant velocity. (e) A car accelerates down the road. There is friction between the tires and the road. Answer: friction", "output": [ "What does the tires meeting the road cause when a car accelerates?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1b983ec6d22547618ccae599243e5fb0", "input": "Passage: The exact cause of supervolcano eruptions is still debated. However, scientists think that a very large magma chamber erupts entirely in one catastrophic explosion. This creates a caldera into which the surface collapses ( Figure below ). The composition of the eruption is felsic or highly felsic. Answer: supervolcano eruption", "output": [ "What kind of eruption do scientists think is caused by a very large magma chamber erupting entirely in one catastrophic explosion?" ] }, { "id": "task594-11edae0e14114a898aafef0fb84ae336", "input": "Passage: Figure 32.21 Supernovas are the source of elements heavier than iron. Energy released powers nucleosynthesis. Spectroscopic analysis of the ring of material ejected by Supernova 1987A observable in the southern hemisphere, shows evidence of heavy elements. The study of this supernova also provided indications that neutrinos might have mass. (credit: NASA, ESA, and P. Challis). Answer: supernovas", "output": [ "What celestial events are the source of elements heavier than iron?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1730a2b0aa6946b99cc6e3b4cbd38d71", "input": "Passage: Climate is the temperature plus precipitation of an area. Not just today, but over a long period of time. Climate affects chemical weathering. Chemical weathering increases as:. Answer: climate", "output": [ "What is defined as the temperature plus precipitation of an area over a long period of time?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8c23c47902784200b2e9c3f9acdee713", "input": "Passage: There are two main types of diabetes: type 1 diabetes and type 2 diabetes. The two types of diabetes have different causes. Answer: type 1, type 2", "output": [ "What are the two main types of diabetes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3b9155c6f8df4b2e90172986e5ff3eba", "input": "Passage: Metabolism and Obesity Obesity in the United States is epidemic. The rate of obesity has been steadily rising since the 1980s. In the 1990s, most states reported that less than 10 percent of their populations was obese, and the state with the highest rate reported that only 15 percent of their population was considered obese. By 2010, the U. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported that nearly 36 percent of adults over 20 years old were obese and an additional 33 percent were overweight, leaving only about 30 percent of the population at a healthy weight. These studies find the highest levels of obesity are concentrated in the southern states. They also find the level of childhood obesity is rising. Obesity is defined by the body mass index (BMI), which is a measure of an individual’s weight-to-height ratio. The normal, or healthy, BMI range is between 18 and 24.9 kg/m2. Overweight is defined as a BMI of 25 to 29.9 kg/m2, and obesity is considered to be a BMI greater than 30 kg/m2. Obesity can arise from a number of factors, including overeating, poor diet, sedentary lifestyle, limited sleep, genetic factors, and even diseases or drugs. Severe obesity (morbid obesity) or long-term obesity can result in serious medical conditions, including coronary heart disease; type 2 diabetes; endometrial, breast, or colon cancer; hypertension (high blood pressure); dyslipidemia (high cholesterol or elevated triglycerides); stroke; liver disease; gall bladder disease; sleep apnea or respiratory diseases; osteoarthritis; and infertility. Research has shown that losing weight can help reduce or reverse the complications associated with these conditions. Answer: body mass index (bmi)", "output": [ "What is the measure of an individual’s weight-to-height ratio called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f55dbeddd6994e5283eae6b6d460006d", "input": "Passage: The halogen group is quite diverse. It includes elements that occur in three different states of matter at room temperature. Fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid, and iodine and astatine are solids. Halogens also vary in color, as you can see in the Figure below . Fluorine and chlorine are green, bromine is red, and iodine and astatine are nearly black. Like other nonmetals, halogens cannot conduct electricity or heat. Compared with most other elements, halogens have relatively low melting and boiling points. You can watch a lab demonstration of the melting and boiling points of halogens at this URL: http://www. youtube. com/watch?v=yP0U5rGWqdg . Answer: three different states of matter", "output": [ "What makes the halogen group so diverse?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7945467e983048ff8ae29bcaea29738a", "input": "Passage: Helium may seem to be an exception, since it has only two valence electrons. This has to do with the fact that the n = 1 energy level has one s orbital and no p orbitals. As a result, the first energy level can be completely filled by just two electrons. It is the presence of a filled valence shell that gives noble gases their unusual stability, not anything intrinsic about the number 8. In addition to helium, the first few elements such as lithium, beryllium, and boron, have a particularly stable configuration with a pair of valence electrons rather that an octet. Answer: two", "output": [ "How many valence electrons does helium have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-11e4cd1e55804bdcbe8e30dca0b1464f", "input": "Passage: 19.4 Community Ecology Communities include all the different species living in a given area. The variety of these species is referred to as biodiversity. Many organisms have developed defenses against predation and herbivory, including mechanical defenses, warning coloration, and mimicry. Two species cannot exist indefinitely in the same habitat competing directly for the same resources. Species may form symbiotic relationships such as commensalism, mutualism, or parasitism. Community. Answer: symbiotic", "output": [ "Commensalism, mutualism, and parasitism are known as what type of relationships?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8501da260d8a44a58bf9ed3530ed9b0d", "input": "Passage: A coefficient is a small whole number placed in front of a formula in an equation in order to balance it. The 2 in front of the H 2 means that there are a total of atoms of hydrogen as reactants. Visually, the reaction looks like the Figure below . Answer: coefficient", "output": [ "What do you call a small whole number placed in front of a formula in an equation in order to balance it?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2c288e0356574a2cbe5a2c6647f74e4b", "input": "Passage: Mammalian Systems In mammals, pulmonary ventilation occurs via inhalation (breathing). During inhalation, air enters the body through the nasal cavity located just inside the nose (Figure 39.7). As air passes through the nasal cavity, the air is warmed to body temperature and humidified. The respiratory tract is coated with mucus to seal the tissues from direct contact with air. Mucus is high in water. As air crosses these surfaces of the mucous membranes, it picks up water. These processes help equilibrate the air to the body conditions, reducing any damage that cold, dry air can cause. Particulate matter that is floating in the air is removed in the nasal passages via mucus and cilia. The processes of warming, humidifying, and removing particles are important protective mechanisms that prevent damage to the trachea and lungs. Thus, inhalation serves several purposes in addition to bringing oxygen into the respiratory system. Answer: inhalation", "output": [ "Pulmonary ventilation in mammals occurs via what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c3fc4e56fe0747d58d42a53500f5db39", "input": "Passage: The thermophiles live in extremely hot environments. For example, they can grow in hot springs, geysers, and near volcanoes. Unlike other organisms, they can thrive in temperatures near 100°C, the boiling point of water!. Answer: thermophiles", "output": [ "What is the term for organisms that live in extremely hot environments?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d395f703346440438ba8c560cdbd0207", "input": "Passage: Lab experiments are the main method of gathering evidence in some branches of science. Why might lab experiments not be the best way to study living things, such as wild animals?. Answer: lab experiments", "output": [ "How is most evidence gathered in science?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a22d4a04896041c2b0e6916887af5421", "input": "Passage: Physical chemistry is the study of macroscopic properties, atomic properties, and phenomena in chemical systems. A physical chemist may study such things as the rates of chemical reactions, the energy transfers that occur in reactions, or the physical structure of materials at the molecular level. Answer: physical chemistry", "output": [ "What is the study of macroscopic properties, atomic properties, and phenomena in chemical systems?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9ab9a4b34bf74e97b82ae2043c43e470", "input": "Passage: Ladybugs, also known as ladybird beetles, have a life cycle of four to six weeks. In one year, as many as six generations of ladybird beetles may hatch. In the spring, each adult female lays up to 300 eggs in small clusters on plants where aphids are present. After a week, the wingless larvae hatch. Both the ladybird beetle larvae and adults are active predators, eating only aphids, scales, mites and other plant-eating insects. The ladybugs live on the vegetation where their prey is found, which includes roses, oleander, milkweed and broccoli. Adult ladybugs don’t taste very good. A bird careless enough to try to eat one will not swallow it. Answer: four to six", "output": [ "How many weeks are in the life cycle of ladybugs" ] }, { "id": "task594-64823f33f7f94c4cbfee9fef452bce8a", "input": "Passage: Graphs are very useful tools in science because they display data visually. Three commonly used types of graphs are bar graphs, circle graphs, and line graphs. Each type of graph is suitable for a different type of data. Answer: graphs", "output": [ "Bar, circle, and line are examples of what kind of data visualization?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3069c8bb70584e5daac270953aee3ad3", "input": "Passage: Although most of a cell's DNA is contained in the cell nucleus, mitochondria have their own DNA. Mitochondria also have the machinery to manufacture their own RNAs and proteins. The human mitochondrial DNA sequence has 16,569 base pairs encoding 37 total genes: 22 tRNA genes, 2 rRNA genes, and 13 peptide genes. The 13 mitochondrial peptides in humans are integrated into the inner mitochondrial membrane, along with proteins encoded by nuclear genes. Answer: nucleus", "output": [ "Where is most of the cell's dna contained?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0cbb4683b0114ca48ccabdcdee9674da", "input": "Passage: Boron forms multicenter bonds rather than metallic lattices with delocalized valence electrons. Why does it prefer this type of bonding? Does this explain why boron behaves like a semiconductor rather than a metal? Explain your answer. Answer: multicenter", "output": [ "What kind of bonds does boron form rather than metallic lattices?" ] }, { "id": "task594-592942be55c94bdbba888fb00a84d301", "input": "Passage: Ribozymes are RNA molecules that catalyze chemical reactions, such as translation. Ribosomes, which are just made out of rRNA (ribosomal RNA) and protein, have been classified as ribozymes , because the rRNA has enzymatic activity. The rRNA is important for the peptidyl transferase activity that bonds amino acids. Briefly, the ribosomes interact with other RNA molecules to make chains of amino acids called polypeptide chains, due to the peptide bond that forms between individual amino acids. Inside the ribosome, three sites participate in the translation process, the A, P and E sites. Translation will be discussed in detail the Protein Synthesis: Translation (Advanced) concept. Answer: chemical reactions", "output": [ "Ribozymes are rna molecules that catalyze what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0840fc1de629433b9a1b3f48e7a9fffe", "input": "Passage: Diencephalon The diencephalon is beneath the cerebrum and includes the thalamus and hypothalamus. In the somatic nervous system, the thalamus is an important relay for communication between the cerebrum and the rest of the nervous system. The hypothalamus has both somatic and autonomic functions. In addition, the hypothalamus communicates with the limbic system, which controls emotions and memory functions. Sensory input to the thalamus comes from most of the special senses and ascending somatosensory tracts. Each sensory system is relayed through a particular nucleus in the thalamus. The thalamus is a required transfer point for most sensory tracts that reach the cerebral cortex, where conscious sensory perception begins. The one exception to this rule is the olfactory system. The olfactory tract axons from the olfactory bulb project directly to the cerebral cortex, along with the limbic system and hypothalamus. The thalamus is a collection of several nuclei that can be categorized into three anatomical groups. White matter running through the thalamus defines the three major regions of the thalamus, which are an anterior nucleus, a medial nucleus, and a lateral group of nuclei. The anterior nucleus serves as a relay between the hypothalamus and the emotion and memoryproducing limbic system. The medial nuclei serve as a relay for information from the limbic system and basal ganglia to the cerebral cortex. This allows memory creation during learning, but also determines alertness. The special and somatic senses connect to the lateral nuclei, where their information is relayed to the appropriate sensory cortex of the cerebrum. Answer: diencephalon", "output": [ "What is beneath the cerebrum and includes the thalamus and hypothalamus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4e2488cfac164483bf29e75e8e39b4b3", "input": "Passage: Gas molecules also exert pressure. Earth’s atmosphere exerts pressure because gravity acts on the huge number of gas particles contained in the atmosphere, holding it in place. Pressure is also exerted by a small sample of gas, such as that which is contained in a balloon. Gas pressure is the pressure that results from collisions of gas particles with an object. Inside the balloon, the gas particles collide with the balloon’s inner walls. It is those collisions which keep the balloon inflated. If the gas particles were to suddenly stop moving, the balloon would instantly deflate. The Figure below is an illustration of gas particles exerting pressure inside a container. Answer: balloon deflates", "output": [ "What will happen if the gas particles inside an inflated balloon suddenly stop moving?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e778634bd92c45daa9afa4267bc827d0", "input": "Passage: Linkage explains why certain characteristics are frequently inherited together. For example, genes for hair color and eye color are linked, so certain hair and eye colors tend to be inherited together, such as blonde hair with blue eyes and brown hair with brown eyes. What other human traits seem to occur together? Do you think they might be controlled by linked genes?. Answer: linkage", "output": [ "Certain characteristics are frequently inherited together because of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5f578c9c5ba740f2b516bf60db3acdf3", "input": "Passage: Increasing the temperature increases the average kinetic energy of the N2molecules. Answer: kinetic energy", "output": [ "Increasing the temperature of n2 molecules increases what energy of motion?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f999a416a49d4aa2b409f11001936322", "input": "Passage: Every moment of every day is a field trip to gravity. Gravity is everywhere! You have a gravitational attraction to your dog. You have one to your pencil. You even have one to your school principal! These gravitational attractions are very small compared with the most important one you have. This is your gravitational attraction to Earth. It's what keeps you from floating off into space. Gravity holds our planet together. Gravity keeps Earth orbiting the Sun. We wouldn't be here without gravity. Answer: gravity", "output": [ "What keeps the earth orbiting the sun?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0222061c10354d1db62c1221e97509a9", "input": "Passage: Line graphs are especially useful for showing changes over time. The line graph in Figure below shows how distance from school changed over time when some students went on a class trip. Answer: time", "output": [ "Line graphs are especially useful for showing changes over what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f3ea0c7da9f0432a90b6f23a4e010fd5", "input": "Passage: Magma can be created when temperature rises, pressure lowers, or water is added. Answer: water", "output": [ "Magma can be created when temperature rises, pressure lowers, or what else is added?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0f3289c119584e96828acc5c49f30004", "input": "Passage: A model serves a useful purpose – it gives us an idea of what the real thing is like. The model plane seen above has wings, a tail, and an engine just like the real thing. This model also has a propeller, as is the case with most small planes and some smaller passenger planes. However, the model is not the real thing. We certainly cannot fly people or cargo in the model (besides maybe a tiny mouse), but we can get some idea of what a real plane looks like and how it works. Answer: they give us an idea of what the real thing is like", "output": [ "What are models good for?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1ef8fa24ecec494aa7c1273485a2f90d", "input": "Passage: A monoprotic acid is an acid that contains only one ionizable hydrogen. Hydrochloric acid and acetic acid are monoprotic acids. A polyprotic acid is an acid that contains multiple ionizable hydrogens. Most common polyprotic acids are either diprotic (such as H 2 SO 4 ) or triprotic (such as H 3 PO 4 ). Answer: monoprotic acid", "output": [ "Which acid contains only one ionizable hydrogen?" ] }, { "id": "task594-09efd304e9b44b52a1d431bb18a4b951", "input": "Passage: Scientific investigations generally follow a process called the scientific method. Steps of the scientific method include making observations, asking a question, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, drawing a conclusion, and communicating the results. Answer: observations", "output": [ "What are made in the first step of the scientific method?" ] }, { "id": "task594-68739c0253884678970a380399d1026c", "input": "Passage: Optical telescopes are designed to collect visible light. The two types of optical telescopes are reflecting telescopes and refracting telescopes. Answer: reflecting and refracting", "output": [ "What are the two types of optical telescopes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8ba5a93c632b40bd8d9c1e4ef6521a5e", "input": "Passage: As Melvin Calvin discovered, carbon fixation is the first step of a cycle. Like an electron transport chain, the Calvin Cycle, shown in Figure below , transfers energy in small, controlled steps. Each step pushes molecules uphill in terms of energy content. Recall that in the electron transfer chain, excited electrons lose energy to NADPH and ATP. In the Calvin Cycle, NADPH and ATP formed in the light reactions lose their stored chemical energy to build glucose. Answer: calvin cycle", "output": [ "Carbon fixation is the first step of what cycle involving light reactions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0b45d9e601b6433a9af4383ec3c63ba1", "input": "Passage: The electrolysis of water produces hydrogen and oxygen gases. The electrolytic cell consists of a pair of platinum electrodes immersed in water containing a small amount of an electrolyte, such as H 2 SO 4 . The electrolyte is necessary because pure water does not contain enough ions to effectively conduct a current. At the anode, water is oxidized to oxygen gas and hydrogen ions. At the cathode, water is reduced to hydrogen gas and hydroxide ions. Answer: water", "output": [ "The electrolysis of what substance produces hydrogen and oxygen gases" ] }, { "id": "task594-c0681b5abcb546b98ae68e4de8a60e48", "input": "Passage: Enzymes are involved in most of the chemical reactions that take place in organisms. About 4,000 such reactions are known to be catalyzed by enzymes, but the number may be even higher. In animals, an important function of enzymes is to help digest food. Digestive enzymes speed up reactions that break down large molecules of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats into smaller molecules the body can use. Without digestive enzymes, animals would not be able to break down food molecules quickly enough to provide the energy and nutrients they need to survive. Answer: enzymes", "output": [ "What substances are involved in most of the chemical reactions that take place in organisms, including digestion?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3352f2f884e04163a67aa7db3c9e1df3", "input": "Passage: Prokaryotic cells are cells without a nucleus. Answer: prokaryotic", "output": [ "What term is used to describe cells without a nucleus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a7b399cc563248cc9af6a85baf153426", "input": "Passage: Life on Earth began about 3.5 to 4 billion years ago. The first life forms were single-celled organisms similar to bacteria. The first multicellular organisms did not appear until about 610 million years ago. Many different types of organisms evolved during the next ten million years, in an event called the Cambrian Explosion . This sudden burst of evolution may have been caused by some environmental changes that made the Earth's environment more suitable for a wider variety of life forms. Answer: bacteria", "output": [ "What were the first life forms found on earth similar to?" ] }, { "id": "task594-62dfc9d3755c484a93cd6c6ae36753e6", "input": "Passage: ; The efficiency equals the output power divided by the input power. Answer: efficiency", "output": [ "What equals the output power divided by the input power?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8ba2d227c86e4997812a1818121a9d88", "input": "Passage: Helicopter pilots are quite familiar with rotational kinetic energy. They know, for example, that a point of no return will be reached if they allow their blades to slow below a critical angular velocity during flight. The blades lose lift, and it is impossible to immediately get the blades spinning fast enough to regain it. Rotational kinetic energy must be supplied to the blades to get them to rotate faster, and enough energy cannot be supplied in time to avoid a crash. Because of weight limitations, helicopter engines are too small to supply both the energy needed for lift and to replenish the rotational kinetic energy of the blades once they have slowed down. The rotational kinetic energy is put into them before takeoff and must not be allowed to drop below this crucial level. One possible way to avoid a crash is to use the gravitational potential energy of the helicopter to replenish the rotational kinetic energy of the blades by losing altitude and aligning the blades so that the helicopter is spun up in the descent. Of course, if the helicopter’s altitude is too low, then there is insufficient time for the blade to regain lift before reaching the ground. Problem-Solving Strategy for Rotational Energy 1. Determine that energy or work is involved in the rotation. Determine the system of interest. A sketch usually helps. Analyze the situation to determine the types of work and energy involved. For closed systems, mechanical energy is conserved. That is,. Answer: kinetic", "output": [ "Helicopter pilots can recover from piloting errors by decreasing altitude, turning some of their potential energy into what kind of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7b96e6e47c9f479f8da90c2ffd435dbd", "input": "Passage: Burning of fossil fuels, such as oil, releases carbon into the atmosphere. This carbon must be cycled - removed from the atmosphere - back into living organisms, or it stays in the atmosphere. Increased carbon in the atmosphere contributes to the greenhouse effect on Earth. Answer: carbon", "output": [ "The greenhouse effect on earth is caused by an increase in what in the atmosphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eaa314945578427eb6dba79522202d7e", "input": "Passage: 36.5 | Vision By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Explain how electromagnetic waves differs from sound waves • Trace the path of light through the eye to the point of the optic nerve • Explain tonic activity as it is manifested in photoreceptors in the retina Vision is the ability to detect light patterns from the outside environment and interpret them into images. Animals are bombarded with sensory information, and the sheer volume of visual information can be problematic. Fortunately, the visual systems of species have evolved to attend to the most-important stimuli. The importance of vision to humans is further substantiated by the fact that about one-third of the human cerebral cortex is dedicated to analyzing and perceiving visual information. Answer: vision", "output": [ "About one-third of the human cerebral cortex is dedicated to analyzing and perceiving information related to what sense?" ] }, { "id": "task594-334cf2a7b8af4ddb87b85c0f4ccb7b6a", "input": "Passage: From seeing a skeleton, you might think that bones are just dead, hollow structures. But in a living person, those hollow spaces are full of living cells. Bones have a blood supply and nerves. Bones are a living tissue. Answer: living", "output": [ "Are bones considered living or dead tissues?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c78475720ace444382707864175ba6ef", "input": "Passage: A solution forms when a solute dissolves in a solvent. The rate of dissolving is faster with stirring, a higher temperature, or greater surface area. Many solutes are soluble in water because water is polar. Answer: solution", "output": [ "What forms when a solute dissolves in a solvent?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4251f54dbc684f2d9281bd38264adf37", "input": "Passage: The Sun is made almost entirely of the elements hydrogen and helium. The Sun has no solid material. Most atoms in the Sun exist as plasma . Plasma is superheated gas with an electrical charge. Because the Sun is made of gases, it does not have a defined outer boundary. Like Earth, the Sun has an internal structure. The inner three layers make up what we would actually call “the Sun. ”. Answer: hydrogen and helium", "output": [ "What two elements primarily make up the sun?" ] }, { "id": "task594-50a9b822458442e3a4b196a534f62b3c", "input": "Passage: Nitrates, salts of nitric acid, form when metals, oxides, hydroxides, or carbonates react with nitric acid. Most nitrates are soluble in water; indeed, one of the significant uses of nitric acid is to prepare soluble metal nitrates. Nitric acid finds extensive use in the laboratory and in chemical industries as a strong acid and strong oxidizing agent. It is important in the manufacture of explosives, dyes, plastics, and drugs. Salts of nitric acid (nitrates) are valuable as fertilizers. Gunpowder is a mixture of potassium nitrate, sulfur, and charcoal. The reaction of N2O3 with water gives a pale blue solution of nitrous acid, HNO2. However, HNO2 (shown in Figure 18.51) is easier to prepare by the addition of an acid to a solution of nitrite; nitrous acid is a weak acid, so the nitrite ion is basic in aqueous solution: NO 2 −(aq) + H 3 O +(aq) ⟶ HNO 2(aq) + H 2 O(l) Nitrous acid is very unstable and exists only in solution. It disproportionates slowly at room temperature (rapidly when heated) into nitric acid and nitric oxide. Nitrous acid is an active oxidizing agent with strong reducing agents, and strong oxidizing agents oxidize it to nitric acid. Answer: gunpowder", "output": [ "What is a mixture of potassium nitrate, sulfur, and charcoal?" ] }, { "id": "task594-61a129bf7df54c499df3afad09feb9c7", "input": "Passage: Esters are neutral compounds, unlike the acids from which they are formed. In typical reactions, the alkoxy (OR′) group of an ester is replaced by another group. One such reaction is hydrolysis, literally “splitting with water. ” The hydrolysis of esters is catalyzed by either an acid or a base. Acidic hydrolysis is simply the reverse of esterification. The ester is heated with a large excess of water containing a strong-acid catalyst. Like esterification, the reaction is reversible and does not go to completion. Answer: hydrolysis", "output": [ "What reaction means, literally, “splitting with water\"?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c2972ccde86e46748671cfb996dbdaec", "input": "Passage: The skeletal system protects the soft organs of the body. For example, the skull surrounds and protects the brain. The ribs protect the heart and lungs. Answer: skeletal system", "output": [ "What system protects the soft organs of the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8ed186d1b7844d79befc9af18fc351a3", "input": "Passage: Endosymbiosis We have mentioned that both mitochondria and chloroplasts contain DNA and ribosomes. Have you wondered why? Strong evidence points to endosymbiosis as the explanation. Symbiosis is a relationship in which organisms from two separate species depend on each other for their survival. Endosymbiosis (endo- = “within”) is a mutually beneficial relationship in which one organism lives inside the other. Endosymbiotic relationships abound in nature. We have already mentioned that microbes that produce vitamin K live inside the human gut. This relationship is beneficial for us because we are unable to synthesize vitamin K. It is also beneficial for the microbes because they are protected from other organisms and from drying out, and they receive abundant food from the environment of the large intestine. Scientists have long noticed that bacteria, mitochondria, and chloroplasts are similar in size. We also know that bacteria have DNA and ribosomes, just as mitochondria and chloroplasts do. Scientists believe that host cells and bacteria formed an endosymbiotic relationship when the host cells ingested both aerobic and autotrophic bacteria (cyanobacteria) but did not destroy them. Through many millions of years of evolution, these ingested bacteria became more specialized in their functions, with the aerobic bacteria becoming mitochondria and the autotrophic bacteria becoming chloroplasts. The Central Vacuole Previously, we mentioned vacuoles as essential components of plant cells. If you look at Figure 4.8b, you will see that plant cells each have a large central vacuole that occupies most of the area of the cell. The central vacuole plays a key role in regulating the cell’s concentration of water in changing environmental conditions. Have you ever noticed that if you forget to water a plant for a few days, it wilts? That’s because as the water concentration in the soil becomes lower than the water concentration in the plant, water moves out of the central vacuoles and cytoplasm. As the central vacuole shrinks, it leaves the cell wall unsupported. This loss of support to the cell walls of plant cells results in the wilted appearance of the plant. Answer: endosymbiosis", "output": [ "What is the term for a mutually beneficial relationship in which one organism lives inside the other?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9cdda87866e4454082d0d4ccfe029cb0", "input": "Passage: are attached to the end of each bronchiole. At the end of each duct are approximately 100 alveolar sacs, each containing 20 to 30 alveoli that are 200 to 300 microns in diameter. Gas exchange occurs only in alveoli. Alveoli are made of thin-walled parenchymal cells, typically one-cell thick, that look like tiny bubbles within the sacs. Alveoli are in direct contact with capillaries (one-cell thick) of the circulatory system. Such intimate contact ensures that oxygen will diffuse from alveoli into the blood and be distributed to the cells of the body. In addition, the carbon dioxide that was produced by cells as a waste product will diffuse from the blood into alveoli to be exhaled. The anatomical arrangement of capillaries and alveoli emphasizes the structural and functional relationship of the respiratory and circulatory systems. Because there are so many alveoli (~300 million per lung) within each alveolar sac and so many sacs at the end of each alveolar duct, the lungs have a sponge-like consistency. This organization produces a very large surface area that is available for gas exchange. The surface area of alveoli in the lungs is approximately 75 m2. This large surface area, combined with the thin-walled nature of the alveolar parenchymal cells, allows gases to easily diffuse across the cells. Answer: respiratory and circulatory", "output": [ "The anatomical arrangement of capillaries and alveoli emphasizes the structural and functional relationship of what systems?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8da3019a072a4639a16c3802782a258d", "input": "Passage: Which of the following statements about the anatomy of a mollusk is false? a. Mollusks have a radula for grinding food. A digestive gland is connected to the stomach. The tissue beneath the shell is called the mantle. The digestive system includes a gizzard, a stomach, a digestive gland, and the intestine. Mollusks have a muscular foot, which is used for locomotion and anchorage, and varies in shape and function, depending on the type of mollusk under study. In shelled mollusks, this foot is usually the same size as the opening of the shell. The foot is a retractable as well as an extendable organ. The foot is the ventral-most organ, whereas the mantle is the limiting dorsal organ. Mollusks are eucoelomate, but the coelomic cavity is restricted to a cavity around the heart in adult animals. The mantle cavity develops independently of the coelomic cavity. The visceral mass is present above the foot, in the visceral hump. This includes digestive, nervous, excretory, reproductive, and respiratory systems. Mollusk species that are exclusively aquatic have gills for respiration, whereas some terrestrial species have lungs for respiration. Additionally, a tongue-like organ called a radula, which bears chitinous tooth-like. Answer: gills", "output": [ "What do aquatic mollusk species use for respiration?" ] }, { "id": "task594-79bb8f6b9ca74c2888c24236c7e849b2", "input": "Passage: Glycogen is an even more highly branched polysaccharide of glucose monomers that serves a function of energy storage in animals. Glycogen is made and stored primarily in the cells of the liver and muscles. Answer: glycogen", "output": [ "What is made and stored primarily in the cells of the liver and muscles?" ] }, { "id": "task594-db4a64e1711a4798bba1e81336f03345", "input": "Passage: Typically, a series of several mutations that constitutively activate oncogenes and inactivate tumor suppressor genes is required to transform a normal cell into a cancer cell ( Figure below ). Cells have developed a number of control mechanisms to overcome mutations in proto-oncogenes. Therefore, a cell needs multiple mutations to transform into a cancerous cell. A mutation in one proto-oncogene would not cause cancer, as the effects of the mutation would be masked by the normal control of the cell cycle and the actions of tumor suppressor genes. Similarly, a mutation in one tumor suppressor gene would not cause cancer either, due to the presence of many \"backup\" genes that duplicate its functions. It is only when enough proto-oncogenes have mutated into oncogenes and enough tumor suppressor genes have been deactivated that the cancerous transformation can begin. Signals for cell growth overwhelm the signals for growth regulation, and the cell quickly spirals out of control. Often, because many of these genes regulate the processes that prevent most damage to the genes themselves, DNA damage accumulates as one ages. Answer: mutations", "output": [ "What does a cell need to transform into a cancerous cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d969515354be49b4a797029da9575167", "input": "Passage: The process of getting oxygen into the body and releasing carbon dioxide is called respiration. Answer: respiration", "output": [ "What is the process of getting oxygen into the body & releasing carbon dioxide called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d7d7017edcaa441296f3b7beb30e7448", "input": "Passage: Communication is any way that animals share information. Many animals live in social groups. For these animals, being able to communicate is essential. Communicating increases the ability of group members to cooperate and avoid conflict. Communication may help animals work together to find food and defend themselves from predators. It also helps them find mates and care for their offspring. In addition, communication helps adult animals teach the next generation learned behaviors. Therefore, communication generally improves the chances of animals surviving and reproducing. Answer: social animals", "output": [ "For what kind of animal is communication essential?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7c99c47d156d4c2ca13d408a7b989074", "input": "Passage: The human nerve cell in Figure below is a good example of a specialized animal cell. Its shape suits it for its function of sending nerve signals to other cells. A nerve cell couldn’t take this shape if it were surrounded by a rigid cell wall. Answer: specialization", "output": [ "With a shape that specially suits its function of sending nerve signals to other cells, the human nerve cell is an example of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d2842096967d4059acb8ac5237409c2d", "input": "Passage: Chromosomal Alterations. Chromosomal alterations are major changes in the genetic material. Answer: chromosomal alterations", "output": [ "What term is used to describe major changes in the genetic material?" ] }, { "id": "task594-43a5f60dafb3445893cff3315af5104e", "input": "Passage: Eye color in humans is determined by multiple genes. Use the Eye Color Calculator (http://openstaxcollege. org/l/ eye_color_calc) to predict the eye color of children from parental eye color. In some cases, several genes can contribute to aspects of a common phenotype without their gene products ever directly interacting. In the case of organ development, for instance, genes may be expressed sequentially, with each gene adding to the complexity and specificity of the organ. Genes may function in complementary or synergistic fashions, such that two or more genes need to be expressed simultaneously to affect a phenotype. Genes may also oppose each other, with one gene modifying the expression of another. In epistasis, the interaction between genes is antagonistic, such that one gene masks or interferes with the expression of another. “Epistasis” is a word composed of Greek roots that mean “standing upon. ” The alleles that are being masked or silenced are said to be hypostatic to the epistatic alleles that are doing the masking. Often the biochemical basis of epistasis is a gene pathway in which the expression of one gene is dependent on the function of a gene that precedes or follows it in the pathway. An example of epistasis is pigmentation in mice. The wild-type coat color, agouti (AA), is dominant to solid-colored fur (aa). However, a separate gene (C) is necessary for pigment production. A mouse with a recessive c allele at this locus is unable to produce pigment and is albino regardless of the allele present at locus A (Figure 12.20). Therefore, the genotypes AAcc, Aacc, and aacc all produce the same albino phenotype. A cross between heterozygotes for both genes (AaCc x AaCc) would generate offspring with a phenotypic ratio of 9 agouti:3 solid color:4 albino (Figure 12.20). In this case, the C gene is epistatic to the A gene. Answer: multiple genes", "output": [ "How is eye color in humans determined?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3b550eec968f4459bce707abe2cca6a8", "input": "Passage: Abundance The elements vary widely in abundance. In the universe as a whole, the most common element is hydrogen (about 90% of atoms), followed by helium (most of the remaining 10%). All other elements are present in relatively minuscule amounts, as far as we can detect. On the planet Earth, however, the situation is rather different. Oxygen makes up 46.1% of the mass of Earth’s crust (the relatively thin layer of rock forming Earth’s surface), mostly in combination with other elements, while silicon makes up 28.5%. Hydrogen, the most abundant element in the universe, makes up only 0.14% of Earth’s crust. Table 2.1 \"Elemental Composition of Earth\" lists the relative abundances of elements on Earth as a whole and in Earth’s crust. Table 2.2 \"Elemental Composition of a Human Body\" lists the relative abundances of elements in the human body. If you compare Table 2.1 \"Elemental Composition of Earth\" and Table 2.2 \"Elemental Composition of a Human Body\", you will find disparities between the percentage of each element in the human body and on Earth. Oxygen has the highest percentage in both Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: hydrogen", "output": [ "In the universe as a whole, what is the most common element?" ] }, { "id": "task594-483c0c8c5f844dff8f8b532125fcf283", "input": "Passage: Other protists have what are called transient pseudopodia , which are like temporary feet. The cell surface extends out to form feet-like structures that propel the cell forward. An example of a protist with pseudopodia is the amoeba. Answer: transient pseudopodia", "output": [ "What are temporary feet that protists have called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9edb4d4fae714389920c437839f087e4", "input": "Passage: Mutations that occur in body cells cannot be passed on to offspring. They are confined to just one cell and its daughter cells. These mutations may have little effect on an organism. Answer: body cells", "output": [ "Mutations cannot be passed on to offspring if they occur in what type of cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-43d202b613db46088b098ddd0aab3f2e", "input": "Passage: Diagram of a Cytomegalovirus. The capsid encloses the genetic material of the virus. The envelope which surrounds the capsid is typically made from portions of the host cell membranes (phospholipids and proteins). Not all viruses have a viral envelope. Answer: the capsid", "output": [ "What encloses the genetic material of the virus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a820a6b464374410b86ae12327ac5ce6", "input": "Passage: Electron Configurations of Ions We have seen that ions are formed when atoms gain or lose electrons. A cation (positively charged ion) forms when one or more electrons are removed from a parent atom. For main group elements, the electrons that were added last are the first electrons removed. For transition metals and inner transition metals, however, electrons in the s orbital are easier to remove than the d or f electrons, and so the highest ns electrons are lost, and then the (n – 1)d or (n – 2)f electrons are removed. An anion (negatively charged ion) forms when one or more electrons are added to a parent atom. The added electrons fill in the order predicted by the Aufbau principle. Answer: electrons", "output": [ "Ions are formed when atoms gain or lose what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d1869c7665ca4296b1760b7d6d0ae55b", "input": "Passage: invertebrates produce uric acid. Animals that secrete urea as the primary nitrogenous waste material are called ureotelic animals. Answer: urea", "output": [ "The primary nitrogenous waste material secreted by ureotelic animals is what substance?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ed3bffd0606e4ec9a382ce7c00f4421b", "input": "Passage: Soil type also influences the type of vegetation that can grow in the region. We can identify climate types by the types of plants that grow there. Answer: soil type", "output": [ "Along with climate, this also influences the type of vegetation that can grow in the region?" ] }, { "id": "task594-295cd86366d54646b4a47c49c7a363e9", "input": "Passage: Gibbs free energy values can be used to determine equilibrium constants. Answer: equilibrium constants", "output": [ "Gibbs free energy values can be used to determine what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-456ae947ad3a417591cc7abde6751453", "input": "Passage: Although the hillside is interesting, that's not why this was done. Terracing prevents soil erosion on a hillside that is being farmed. Many techniques can be utilized to reduce soil erosion. Answer: terracing", "output": [ "What prevents soil erosion on a hillside that is being farmed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f6a05fe84ecc4773a61ff40cab68b4b5", "input": "Passage: Most hormones are controlled by negative feedback in which the hormone feeds back to decrease its own production. This type of feedback brings things back to normal whenever they start to become too extreme. Positive feedback is much less common because it causes conditions to become increasingly extreme. Answer: negative", "output": [ "Most hormones are controlled by what type of feedback, which causes the hormone to decrease its own production?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8a3a37c3214d49f6941450e27b545a06", "input": "Passage: Food Chains. These two food chains represent complex systems in nature. They make the systems easier to understand. These are simple conceptual models. Models of very complex systems are often based on mathematical equations or computer simulations. Answer: models", "output": [ "What kind of tool, often based on mathematical equations or computer simulations, helps us understand complex systems?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ba4db44bb8e64abab9a40b99d6b4c613", "input": "Passage: Steel is an example of an alloy. An alloy is a mixture of a metal with one or more other elements. The other elements may be metals, nonmetals, or both. An alloy is a solid solution. It is formed by melting a metal and dissolving the other elements in it. The molten solution is then allowed to cool and harden. Several other examples of alloys and their uses are shown in Figure below . You can learn about an amazing alloy called memory wire at the URL below. If you have braces on your teeth, you may even have this alloy in your mouth!. Answer: an alloy", "output": [ "A mixture of a metal with one or more other elements is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-415eacd1412d4a1bba2e19c9e4fbc090", "input": "Passage: You can tell other things from tree rings too. In a good year a tree will produce a wide ring. A summer drought will produce a smaller ring. These variations will appear in all trees in a region. The same pattern can be found in all the trees in the area. This pattern helps scientist to identify a particular time period. Answer: smaller", "output": [ "What size of ring will a summer drought cause in a tree?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c90cf53ca22a4e16bf6902af06d38f5d", "input": "Passage: Density is a quantity that expresses how much matter is packed into a given space. The amount of matter is its mass, and the space it takes up is its volume. To calculate the density of an object, then, you would use this formula:. Answer: density", "output": [ "What is the term for how much matter is packed into a given space?" ] }, { "id": "task594-64a277b0a1254d63884ac6a93a0ad05d", "input": "Passage: 15.3 Flatworms, Nematodes, and Arthropods Flatworms are acoelomate, triploblastic animals. They lack circulatory and respiratory systems, and have a rudimentary excretory system. The digestive system is incomplete in most species. There are four traditional classes of flatworms, the largely free-living turbellarians, the ectoparasitic monogeneans, and the endoparasitic trematodes and cestodes. Trematodes have complex life cycles involving a secondary mollusk host and a primary host in which sexual reproduction takes place. Cestodes, or tapeworms, infect the digestive systems of primary vertebrate hosts. Nematodes are pseudocoelomate members of the clade Ecdysozoa. They have a complete digestive system and a pseudocoelomic body cavity. This phylum includes free-living as well as parasitic organisms. They include dioecious and hermaphroditic species. Nematodes have a poorly developed excretory system. Embryonic development is external and proceeds through larval stages separated by molts. Arthropods represent the most successful phylum of animals on Earth, in terms of number of species as well as the number of individuals. They are characterized by a segmented body and jointed appendages. In the basic body plan, a pair of appendages is present per body segment. Within the phylum, classification is based on mouthparts, number of appendages, and modifications of appendages. Arthropods bear a chitinous exoskeleton. Gills, tracheae, and book lungs facilitate respiration. Embryonic development may include multiple larval stages. Answer: arthropods", "output": [ "What phylum has the highest number of species on earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dd7608923ef040f9b1f1bbf83eeb7172", "input": "Passage: Pressure shows how concentrated the force is on a given area. The smaller the area to which force is applied, the greater the pressure is. Think about pressing a pushpin, like the one in Figure below , into a bulletin board. You apply force with your thumb to the broad head of the pushpin. However, the force that the pushpin applies to the bulletin board acts only over the tiny point of the pin. This is a much smaller area, so the pressure the point applies to the bulletin board is much greater than the pressure you apply with you thumb. As a result, the pin penetrates the bulletin board with ease. Answer: pressure increases", "output": [ "What is the effect on pressure when the area of applied force is very concentrated?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2166c835cf09443b9bcb9bcb04f3fa87", "input": "Passage: Your feet feel cold as you walk barefoot across the living room carpet in your cold house and then step onto the kitchen tile floor. This result is intriguing, since the carpet and tile floor are both at the same temperature. The different sensation you feel is explained by the different rates of heat transfer: the heat loss during the same time interval is greater for skin in contact with the tiles than with the carpet, so the temperature drop is greater on the tiles. Some materials conduct thermal energy faster than others. In general, good conductors of electricity (metals like copper, aluminum, gold, and silver) are also good heat conductors, whereas insulators of electricity (wood, plastic, and rubber) are poor. Answer: electricity", "output": [ "There is a positive correlation between the ability to conduct thermal energy and what other energy, as exemplified by metals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3b11cd00f47f4864ac89179f8a899e0e", "input": "Passage: In some amines, the nitrogen atom replaces a carbon atom in an aromatic hydrocarbon. Pyridine (Figure 20.17) is one such heterocyclic amine. A heterocyclic compound contains atoms of two or more different elements in its ring structure. Answer: heterocyclic", "output": [ "What type of compound contains atoms of two or more different elements in its ring structure?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f7f4199c9fc443bdbfc4c983f1b86cdd", "input": "Passage: Each lymph organ has a different job in the immune system. Answer: immune", "output": [ "Each lymph organ has a different job in what system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b9c9ba1dc9ca42e1843c7ae90b733510", "input": "Passage: The rate of decay of a radioactive substance is constant over time. Answer: rate of decay", "output": [ "What remains a constant of radioactive substance over time?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5278b3b7ba7544d88f7e722f68d7133f", "input": "Passage: The amount of kinetic energy in a moving object depends directly on its mass and velocity. An object with greater mass or greater velocity has more kinetic energy. You can calculate the kinetic energy of a moving object with this equation:. Answer: velocity", "output": [ "The amount of kinetic energy in a moving object depends directly on its mass and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ab7717f2455a4e858bd117be1c4c01cc", "input": "Passage: Natural events, like storms, volcanic eruptions and earthquakes can cause major changes in water quality. But human-caused contaminants have a much greater impact on the quality of the water supply. Water is considered polluted either when it does not support a human use, like clean drinking water, or a use for other animals and plants. The overgrowth of algae, known as an algal bloom , can result from the runoff of fertilizer into bodies of water. This excess of nutrients allows the algae to grow beyond control, bring harm to the rest of the ecosystem. Answer: human activity", "output": [ "What has a bigger impact on water quality, natural events or human activity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8c6ce8bcd35c453c842bbc6c44c4af63", "input": "Passage: Heat waves have increased in frequency and duration in recent years. The summer 2011 North American heat wave brought record temperatures across the Midwestern and Eastern United States. Many states and localities broke records for temperature and for the most days above 100 o F. Answer: cell membrane", "output": [ "What are all cells surrounded by?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ae2215ae5cc2422db8b90915b929448b", "input": "Passage: If you look up close, you would be able to see grains of sand. From this distance, you can see different layers from where the sand was laid down. This rock is sandstone. The sand grains are cemented together to make sandstone. Sandstone is a common type of sedimentary rock. Answer: sedimentary rocks", "output": [ "What type of rock is a sandstone?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b57d06e95a07426b86723b63eec5667f", "input": "Passage: Blood from the lungs enters the left atrium of the heart. The left atrium pumps the blood to the left ventricle, which pumps it to the body. This loop is represented by the red arrows in Figure above . Answer: left atrium", "output": [ "Which side of the heart does blood from the lungs enter into?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4932311042b0425ca6e990684cb3fe31", "input": "Passage: Some materials have negative heats of solution; the dissolution of one of these solutes in water is an exothermic process. Heat is released, causing a net increase in the temperature of the solution. Conversely, other substances have positive heats of solution. For example, the dissolution of potassium nitrate in water is an endothermic process. The resulting absorption of energy causes the solution to become colder. Calculations involving heats of solutions follow the same basic approach that we have used with other enthalpy problems. Answer: exothermic process", "output": [ "Some materials have negative heats of solution; the dissolution of one of these solutes in water is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-72e210c7e4404f22900126530381b136", "input": "Passage: A superheated liquid exists temporarily as liquid with a temperature above the normal boiling point of the liquid. When a supercooled liquid boils, the temperature drops as the liquid is converted to vapor. Conversely, a supercooled liquid exists temporarily as a liquid with a temperature lower than the normal melting point of the solid. As shown below, when a supercooled liquid crystallizes, the temperature increases as the liquid is converted to a solid. Answer: vapor", "output": [ "When a supercooled liquid boils, the temperature drops as the liquid is converted to what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2f799f33e6ad4dc9bdd5f6b6b9312b80", "input": "Passage: every organism uses to power its metabolism. In brief, the energy of sunlight is captured and used to energize electrons, which are then stored in the covalent bonds of sugar molecules. How long lasting and stable are those covalent bonds? The energy extracted today by the burning of coal and petroleum products represents sunlight energy captured and stored by photosynthesis almost 200 million years ago. Plants, algae, and a group of bacteria called cyanobacteria are the only organisms capable of performing photosynthesis (Figure 8.2). Because they use light to manufacture their own food, they are called photoautotrophs (literally, “self-feeders using light”). Other organisms, such as animals, fungi, and most other bacteria, are termed heterotrophs (“other feeders”), because they must rely on the sugars produced by photosynthetic organisms for their energy needs. A third very interesting group of bacteria synthesize sugars, not by using sunlight’s energy, but by extracting energy from inorganic chemical compounds; hence, they are referred to as chemoautotrophs. Answer: light", "output": [ "Photoautotrophs use what energy source to self-manufacture their own food?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e9eaac2c527445c19eecb8c7ee6524ce", "input": "Passage: Muscle contraction occurs when muscle fibers get shorter. Literally, the muscle fibers get smaller in size. To understand how this happens, you need to know more about the structure of muscle fibers. Answer: muscle contraction", "output": [ "What occurs when muscle fibers get shorter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-18b31f9f41a94511a92cfb23ed9cc592", "input": "Passage: Molecular geometry is the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a molecule. The molecular geometry, or shape, of a molecule is an important factor that affects the physical and chemical properties of a compound. Those properties include melting and boiling points, solubility, density, and the types of chemical reactions that a compound undergoes. In this lesson, you will learn a technique to predict molecular geometry based on a molecule’s Lewis electron dot structure. Answer: molecule", "output": [ "Molecular geometry is the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b5137ec40f074b69b5d2529220f20e66", "input": "Passage: Every chemical reaction occurs with a concurrent change in energy. Answer: energy", "output": [ "Every chemical reaction occurs with a concurrent change in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d7ac0a5aa13f4e11878fc4a7ae030411", "input": "Passage: The transport of sediments by longshore currents is called longshore drift . Longshore drift is created in this way: Sediment is moved up the beach by an incoming wave. The wave approaches at an angle to the shore. Water then moves straight offshore. The sediment moves straight down the beach with it. The sediment is again picked up by a wave that is coming in at an angle. So longshore drift moves sediment along the shore. This zig-zag motion is pictured below ( Figure below ) and can also be seen at the link below. Answer: sediment", "output": [ "What material is transported in a process called longshore drift?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3905ed6946944a2393ab3d8724d23532", "input": "Passage: tobacco smoke causes fatal lung disease in nonsmokers. Answer: tobacco smoke", "output": [ "What still causes fatal lung disease in nonsmokers?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4ba5c9f261b4442fb1d52c8ae1df723e", "input": "Passage: When most of the chyme has been absorbed, the small intestinal wall becomes less distended. At this point, the localized segmentation process is replaced by transport movements. The duodenal mucosa secretes the hormone motilin, which initiates peristalsis in the form of a migrating motility complex. These complexes, which begin in the duodenum, force chyme through a short section of the small intestine and then stop. The next contraction begins a little bit farther down than the first, forces chyme a bit farther through the small intestine, then stops. These complexes move slowly down the small intestine, forcing chyme on the way, taking around 90 to 120 minutes to finally reach the end of the ileum. At this point, the process is repeated, starting in the duodenum. Answer: peristalsis", "output": [ "What is the natural movement called within your intestines?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1b9bc54725ec4d5c95ea86521982d48d", "input": "Passage: Cells that divide uncontrollably may form a tumor , or abnormal mass of cells. Tumors may be benign or malignant. Benign tumors remain localized and generally do not harm health. Malignant tumors are cancerous. There are no limits to their growth, so they can invade and damage neighboring tissues. Cells from malignant tumors may also break away from the tumor and enter the bloodstream. They are carried to other parts of the body, where new tumors may form. The most common and the most deadly cancers for U. S. adults are listed in Table below . Answer: tumor", "output": [ "What do you call an abnormal mass of cells that is dividing improperly?" ] }, { "id": "task594-91be0fdf6aa6441c828baa7e54e9a668", "input": "Passage: Mineral crystals that form when magma cools are usually larger than crystals that form when lava cools. Answer: larger", "output": [ "Mineral crystals that form when magma cools are usually _______ than crystals that form when lava cools." ] }, { "id": "task594-1c44ad1c82e441d5bd9b3554985ccd15", "input": "Passage: The time scale of evolution can vary. Evolution over a short period of time at the level of the population is called microevolution. Evolution over a long period of time above the level of the species is called macroevolution. Answer: microevolution", "output": [ "Evolution over a short period of time at the level of the population is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4f1b59488e6543bbbfb43442aa1b189f", "input": "Passage: The water cycle does not have a real starting or ending point. It is an endless recycling process that involves the oceans, lakes and other bodies of water, as well as the land surfaces and the atmosphere. The steps in the water cycle are as follows, starting with the water in the oceans:. Answer: the ocean", "output": [ "Where do the steps in the water cycle begin?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c5c0bf547690469485b32e0096ffe4e1", "input": "Passage: Smoking is the most significant cause of respiratory disease as well as cardiovascular disease and cancer. Exposure to tobacco smoke by smoking or by breathing air that contains tobacco smoke is the leading cause of preventable death in the United States. Regular smokers die about 10 years earlier than nonsmokers. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) describes tobacco use as \"the single most important preventable risk to human health in developed countries and an important cause of [early] death worldwide. \". Answer: smoking", "output": [ "What is the most significant cause of respiratory disease as well as cardiovascular disease and cancer?" ] }, { "id": "task594-934fc28adec24f879892d43eda06fc9d", "input": "Passage: Paint keeps oxygen and water from coming into direct contact with the metal, which prevents corrosion. Paint is more necessary because salt is an electrolyte that increases the conductivity of water and facilitates the flow of electric current between anodic and cathodic sites. Answer: corrosion", "output": [ "Paint keeps oxygen and water from coming into direct contact with the metal, which prevents what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-267ffd8af57a4d27a4d23fb8d02c7e1c", "input": "Passage: Water and many other substances cannot simply diffuse across a membrane. Hydrophilic molecules, charged ions, and relatively large molecules such as glucose all need help with diffusion. The help comes from special proteins in the membrane known as transport proteins . Diffusion with the help of transport proteins is called facilitated diffusion . There are several types of transport proteins, including channel proteins and carrier proteins. Both are shown in Figure below . Answer: transport proteins", "output": [ "The help with diffusion comes from special proteins in the membrane known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c5e0eb8dd2a74e93b5ada75d5ee66cf3", "input": "Passage: Topographic maps that show water depths are called bathymetric maps . An example of one is pictured below ( Figure below ). Bathymetric maps are made of any water body, including lakes and oceans. On these maps, the contour lines represent depth below the surface. Therefore, high numbers are deeper depths and low numbers are shallow depths. Answer: bathymetric maps", "output": [ "What are topographic maps that show water depths called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a8b9c9c65f794dd6acb9473c9eb41148", "input": "Passage: Scientists perform experiments to test their hypotheses because sometimes the nature of natural universe is not obvious. Answer: not obvious", "output": [ "Scientists perform experiments to test their hypotheses because sometimes the nature of natural universe is what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0ef80e0cb9d148afabab4cf8f1def4f7", "input": "Passage: The concentration of hydronium ions in a solution is known as acidity. In pure water, the concentration of hydronium ions is very low; only about 1 in 10 million water molecules naturally breaks down to form a hydronium ion. As a result, pure water is essentially neutral. Acidity is measured on a scale called pH , as shown in Figure below . Pure water has a pH of 7, so the point of neutrality on the pH scale is 7. Answer: ph", "output": [ "What is the scale on which acidity is measured?" ] }, { "id": "task594-074526fbb31648a78fffafb3b6cdb1ec", "input": "Passage: The lymphatic system helps return fluid that leaks from the blood vessels back to the cardiovascular system. Answer: cardiovascular", "output": [ "The lymphatic system helps return fluid that leaks from the blood vessels back to what system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1395687f46b648de9cd12739f0f1a045", "input": "Passage: Junctions are areas between cells that either allow or prevent the movement of materials. Junctions are usually composed of numerous proteins, forming a large molecular complex. Gap junctions, desmosomes and tight junctions are three examples of junctions. Answer: junctions", "output": [ "What are the areas between cells that either allow or prevent the movement of materials called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-26cfd633ffc34f6aa1fef2bcddff53d8", "input": "Passage: The Sun is mostly hydrogen with smaller amounts of helium. The material is in the form of plasma. Answer: hydrogen", "output": [ "What element is the sun mostly made up of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7ee05cf7ca294fefbcf129fe316d6aac", "input": "Passage: Hydrogen and helium are the most abundant elements in the universe. Answer: hydrogen and helium", "output": [ "What are the two most abundant elements in the universe?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bba9379fedb14fad810468da797d881f", "input": "Passage: Longitudinal waves, like sound waves, have compression and rarefaction zones. The compression zones are where, for example in a sound wave traveling through air, the air molecules are densely packed. The rarefaction zones are areas where the air molecules are loosely packed, like a vacuum zone. Us teachers will often draw longitudinal waves as transverse waves, but remember the difference. Answer: compression zones", "output": [ "What is the opposite of rarefaction zones, where air molecules in waves are loosely packed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fe7858aa21c048a682922422456e9ceb", "input": "Passage: Nonmetals are elements that generally do not conduct electricity. They are one of three classes of elements (the other two classes are metals and metalloids. ) Nonmetals are the second largest of the three classes after metals. They are the elements located on the right side of the periodic table. Answer: nonmetals", "output": [ "What are elements that generally do not conduct electricity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a2b5ab49932d4277b69e100ba4c312b0", "input": "Passage: Starches are complex carbohydrates. They are polymers of glucose. Starches contain hundreds of glucose monomers. Plants make starches to store extra glucose. Consumers can get starches by eating plants. Common sources of starches in the human diet are pictured Figure below . Our digestive system breaks down starches to sugar, which our cells use for energy. Like other animals, we store any extra glucose as the complex carbohydrate called glycogen. Glycogen is also a polymer of glucose. Answer: starches", "output": [ "What do plants make to store extra glucose?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3848a822c365498192d79c511ac60dc8", "input": "Passage: Solar cells convert the energy in sunlight to electrical energy. Solar cells are also called photovoltaic (PV) cells because they use light ( photo- ) to produce voltage ( -voltaic ). Solar cells contain a material such as silicon that absorbs light energy. The energy knocks electrons loose so they can flow freely and produce a difference in electric potential energy, or voltage. The flow of electrons creates electric current. Solar cells have positive and negative contacts, like the terminals in chemical cells. If the contacts are connected with wire, current flows from the negative to positive contact. The Figure below and following URL show how a solar cell works. http://www. suntreksolar. com/solarElectricity/howCellsWork. asp. Answer: electrical energy", "output": [ "Solar cells convert the energy in sunlight to what type of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-788b6e8ba7ae49f1b1f08c53ea907aca", "input": "Passage: Gymnosperms are seed plants that produce naked seeds in cones. There are about 1000 species of gymnosperms. Conifers are the most common group of gymnosperms. The spruce tree in Figure below is an example of a conifer. Answer: gymnosperms", "output": [ "What are seeds plants that produce naked seeds in cones called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c0e2cafdf08b498898353c1a97d61a23", "input": "Passage: (a) When pyrimidine or purine and a sugar react to form a glycosidic bond, a nucleoside is produced. Adding a phosphoric acid group to the sugar of a nucleoside produces a nucleotide. (b) Nucleotides link together to form long polymeric chains. A DNA molecule consists of two such chains held together by hydrogen bonding between the purine and pyrimidine components on different chains. Mutations in the DNA of an organism may lead to the synthesis of defective proteins. Phenylketonuria (PKU), for example, is a condition caused by a defective enzyme. Left. Answer: nucleotides", "output": [ "What links together to form long polymeric chains?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d64982218fe84574a50c68f31a3afa56", "input": "Passage: One useful application of PET scanning is in the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease. This debilitating condition associated with memory loss primarily occurs in elderly individuals. A protein known as beta-amyloid gradually forms deposits, or plaques, in the brain. Severe memory loss and impaired movement appear to be direct results of the plaque growth. Answer: elderly", "output": [ "Alzheimers disease is associated with memory loss in what group of people?" ] }, { "id": "task594-38bfc6c1386544859b1f8a6f729767eb", "input": "Passage: The number of reactant molecules in an elementary step is referred to as its molecularity. The vast majority of elementary steps are unimolecular or bimolecular. Answer: molecularity", "output": [ "What property is associated with the number of reactant molecules involved in an elementary step?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0826a91ddbec49a88ca6380ea9b161dd", "input": "Passage: develops from myoblasts derived from the mesoderm. Myocytes and their numbers remain relatively constant throughout life. Skeletal muscle tissue is arranged in bundles surrounded by connective tissue. Under the light microscope, muscle cells appear striated with many nuclei squeezed along the membranes. The striation is due to the regular alternation of the contractile proteins actin and myosin, along with the structural proteins that couple the contractile proteins to connective tissues. The cells are multinucleated as a result of the fusion of the many myoblasts that fuse to form each long muscle fiber. Cardiac muscle forms the contractile walls of the heart. The cells of cardiac muscle, known as cardiomyocytes, also appear striated under the microscope. Unlike skeletal muscle fibers, cardiomyocytes are single cells typically with a single centrally located nucleus. A principal characteristic of cardiomyocytes is that they contract on their own intrinsic rhythms without any external stimulation. Cardiomyocyte attach to one another with specialized cell junctions called intercalated discs. Intercalated discs have both anchoring junctions and gap junctions. Attached cells form long, branching cardiac muscle fibers that are, essentially, a mechanical and electrochemical syncytium allowing the cells to synchronize their actions. The cardiac muscle pumps blood through the body and is under involuntary control. The attachment junctions hold adjacent cells together across the dynamic pressures changes of the cardiac cycle. Smooth muscle tissue contraction is responsible for involuntary movements in the internal organs. It forms the contractile component of the digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems as well as the airways and arteries. Each cell is spindle shaped with a single nucleus and no visible striations (Figure 4.18). Answer: connective tissue", "output": [ "Skeletal muscle tissue is arranged in bundles surrounded by this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d887a70ddd7a4550ba6092598b722d08", "input": "Passage: Interaction of Hydrostatic and Osmotic Pressures The normal unit used to express pressures within the cardiovascular system is millimeters of mercury (mm Hg). When blood leaving an arteriole first enters a capillary bed, the CHP is quite high—about 35 mm Hg. Gradually, this initial CHP declines as the blood moves through the capillary so that by the time the blood has reached the venous end, the CHP has dropped to approximately 18 mm Hg. In comparison, the plasma proteins remain suspended in the blood, so the BCOP remains fairly constant at about 25 mm Hg throughout the length of the capillary and considerably below the osmotic pressure in the interstitial fluid. The net filtration pressure (NFP) represents the interaction of the hydrostatic and osmotic pressures, driving fluid out of the capillary. It is equal to the difference between the CHP and the BCOP. Since filtration is, by definition, the movement of fluid out of the capillary, when reabsorption is occurring, the NFP is a negative number. NFP changes at different points in a capillary bed (Figure 20.16). Close to the arterial end of the capillary, it is approximately 10 mm Hg, because the CHP of 35 mm Hg minus the BCOP of 25 mm Hg equals 10 mm Hg. Recall that the hydrostatic and osmotic pressures of the interstitial fluid are essentially negligible. Thus, the NFP of 10 mm Hg drives a net movement of fluid out of the capillary at the arterial end. At approximately the middle of the capillary, the CHP is about the same as the BCOP of 25 mm Hg, so the NFP drops to zero. At this point, there is no net change of volume: Fluid moves out of the capillary at the same rate as it moves into the capillary. Near the venous end of the capillary, the CHP has dwindled to about 18 mm Hg due to loss of fluid. Because the BCOP remains steady at 25 mm Hg, water is drawn into the capillary, that is, reabsorption occurs. Another way of expressing this is to say that at the venous end of the capillary, there is an NFP of −7 mm Hg. Answer: hydrostatic", "output": [ "In the cardiovascular system, net filtration pressure represents the interaction of osmotic pressures and what other pressures?" ] }, { "id": "task594-91265be55fb54b23804a033f1f2faab4", "input": "Passage: Like all organisms, plants detect and respond to stimuli in their environment. Unlike animals, plants can’t run, fly, or swim toward food or away from danger. They are usually rooted to the soil. Instead, a plant’s primary means of response is to change how it is growing. Plants also don’t have a nervous system to control their responses. Instead, their responses are generally controlled by hormones , which are chemical messenger molecules. Answer: hormones", "output": [ "Instead of a nervous system, plant responses are generally controlled by what type of molecules, which serves as chemical messengers?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e0910bbe36e34d22a8ab294ce5a7f9aa", "input": "Passage: Advection fog is famous in San Francisco, California. Warm, moist air comes in from the Pacific Ocean. The air blows over the cold California current. When the air cools below its dew point, fog forms. Sea breezes bring the fog onshore. Answer: fog", "output": [ "What forms after air cools below its dew point?" ] }, { "id": "task594-50ff1562a94e4d91a27a7ffa686e59e5", "input": "Passage: The boiling points of liquid also correlate to the strength of the intermolecular forces. Recall that diethyl ether has weak dispersion forces, which meant that the liquid has a high vapor pressure. The weak forces also mean that it does not require a large an input of energy to make diethyl ether boil and so it has a relatively low normal boiling point of 34.6°C. Water, with its much stronger hydrogen bonding, has a low vapor pressure and a higher normal boiling point of 100°C. Answer: intermolecular", "output": [ "The boiling points of liquid also correlate to the strength of which forces?" ] }, { "id": "task594-da78e0d949904cde88f00a4bba2af7d6", "input": "Passage: An innate behavior is any behavior that occurs naturally in all animals of a given species. An innate behavior is also called an instinct . The first time an animal performs an innate behavior, the animal does it well. The animal does not have to practice the behavior in order to get it right or become better at it. Innate behaviors are also predictable. All members of a species perform an innate behavior in the same way. From the examples described above, you can probably tell that innate behaviors usually involve important actions, like eating and caring for the young. Answer: innate", "output": [ "What type of behavior occurs naturally in all animals of a given species?" ] }, { "id": "task594-febb19cc26f348318b356dbe4a4fcade", "input": "Passage: Solar cells convert the energy in sunlight to electrical energy. They contain a material such as silicon that absorbs light energy and gives off electrons. Answer: solar cells", "output": [ "What can be used to convert the energy provided by the sun to usable electrical energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c237107ec502488480b2af759dce8d1e", "input": "Passage: Giardia are flagellate protozoa that cause giardiasis . The parasites enter the body through food or water that has been contaminated by feces of infected people or animals. The protozoa attach to the lining of the host’s small intestine, where they prevent the host from fully absorbing nutrients. They may also cause diarrhea, abdominal pain, and fever. A picture of a Giardia protozoan opens this concept. Answer: giardia", "output": [ "What are flagellate protozoa that cause giardiasis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1a2695aae48e4a62abbdf242180f8c5e", "input": "Passage: The angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence. A mirror has a smooth surface and reflects light at specific angles. Light is diffused when it reflects from a rough surface. Mirror images can be photographed and videotaped by instruments. Answer: rough surfaces", "output": [ "What kind of surface would cause diffusion when light is reflected off of it?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5022c2584c684bc4b0de4b4d793d6fde", "input": "Passage: Sponges are characterized by a feeding system unique among animals. As sponges don't have mouths, they must feed by some other method. Sponges have tiny pores in their outer walls through which water is drawn. Cells in the sponge walls filter food from the water as the water is pumped through the body and out other larger openings. The flow of water through the sponge is unidirectional, driven by the beating of flagella, which line the surface of chambers connected by a series of canals. Answer: flagella", "output": [ "The flow of water through the sponge is unidirectional, driven by the beating of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c19daf22ef6f409d83c3e72180dd53c4", "input": "Passage: The planets make slightly elliptical orbits around the Sun. Answer: elliptical", "output": [ "What is the shape of the orbits that planets make around the sun?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c2172a653a0d4d2a80275c524c0d0475", "input": "Passage: What is this strange-looking object? Can you guess what it is? It’s a model of a certain type of matter. Some types of matter are elements, or pure substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances. Many other types of matter are compounds. The model above represents a compound. The compound it represents is carbon dioxide, a gas you exhale each time you breathe. Answer: carbon dioxide", "output": [ "Which gas do people exhale during each breath?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2387ca9dee3e4f9f8c4165476dc2dbb4", "input": "Passage: Landslides are the most dramatic, sudden, and dangerous types of mass wasting. Landslides are sudden falls of rock; by contrast, avalanches are sudden falls of snow. Answer: landslides", "output": [ "What are the most dramatic, sudden, and dangerous types of mass wasting?" ] }, { "id": "task594-da560392116140b3a27dd2dcf9a7c1fc", "input": "Passage: The last two stages of aerobic respiration require oxygen. However, not all organisms live in places where there is a plentiful supply of oxygen. Answer: oxygen", "output": [ "The last two stages of aerobic respiration require what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-03beb6ade69343b08787eede52bb97f6", "input": "Passage: Eugenol, the active ingredient in cloves, has the formula C 10 H 12 O 2 . Eugenol is a molecular substance that does not dissociate into ions when dissolved in a solvent. What is the boiling point of a solution in which 0.144 g of eugenol is dissolved in 10.0 g benzene? The k b value for benzene is 2.53 °C/ m , and the boiling point of pure benzene is 80.1 °C. Answer: eugenol", "output": [ "What is the active ingredient in cloves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5d8b2440cf5c487a878daa8a8167d060", "input": "Passage: 3. Sponges have specialized cells called collar cells. Describe how collar cells are specialized for the functions they serve. Answer: collar cells", "output": [ "What are the specialized cells of sponges called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-11d47bbd75db436f8985937148c0f0bf", "input": "Passage: There are two basic body plans in cnidarians. They are called the polyp and medusa. Both are shown in Figure below . The polyp has a tubular body and is usually sessile. The medusa (plural, medusae ) has a bell-shaped body and is typically motile. Some cnidarian species alternate between polyp and medusa forms. Other species exist in just one form or the other. Answer: medusa", "output": [ "There are two basic body plans in cnidarians which are called the polyp and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-52f6cb50c51d4735b690cf1be4cdec04", "input": "Passage: Freezing is the process in which a liquid changes to a solid. It occurs when a liquid cools to a point at which its particles no longer have enough energy to overcome the force of attraction between them. Answer: freezing", "output": [ "What is the process in which a liquid changes to a solid?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f16567fd60804a178ac264ba97b3a0ab", "input": "Passage: Magma that cools underground forms intrusions ( Figure below ). Usually this magma is very viscous felsic magma. This magma does not rise easily and so cools slowly underground. Intrusions become land formations if they are exposed at the surface by uplift and erosion. Answer: intrusions", "output": [ "What does magma that cools underground form?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9ac4f0f297b141528a9dc1384de40750", "input": "Passage: Carl Woese and the Phylogenetic Tree In the past, biologists grouped living organisms into five kingdoms: animals, plants, fungi, protists, and bacteria. The organizational scheme was based mainly on physical features, as opposed to physiology, biochemistry, or molecular biology, all of which are used by modern systematics. The pioneering work of American microbiologist Carl Woese in the early 1970s has shown, however, that life on Earth has evolved along three lineages, now called domains—Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. The first two are prokaryotic cells with microbes that lack membrane-enclosed nuclei and organelles. The third domain contains the eukaryotes and includes unicellular microorganisms together with the four original kingdoms (excluding bacteria). Woese defined Archaea as a new domain, and this resulted in a new taxonomic tree (Figure 1.17). Many organisms belonging to the Archaea domain live under extreme conditions and are called extremophiles. To construct his tree, Woese used genetic relationships rather than similarities based on morphology (shape). Woese’s tree was constructed from comparative sequencing of the genes that are universally distributed, present in every organism, and conserved (meaning that these genes have remained essentially unchanged throughout evolution). Woese’s approach was revolutionary because comparisons of physical features are insufficient to differentiate between the prokaryotes that appear fairly similar in spite of their tremendous biochemical diversity and genetic variability (Figure 1.18). The comparison of homologous DNA and RNA sequences provided Woese with a sensitive device that revealed the extensive variability of prokaryotes, and which justified the separation of the prokaryotes into two domains: bacteria and archaea. Answer: bacteria", "output": [ "In the past, biologists grouped living organisms into five kingdoms: animals, plants, fungi, protists, and what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-25d4a57b562b424296c2e97714819695", "input": "Passage: Solar energy travels in photons. Photons travel in waves, which make up electromagnetic radiation. Answer: photons", "output": [ "Solar energy travels in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5a0a4c471b9745209a07b74ece8a27a9", "input": "Passage: Food waste enters the large intestine from the small intestine in a liquid state. As the waste moves through the large intestine, excess water is absorbed from it. The remaining solid waste is called feces. After a certain amount of feces have collected, a sphincter relaxes to let the feces pass out of the body through the anus. This is elimination. Answer: water", "output": [ "What substance is removed from waste as it passes through the large intestine?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ac319c1a5f3c4126bb4e5c5688f118ed", "input": "Passage: What is a cell? Gradient Physical difference between two regions of space, in such a way that the molecules tend to move in response to the gradients. Diffusion Movement of the molecules in a fluid, from the regions of high concentration to those of low concentration. Passive transport Movement of substances in a membrane that doesn’t need to use energy. Simple diffusion Diffusion of water, gases or molecules across the membrane. Facilitated diffusion Diffusion of molecules across the membranes with the participation of proteins. Osmosis Diffusion of the water across a membrane with differential permeability. Transport that needs energy Movement of substances across a membrane generally in opposition to a gradient of concentration with the requirement of energy. Active transport Movement of small molecules using energy (ATP). Endocytosis Movement of big particles towards the interior of the cell using energy. The cells enclose particles or liquids. Pinocytosis (Literally cell drinking) Form in which the cell introduces liquids. Phagocytosis Way of eating of the cells. It feeds in this case of big particles or entire microorganisms. Pseudopods False feet (the amoeba). Exocitosis Movement of materials out of the cell with the use of energy. It throws waste material. Isotonic The cytoplasm fluid of the interior of the cells is the same that the outer. Hypertonic solution. Answer: feet", "output": [ "Pseudopods are false what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-da3914ff282a405396b20d13d38ec1f6", "input": "Passage: Chemical reactions always involve energy. Energy is a property of matter that is defined as the ability to do work. When methane burns, for example, it releases energy in the form of heat and light. Other chemical reactions absorb energy rather than release it. Answer: energy", "output": [ "Chemical reactions always involve what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c91e504c710c42a1babd433aebd30295", "input": "Passage: Figure 16.9 An enhancer is a DNA sequence that promotes transcription. Each enhancer is made up of short DNA sequences called distal control elements. Activators bound to the distal control elements interact with mediator proteins and transcription factors. Two different genes may have the same promoter but different distal control elements, enabling differential gene expression. Answer: distal control elements", "output": [ "Each enhancer is made up of short dna sequences called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-56ae1cf2060f4777bba6d982b98f5630", "input": "Passage: Proteins are an essential part of all organisms. They play many roles in living things. Certain proteins provide a scaffolding that maintains the shape of cells (structural proteins). Proteins also make up the majority of muscle tissues. Many proteins are enzymes that speed up chemical reactions in cells. Enzymes interact with the substrates (reactants) of a biochemical reaction, helping the reaction proceed at a much faster rate. Other proteins are antibodies that protect you from pathogens. Antibodies bond to foreign substances in the body and target them for destruction. Still other proteins help carry messages or materials in and out of cells (transport proteins) or around the body. For example, the blood protein hemoglobin (see Figure below ) bonds with oxygen and carries it from the lungs to cells throughout the body. Answer: enzyme", "output": [ "What type of protein speeds up chemical reactions in cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b4c44410bd9d4b2082bebd79429f7b90", "input": "Passage: Most chromosomal disorders involve the sex chromosomes. Can you guess why? The X and Y chromosomes are very different in size. The X is much larger than the Y. This difference in size creates problems. It increases the chances that the two chromosomes will fail to separate properly during meiosis. Answer: sex chromosomes", "output": [ "Most chromosomal disorders involve which chromosomes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dd085addb0ae4715b7a9c68418f4c074", "input": "Passage: The two main divisions of the human nervous system are the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The peripheral nervous system has additional divisions. Answer: central and peripheral", "output": [ "What are the two main divisions of the human nervous system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2b45b975185047fabb3d07e30803ffdb", "input": "Passage: Higher pressures increase the solubility of gases. You are probably familiar with this concept as it relates to carbonated beverages. Before opening the container, the inside is pressurized, so a large amount of CO 2 is dissolved in the liquid. After opening, the pressure decreases (to the ambient pressure), so the solubility of CO 2 drops, causing it to bubble out of solution. Because they are not compressible like gases, solid and liquid solutes do not have noticeable changes in solubility at different external pressures. Answer: gases", "output": [ "Higher pressures increase the solubility of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1f1300a12b164c17806c795133e98b91", "input": "Passage: The digestive system consists of organs that break down food and absorb nutrients such as glucose. Organs of the digestive system are shown in Figure below . Most of the organs make up the gastrointestinal tract. The rest of the organs are called accessory organs. Answer: digestive system", "output": [ "Which system consists of organs that break down food and absorb nutrients such as glucose?" ] }, { "id": "task594-28a62d4d175d48f49f6f901e9d73bcc4", "input": "Passage: Monarch butterflies gather in large groups as they migrate 2,500 miles south each fall. They return to the north in the spring. This migration is a cycle that repeats every year. Answer: migration", "output": [ "What do we call the seasonal movement of animals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-338c2f638f6e4634a0268e2cbf161beb", "input": "Passage: Calsidyrose. The needle of a compass is made of the element iron . CC BY 2.0. Answer: iron", "output": [ "The needle of a compass is made of what element?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a35a736eb60e48a7b234ee0b257c3ad9", "input": "Passage: Many samples have a lot of variation in measurements. Variation can be described with a statistic called the range. The range is the total spread of values in a sample. It is calculated by subtracting the smallest value from the largest value. Answer: range", "output": [ "What term is used to describe the total spread of values in a sample?" ] }, { "id": "task594-adf1f613b64f45eaa9e450611a392294", "input": "Passage: The energy in sunlight, or solar energy, can be used to heat homes. It can also be used to produce electricity in solar cells. However, solar energy may not be practical in areas that are often cloudy. Answer: solar energy", "output": [ "The energy in sunlight is also known as what kind of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-97f0008e7b3349eab8357dbaa421dba6", "input": "Passage: Speed just takes distance and time into account. How might direction be considered as well?. Answer: time", "output": [ "Speed takes distance and what else into account?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a8bac67e2bb94f50aaaed1c3cb4e6278", "input": "Passage: Chromosomal alterations are mutations that change chromosome structure. Answer: mutations", "output": [ "Alterations that change chromosome structure are known as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-311b8e911fff4c4b8edc1cbd451e5bb7", "input": "Passage: Sequencing the human genome has increased our knowledge of genetic disorders. These are diseases caused by mutations. They may be caused by single gene mutations or the failure of chromosomes to separate correctly during meiosis. Answer: mutations", "output": [ "What causes genetic disorders?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dca23dd490934b3c88e120ba8613eb99", "input": "Passage: Pressure is the result of force acting on a given area. It can be represented by the equation:. Answer: pressure", "output": [ "What property is the result of force acting on a given area?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9b16216b301545ad94187347f591d94b", "input": "Passage: A laser is a device that produces a very focused beam of visible light of just one wavelength and color. Pulses of laser light carry communication signals through optical fibers. Answer: laser", "output": [ "A device that produces a very focused beam of visible light of just one wavelength and color is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2dc07b47a81c41768030ff17a0b27ef2", "input": "Passage: Hydrocarbons are compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen atoms. The smallest hydrocarbon, methane (CH 4 ), contains just one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms. Larger hydrocarbons contain many more. Hydrocarbons with four or more carbon atoms can have different shapes. Although they have the same chemical formula, with the same numbers of carbon and hydrogen atoms, they form different compounds, called isomers . Isomers are compounds whose properties are different because their atoms are bonded together in different arrangements. Answer: isomers", "output": [ "What do you call compounds whose properties are different because their atoms are bonded together in different arrangements?" ] }, { "id": "task594-31735db29a9d40ddb1a16e3192907bf5", "input": "Passage: Interneurons carry nerve impulses back and forth between sensory and motor neurons. Answer: nerve impulses", "output": [ "Interneurons carry what back and forth between sensory and motor neurons?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b260d69dff51424bb3ae417a9a0fa94d", "input": "Passage: The nucleus is an example of an organelle . An organelle is any structure inside a cell that is enclosed by a membrane. Eukaryotic cells may contain many different organelles. Each does a special job. For example, the mitochondrion is an organelle that provides energy to the cell. You can see a mitochondrion and several other organelles in the animal cell in Figure above . Organelles allow eukaryotic cells to carry out more functions than prokaryotic cells can. Answer: an organelle", "output": [ "Any structure inside a cell that is enclosed by a membrane is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4051b6e3237047ef8902a0b43777a8d3", "input": "Passage: diploid spore in fungi that is produced by the fusion of two haploid parent cells. Answer: psychoactive", "output": [ "Caffeine is an example of what type of drug?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8b08b8d8d1af498d84822574aedb5a8f", "input": "Passage: In this reaction, and are positively-charged cations, while and are negatively-charged anions. Double-replacement reactions generally occur between substances in aqueous solution. In order for a reaction to occur, one of the products is usually a solid precipitate, a gas, or a molecular compound such as water. Answer: aqueous", "output": [ "Double-replacement reactions generally occur between substances in what kind of solution?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8305c2bfff8f4c3dade47c9521c3036a", "input": "Passage: Most cancers are caused by mutations. Mutations are random errors in genes. Mutations that lead to cancer usually occur in genes that control the cell cycle. Because of the mutations, abnormal cells are allowed to divide. Answer: cell mutations", "output": [ "What is the most common cause of cancer?" ] }, { "id": "task594-346ad1d3ea8b43778550f48ba5c49e9b", "input": "Passage: Pollutants in surface water can filter into the ground and enter a groundwater aquifer. Irrigation water can bring pesticides and other chemicals. Water can seep through landfills. Tanks of gasoline stored underground can leak. Answer: groundwater aquifer", "output": [ "Pollutants in surface water can filter into the ground and enter a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2ccf62c8c9924b7d8e2d88397ef0f4f7", "input": "Passage: Terrestrial biomes are determined mainly by temperature and moisture. Plants are the primary producers. Examples of terrestrial biomes include tropical rainforests, temperate grasslands, and tundra. Answer: temperature and moisture", "output": [ "What are terrestrial biomes determined by?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a83156e0c91a4166ac62d2f2f2403ebf", "input": "Passage: There are sometimes signs that a large earthquake is coming. There may be small quakes, called foreshocks . These can occur a few seconds to a few weeks before a major quake. Unfortunately, foreshocks are not very useful for predicting large earthquakes. Many quakes do not have foreshocks. Also, small earthquakes are not necessarily followed by a large earthquake. Answer: foreshock", "output": [ "A small quake preceding a large quake is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ffaeaca898c642ca8a3c494d7eccc612", "input": "Passage: For a fixed amount of gas at constant temperature, the volume is inversely proportional to its pressure. Answer: temperature", "output": [ "If a fixed amount of gas maintains a perfectly inversely proportional relationship between volume and pressure, then what else must be constant about the gas?" ] }, { "id": "task594-788cf6a651c245059ec7872530e13a1a", "input": "Passage: Functionally, the respiratory system can be divided into a conducting zone and a respiratory zone. The conducting zone of the respiratory system includes the organs and structures not directly involved in gas exchange. The gas exchange occurs in the respiratory zone. Answer: gas exchange", "output": [ "The conducting zone of the respiratory system includes the organs and structures not directly involved in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9b990cf6b2ef4bf7be929b7add63cb74", "input": "Passage: Photosynthesis changes light energy to chemical energy. The chemical energy is stored in the bonds of glucose molecules. Glucose is used for energy by the cells of almost all living things. Plants make their own glucose. Other organisms get glucose by consuming plants (or organisms that consume plants). How do living things get energy from glucose? The answer is cellular respiration. Answer: chemical", "output": [ "Photosynthesis changes light energy to what type of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6cbc387c5b934518a5f936b551274abb", "input": "Passage: Chemistry is the study of matter and energy and how they interact, mainly at the level of atoms and molecules. Basic concepts in chemistry include chemicals and chemical reactions. Answer: interact", "output": [ "Chemistry is the study of matter and energy and how they what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f32a19c5842240f9ab928b70429209a8", "input": "Passage: An electromagnetic wave begins when an electrically charged particle vibrates. This causes a vibrating electric field, which in turn creates a vibrating magnetic field. The two vibrating fields together form an electromagnetic wave. Answer: vibration", "output": [ "An electromagnetic wave begins with what movement by an electrically charged particle?" ] }, { "id": "task594-61e75d10dce2464c80185bb8582850b5", "input": "Passage: Like roots, the stems of vascular plants are made of dermal, vascular, and ground tissues. Answer: roots and stems", "output": [ "In vascular plants, what two basic structures are made of dermal, vascular, and ground tissues?" ] }, { "id": "task594-344c77cc7268454d9a58458edb58f8c0", "input": "Passage: Adrian Pingstone (Wikimedia: Arpingstone). Brightly colored poison dart frogs have toxins in their skin . Public Domain. Answer: toxins", "output": [ "What is contained in the skin of brightly colored poison dart frogs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f8d95e98b9df4f7cae61c64b2d60a0ed", "input": "Passage: Two nuclei must collide for fusion to occur. High temperatures are required to give the nuclei enough kinetic energy to overcome the very strong repulsion resulting from their positive charges. A nuclear reactor consists of the following: 1. A nuclear fuel. A fissionable isotope must be present in large enough quantities to sustain a controlled chain reaction. The radioactive isotope is contained in tubes called fuel rods. A moderator. A moderator slows neutrons produced by nuclear reactions so that they can be absorbed by the fuel and cause additional nuclear reactions. A coolant. The coolant carries heat from the fission reaction to an external boiler and turbine where it is transformed into electricity. Answer: collide", "output": [ "What must two nuclei do for fusion to occur?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c3b1e798850a43629371a35c6dcf005f", "input": "Passage: When glass breaks, its physical properties change. Instead of one solid sheet of glass, it now has holes and cracks. Answer: its physical property", "output": [ "Which property changes when a glass breaks?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2ed491577ade4b1b9900918674e8e159", "input": "Passage: Blood with wastes enters each kidney through an artery, which branches into many capillaries. After passing through capillaries and being filtered, the clean blood leaves the kidney through a vein. Answer: kidney", "output": [ "After passing through capillaries and being filtered, clean blood leaves what organ through a vein?" ] }, { "id": "task594-38743c7f860a4424b44685d1ebfee1f4", "input": "Passage: hyphae divided by perforated septa, allowing streaming of cytoplasm from one cell to the other. Conidia and asci, which are used respectively for asexual and sexual reproductions, are usually separated from the vegetative hyphae by blocked (non-perforated) septa. Asexual reproduction is frequent and involves the production of conidiophores that release haploid conidiospores (Figure 24.13). Sexual reproduction starts with the development of special hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains (Figure 24.13). The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine in plasmogamy without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei in karyogamy. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The diploid nucleus gives rise to haploid nuclei by meiosis. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia (Figure 24.14). Answer: sexual", "output": [ "Asci are used by mycelia for what kind of reproduction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-33aecc9fbe3e475ea50e05c170535e8b", "input": "Passage: Ebola is a rare and deadly disease caused by infection with a strain of Ebola virus. The 2014 Ebola epidemic is the largest in history, affecting multiple countries in West Africa, including Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia. Ebola is spread through direct contact with blood and body fluids of a person infected by and already showing symptoms of Ebola. Ebola is not spread through the air, water, food, or mosquitoes. See Ebola virus disease at http://www. who. int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs103/en/ for additional information. Answer: virus", "output": [ "Ebola is an example of a disease spread by what kind of infectious agent?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8c68a988ab7a456ea0f76078db3b518f", "input": "Passage: Human Vertebral Column and Vertebrae. The human vertebral column consists of 33 vertebrae. Two vertebrae are shown here enlarged. Answer: 33", "output": [ "How many vertebrae make up the human vertebral column?" ] }, { "id": "task594-35f435e4060645ed840b81249290768f", "input": "Passage: The branch of biology that studies animal behavior is called ethology. Ethologists usually study how animals behave in their natural environment. They try to determine the cause of behaviors, how behaviors develop, and how and why behaviors evolve. Answer: ethology", "output": [ "Which branch of biology studies animal behavior?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fb2219ceed19410896615411afe23c11", "input": "Passage: A nonmetal is an element that is generally a poor conductor of heat and electricity. Many properties of nonmetals are the opposite of those seen in metals. There is a wider variation in properties among the nonmetals than among the metals, as seen in Figure below . Nonmetals exist in all three states of matter at room temperature. The majority are gases, such as nitrogen and oxygen. Bromine is a liquid, and a few are solids, such as carbon and sulfur. In the solid state, nonmetals are brittle, meaning that they will shatter if struck with a hammer. The solids are not lustrous, and their melting points are generally much lower than those of metals. On the periodic table in the Figure above , the nonmetals are shaded green and appear to the right of the stair-step line. Answer: nonmetal", "output": [ "An element that is generally a poor conductor of heat and electricity is known as a ______" ] }, { "id": "task594-6f2ab95dada4449f9f9646ffbdfa1879", "input": "Passage: Bacterial STIs usually can be cured with antibiotics. Answer: antibiotics", "output": [ "Bacterial stis usually can be cured with what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4fd8e8f6e6aa42538642ddf01fff3c94", "input": "Passage: Continental crust is much thicker than oceanic crust. It is 35 kilometers (22 miles) thick on average, but it varies a lot. Continental crust is made up of many different rocks. All three major rock types — igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary — are found in the crust. On average, continental crust is much less dense (2.7 g/cm3) than oceanic crust. Since it is less dense, it rises higher above the mantle than oceanic crust. Answer: 35 kilometers", "output": [ "How thick is the earth's continental crust, on average?" ] }, { "id": "task594-48e8861f0fb64757903f6c8f4e7d89a4", "input": "Passage: The connecting piece of the sperm is packed with mitochondria. Mitochondria are organelles in cells that produce energy. Sperm use the energy to move. Answer: mitochondria", "output": [ "What is the connecting piece of a sperm packed with?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c34d4a8f804c4bdd999095870b11b009", "input": "Passage: The job of the respiratory system is the exchange of gases between the body and the outside air. This process, called respiration , actually consists of two parts. In the first part, oxygen in the air is drawn into the body and carbon dioxide is released from the body through the respiratory tract. In the second part, the circulatory system delivers the oxygen to body cells and picks up carbon dioxide from the cells in return. The lungs are organs of the respiratory system. It is in the lungs where oxygen is transferred from the respiratory system to the circulatory system. Answer: gases", "output": [ "What does the respiratory system exchange between the body and the outside air?" ] }, { "id": "task594-12a3ecf772c6478cb6b62b905f86957c", "input": "Passage: Because the molecules of an ideal gas are assumed to have zero volume, the volume available to them for motion is always the same as the volume of the container. In contrast, the molecules of a real gas have small but measurable volumes. At low pressures, the gaseous molecules are relatively far apart, but as the pressure of the gas increases, the intermolecular distances become smaller and smaller (Figure 10.23 \"The Effect of Nonzero Volume of Gas Particles on the Behavior of Gases at Low and High Pressures\"). As a result, the volume occupied by the molecules becomes significant compared with the volume of the container. Consequently, the total volume occupied by the gas is greater than the volume predicted by the ideal gas law. Thus at very high pressures, the experimentally measured value of PV/nRT is greater than the value predicted by the ideal gas law. Figure 10.23 The Effect of Nonzero Volume of Gas Particles on the Behavior of Gases at Low and High Pressures. Answer: zero", "output": [ "What is the volume of the molecules of an ideal gas?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f0f601d543054fd785b87c2f8bc71d84", "input": "Passage: The physical behavior of gases is explained by the kinetic theory of gases. Answer: kinetic theory of gases", "output": [ "What theory explains the physical behavior of gases?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e9ee74dd5d52422197d89b3e5cf804bd", "input": "Passage: An important way of making ATP without oxygen is called fermentation . It involves glycolysis, but not the other two stages of aerobic respiration. Many bacteria and yeasts carry out fermentation. People use these organisms to make yogurt, bread, wine, and biofuels. Human muscle cells also use fermentation. This occurs when muscle cells cannot get oxygen fast enough to meet their energy needs through aerobic respiration. Answer: fermentation", "output": [ "What is the process of making atp without oxygen called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-64010fca014e4a25a3ecb26c45e3809a", "input": "Passage: The germ theory proposes that microorganisms are the cause of many diseases. Answer: germ theory", "output": [ "What theory proposes that microorganisms are the cause of many diseases?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3939c1454a644168a619194d00c5e1fb", "input": "Passage: Condensation is the change of state from a gas to a liquid. Answer: condensation", "output": [ "What is the process of changing something from a gas to a liquid?" ] }, { "id": "task594-faa50f1a3b76432b8503bed0c39efc45", "input": "Passage: A cross section of earthquake epicenters. The depth outlines the subducting plate. There are shallow, intermediate, and deep earthquakes. Answer: earthquake", "output": [ "Subducting plate and epicenter are terms related to what phenomenon?" ] }, { "id": "task594-55a16d2aa2524685ac83231aadfdff9f", "input": "Passage: The main distinguishing feature of vertebrates is their vertebral column, or backbone (see Figure below ). The backbone runs from the head to the tail along the dorsal (top) side of the body. The vertebral column is the core of the endoskeleton. It allows a vertebrate to hold its shape. It also houses and protects the spinal (nerve) cord that passes through it. The vertebral column is made up of repeating units called vertebrae (singular, vertebra). In many species, there are shock-absorbing discs between the vertebrae to cushion them during movement. Answer: vertebral column", "output": [ "What makes up the core of the endoskeleton?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6496a7cb8a2e4ecb924aa9729003908a", "input": "Passage: Underground mining is used to recover ores that are deeper into Earth’s surface. Miners blast and tunnel into rock to gain access to the ores. An underground ore deposit can be approached from above, below, or sideways. The direction depends on the placement of the ore body, its depth, the concentration of ore, and the strength of the surrounding rock. An example of an underground mine can be seen below ( Figure below ). Answer: underground", "output": [ "What type of mining is used to recover ores that are deeper into earth’s surface?" ] }, { "id": "task594-70b175cef6f347e485877b4a25f86d78", "input": "Passage: Most organelles are common to both animal and plant cells. However, plant cells also have features that animal cells do not have: a cell wall, a large central vacuole, and plastids such as chloroplasts. Answer: plant cells", "output": [ "Would you find cells that contain a cell wall, a large central vacuole, and plastids in plant or animal cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-407b0fb1b2f843efbd3964c129e3ff15", "input": "Passage: Copying and passing on genes (genetics) In which we consider the dynamics of genes and gene expression, and how genome dynamics leads to families of genes and facilitates evolutionary change. We consider how DNA is organized within a cell and how its organization influences gene expression. Finally we consider the behavior of regulatory networks at the molecular level and the role of molecular level noise in producing interesting behaviors. At this point we have introduced genes, DNA, and proteins, but we have left unresolved a number of important questions. These include how genomes are organized, how they evolve, how new genes and alleles are generated, and how they work together to produce the various behaviors that organisms display.327 We will touch on such trendy topics such as epigenetics (which is probably less interesting than most suppose) and the rather complex molecular and cellular level processes behind even the simplest biological behaviors. The details, where known–and often they are not–are beyond the scope of this course, but the basic themes are relatively straightforward, although it does takes some practice to master this type of thinking. The key is to keep calm and analyze on! Genomes and their organization Genomes are characterized by two complementary metrics, the number of base pairs of DNA and the number of genes present within this DNA. The number of base pairs is easier to measure, we can count them. This can, however, lead to a mistaken conclusion, namely that the number of base pairs of DNA within the genome of a particular species, organism, or even tissue within an organism is fixed and constant. In fact genomes are dynamic, something that we will return to shortly. The genome of an organism (and generally the cells of which it is composed) consists of one or more DNA molecules. When we talk about genome size we are talking about the total number of base pairs present in all of these DNA molecules added together. The organism with one of the largest known genomes is the plant Paris japonica; its genome is estimated to be ~150,000 x 106 (millions of) base pairs.328 In contrast the (haploid) human genome consists of ~3,200 x 106 base pairs of DNA. The relatively small genome size of birds (~1,450 x 106 base pairs) is thought to be due to the smaller genome size of their dinosaurian ancestors.329 That said there are interesting organisms that suggest that in some cases, natural selection can act to dramatically increase or decrease genome size without changing gene number. For example, the carnivorous bladderwort Utricularia gibba, has a genome of 327. Answer: dna molecules", "output": [ "The genome of an organism consists of one or more what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-78bc36231091415dae3ad4a4ac98575a", "input": "Passage: 9.4 Translation The central dogma describes the flow of genetic information in the cell from genes to mRNA to proteins. Genes are used to make mRNA by the process of transcription; mRNA is used to synthesize proteins by the process of translation. The genetic code is the correspondence between the three-nucleotide mRNA codon and an amino acid. The genetic code is “translated” by the tRNA molecules, which associate a specific codon with a specific amino acid. The genetic code is degenerate because 64 triplet codons in mRNA specify only 20 amino acids and three stop codons. This means that more than one codon corresponds to an amino acid. Almost every species on the planet uses the same genetic code. The players in translation include the mRNA template, ribosomes, tRNAs, and various enzymatic factors. The small ribosomal subunit binds to the mRNA template. Translation begins at the initiating AUG on the mRNA. The formation of bonds occurs between sequential amino acids specified by the mRNA template according to the genetic code. The ribosome accepts charged tRNAs, and as it steps along the mRNA, it catalyzes bonding between the new amino acid and the end of the growing polypeptide. The entire mRNA is translated in three-nucleotide “steps” of the ribosome. When a stop codon is encountered, a release factor binds and dissociates the components and frees the new protein. Answer: translation", "output": [ "Genes are used to make mrna by the process of transcription; mrna is used to synthesize proteins by the process of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bbc9a9b4ad3d41609aa2fc40ba72d760", "input": "Passage: The peripheral nervous system consists of all the nervous tissue that lies outside the central nervous system. It is connected to the central nervous system by nerves. It has several divisions and subdivisions that transmit nerve impulses between the central nervous system and the rest of the body. Answer: peripheral nervous system", "output": [ "Which system consists of all the nervous tissue that lies outside the central nervous system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-636e721918374ea68f895faea0d21efb", "input": "Passage: Spores may be dispersed by moving water, wind, or other organisms. Some fungi even have “cannons” that “shoot” the spores far from the parent organism. This helps to ensure that the offspring will not have to compete with the parents for space or other resources. You are probably familiar with puffballs, like the one in Figure below . They release a cloud of spores when knocked or stepped on. Wherever the spores happen to land, they do not germinate until conditions are favorable for growth. Then they develop into new hyphae. Answer: fungi", "output": [ "What type of organism has spores that are spread by water and wind?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fd7099a88cd34ffca2382003823b1d48", "input": "Passage: Ionic bonds form only between metals and nonmetals. That’s because metals “want” to give up electrons, and nonmetals “want” to gain electrons. Find sodium (Na) in the Figure below . Sodium is an alkali metal in group 1. Like all group 1 elements, it has just one valence electron. If sodium loses that one electron, it will have a full outer energy level, which is the most stable arrangement of electrons. Now find fluorine (F) in the periodic table Figure below . Fluorine is a halogen in group 17. Like all group 17 elements, fluorine has seven valence electrons. If fluorine gains one electron, it will also have a full outer energy level and the most stable arrangement of electrons. Answer: ionic", "output": [ "What type of bond generally forms between a metal and non-metal?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e05a369a52d34d94a148981e5c1fbe8b", "input": "Passage: Both mitosis and meiosis result in eukaryotic cells dividing. So what is the difference between mitosis and meiosis? The primary difference is the differing goals of each process. The goal of mitosis is to produce two daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell, meaning the new cells have exactly the same DNA as the parent cell. Mitosis happens when you want to grow, for example. You want all your new cells to have the same DNA as the previous cells. The goal of meiosis, however, is to produce sperm or eggs, also known as gametes . The resulting gametes are not genetically identical to the parent cell. Gametes are haploid cells, with only half the DNA present in the diploid parent cell. This is necessary so that when a sperm and an egg combine at fertilization , the resulting zygote has the correct amount of DNA—not twice as much as the parents. The zygote then begins to divide through mitosis. Answer: dividing", "output": [ "Both mitosis and meiosis result in eukaryotic cells doing what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f7b3f0bb69ca4b4c9f6febe65d2a0115", "input": "Passage: That is the main difference between sexual and asexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction is combining genetic material from two parents, usually from two gametes. How the two cells combine may take many forms, but does not necessarily involve physical contact. Sexual reproduction produces offspring that are genetically distinct from other offspring and from their parents. Asexual reproduction produces offspring from just one parent. These offspring are genetically identical to that one parent. Answer: sexual reproduction", "output": [ "What type of reproduction involves combining genetic material from two parents to create distinct offspring?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b3827fe1e6f848c4b5dfaa2792bc3293", "input": "Passage: There are two different types of immune responses. Both types involve lymphocytes. However, one type of response involves B cells. The other type involves T cells. Answer: immune", "output": [ "What type of systemic response involves lymphocytes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8f1edb892b7047b396a7a606f3a20836", "input": "Passage: Viral diseases can be difficult to treat. They live inside the cells of their host, so it is hard to destroy them without killing host cells. Antibiotics also have no effect on viruses. Antiviral drugs are available, but only for a limited number of viruses. Answer: viral diseases", "output": [ "What kind of diseases can be difficult to treat because they live inside the host's cells, making it hard to destroy them without killing host cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-426982fe61644a849877ed34b43adf48", "input": "Passage: 24.4 Energy in Electromagnetic Waves Anyone who has used a microwave oven knows there is energy in electromagnetic waves. Sometimes this energy is obvious, such as in the warmth of the summer sun. Other times it is subtle, such as the unfelt energy of gamma rays, which can destroy living cells. Electromagnetic waves can bring energy into a system by virtue of their electric and magnetic fields. These fields can exert forces and move charges in the system and, thus, do work on them. If the frequency of the electromagnetic wave is the same as the natural frequencies of the system (such as microwaves at the resonant frequency of water molecules), the transfer of energy is much more efficient. Connections: Waves and Particles The behavior of electromagnetic radiation clearly exhibits wave characteristics. But we shall find in later modules that at high frequencies, electromagnetic radiation also exhibits particle characteristics. These particle characteristics will be used to explain more of the properties of the electromagnetic spectrum and to introduce the formal study of modern physics. Another startling discovery of modern physics is that particles, such as electrons and protons, exhibit wave characteristics. This simultaneous sharing of wave and particle properties for all submicroscopic entities is one of the great symmetries in nature. Answer: energy", "output": [ "If the frequency of the electromagnetic wave is the same as the natural frequencies of the system, the transfer of what is much more efficient?" ] }, { "id": "task594-263bafb527f64107b2e6dd05d2700d44", "input": "Passage: Converging plates can be oceanic, continental, or one of each. If at least one is oceanic, it will subduct. A subducting plate creates volcanoes. Many of the world's volcanoes are the result of subduction at a convergent plate boundary. A map of the world's active volcanoes is pictured below ( Figure below ). Answer: volcanoes", "output": [ "Converging plates can be oceanic, continental, or one of each. if at least one is oceanic, it will subduct. a subducting plate creates what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7c09a1ed672544ed9a18956477d6f5be", "input": "Passage: Figure 22.13 (a) In the planetary model of the atom, an electron orbits a nucleus, forming a closed-current loop and producing a magnetic field with a north pole and a south pole. (b) Electrons have spin and can be crudely pictured as rotating charge, forming a current that produces a magnetic field with a north pole and a south pole. Neither the planetary model nor the image of a spinning electron is completely consistent with modern physics. However, they do provide a useful way of understanding phenomena. Answer: planetary model", "output": [ "What model of the atom features an electron orbiting a nucleus, forming a closed-current loop and producing a magnetic field with a north pole and a south pole?." ] }, { "id": "task594-578d818ba8f34ca987dc9b14a87337a2", "input": "Passage: The large intestine eliminates solid wastes that remain after the digestion of food. Answer: the large intestine", "output": [ "What organ eliminates solid wastes that remain after the digestion of food?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d2651e128bfd41e38813c7d0f2726552", "input": "Passage: Most geological activity takes place at plate boundaries. This activity includes volcanoes, earthquakes, and mountain building. The activity occurs as plates interact. Giant slabs of lithosphere moving around can create a lot of activity! The features seen at a plate boundary are determined by the direction of plate motion and by the type of crust found at the boundary. Answer: plate boundaries", "output": [ "Where does most geological activity take place?" ] }, { "id": "task594-99bb2281a78a46c2b8628adbb8355f1a", "input": "Passage: Rolling friction is friction that acts on objects when they are rolling over a surface. Rolling friction is much weaker than sliding friction or static friction. This explains why most forms of ground transportation use wheels, including bicycles, cars, 4-wheelers, roller skates, scooters, and skateboards. Ball bearings are another use of rolling friction. You can see what they look like in the Figure below . They let parts of a wheel or other machine roll rather than slide over on another. Answer: rolling friction", "output": [ "What is friction that acts on objects while it is rolling over a surface called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-60f9515196d74127914879727ccbb067", "input": "Passage: Mineralocorticoids Mineralocorticoids are hormones synthesized by the adrenal cortex that affect osmotic balance. Aldosterone is a mineralocorticoid that regulates sodium levels in the blood. Almost all of the sodium in the blood is reclaimed by the renal tubules under the influence of aldosterone. Because sodium is always reabsorbed by active transport and water follows sodium to maintain osmotic balance, aldosterone manages not only sodium levels but also the water levels in body fluids. In contrast, the aldosterone also stimulates potassium secretion concurrently with sodium reabsorption. In contrast, absence of aldosterone means that no sodium gets reabsorbed in the renal tubules and all of it gets excreted in the urine. In addition, the daily dietary potassium load is not secreted and the retention of K+ can cause a dangerous increase in plasma K+ concentration. Patients who have Addison's disease have a failing adrenal cortex and cannot produce aldosterone. They lose sodium in their urine constantly, and if the supply is not replenished, the consequences can be fatal. Answer: osmotic", "output": [ "Mineralocorticoids are hormones synthesized by the adrenal cortex that affect what balance, by regulating sodium and water levels?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3284912c0fc940a59a1fa969697f9126", "input": "Passage: Molar mass is equal to density multiplied by molar volume. Answer: molar volume", "output": [ "Molar mass is equal to density multiplied by what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6bb6cad7118547858c5c759b5a9910bc", "input": "Passage: During adolescence, estrogen causes the changes of puberty. It causes the reproductive organs to mature. It also causes other female traits to develop. For example, it causes the breasts to grow and the hips to widen. Answer: estrogen", "output": [ "What causes the changes of puberty?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f8074e01481c442abf7a7c16156ff30f", "input": "Passage: Mendel investigated seven different characteristics in pea plants. In this chart, cotyledons refer to the tiny leaves inside seeds. Axial pods are located along the stems. Terminal pods are located at the ends of the stems. Answer: stems", "output": [ "Terminal pods are located at the end of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1f08051a115d4f44a40cc25116da7bac", "input": "Passage: Destructive interference occurs when two waves combine and cancel each other out. This occurs when a peak in one wave lines up with a trough in the other wave. Answer: destructive interference", "output": [ "What occurs when two waves combine and cancel each other out?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3c5209aebd804c5cb8b95d049f0d3bf1", "input": "Passage: Oil spills are another source of ocean pollution. To get at oil buried beneath the seafloor, oil rigs are built in the oceans. These rigs pump oil from beneath the ocean floor. Huge ocean tankers carry oil around the world. If something goes wrong with a rig on a tanker, millions of barrels of oil may end up in the water. The oil may coat and kill ocean animals. Some of the oil will wash ashore. This oil may destroy coastal wetlands and ruin beaches. Answer: oil spill", "output": [ "What source of ocean pollution kills animals by coating them?" ] }, { "id": "task594-86aec102977c4d29adaaa6277e8d37e4", "input": "Passage: Radiation fog forms at night. Skies are clear, and the relative humidity is high. The ground cools as temperature goes down. Air near the ground cools below its dew point. Tule fog is an extreme form of radiation fog. This type of fog strikes the Central Valley of California in winter. Answer: tule fog", "output": [ "What is the name of an extreme form of radiation fog?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4021567c3f6844d296fcfb9689045461", "input": "Passage: The amount of kinetic energy in a moving object depends on its mass and velocity. An object with greater mass or greater velocity has more kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of a moving object can be calculated with the equation:. Answer: its mass and velocity", "output": [ "What two things determine how much kinetic energy an object has?" ] }, { "id": "task594-31b572774b784544a535f0ab33bc73ae", "input": "Passage: lead: An element that was once commonly used in gasoline and paint, is now found to have dangerous effects, such as brain damage. Lead contamination has many harmful effects on the body. Answer: lead", "output": [ "What element once commonly used in paint and gasoline has now been found to have dangerous effects?" ] }, { "id": "task594-652ca3dd536841a5b98eeafffa0ddcef", "input": "Passage: An error is a boundary on the precision and accuracy of the result of a measurement. Some errors are caused by unpredictable changes in the measuring devices (such as balances, rulers, or calipers), but other errors can be caused by reading a measuring device incorrectly or by using broken or malfunctioning equipment. Such errors can have an impact on the reliability of the experiment’s results; they affect the accuracy of measurements. For example, you use a balance to obtain the mass of a 100 gram block. Three measurements that you get are: 93.1 g, 92.0 g, and 91.8 g. The measurements are precise, as they are close together, but they are not accurate. Answer: error", "output": [ "In statistics a boundary on the precision and accuracy is known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5da6d82276ce44cf905f066cf8651768", "input": "Passage: Combinations of different substances are called mixtures. Answer: solute and a solvent", "output": [ "What are the two components of a mixture called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c1f0618956344777b7cff255a56c0a02", "input": "Passage: Clouds on Earth are made of water vapor. Venus's clouds are a lot less pleasant. They are made of carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and large amounts of corrosive sulfuric acid! Scientists think the color of sunlight on Venus is reddish-brown. Answer: water vapor", "output": [ "What are clouds on earth made of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-150c7fd16b8f40db954fdaa5b3bc993a", "input": "Passage: Ocean waves are energy traveling through water. They are caused mainly by wind blowing over the water. Answer: wind", "output": [ "What are ocean waves mainly caused by?" ] }, { "id": "task594-69343660128b417abbb13e7bfc4429b3", "input": "Passage: A tight junction is a watertight seal between two adjacent animal cells (Figure 3.17b). Proteins hold the cells tightly against each other. This tight adhesion prevents materials from leaking between the cells. Tight junctions are typically found in the epithelial tissue that lines internal organs and cavities, and composes most of the skin. For example, the tight junctions of the epithelial cells lining the urinary bladder prevent urine from leaking into the extracellular space. Also found only in animal cells are desmosomes, which act like spot welds between adjacent epithelial cells (Figure 3.17c). They keep cells together in a sheet-like formation in organs and tissues that stretch, like the skin, heart, and muscles. Gap junctions in animal cells are like plasmodesmata in plant cells in that they are channels between adjacent cells that allow for the transport of ions, nutrients, and other substances that enable cells to communicate (Figure 3.17d). Structurally, however, gap junctions and plasmodesmata differ. Answer: tight junction", "output": [ "What is the term for a watertight seal between two adjacent animal cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ede2b9ee21d3422282a6d69536dcbb8b", "input": "Passage: The temperature at which a substance boils and changes to a gas is called its boiling point. Boiling point is a physical property of matter. The boiling point of pure water is 100°C. Other substances may have higher or lower boiling points. Several examples are listed in the Table below . Pure water is included in the table for comparison. Answer: boiling point", "output": [ "What is the term for when a substance boils and changes to gas?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d6582332e3404e6da68fc1af180b3a97", "input": "Passage: Not all climate regions develop soils. Arid regions are poor at soil development. Not all regions develop the same soil horizons. Some areas develop as many as five or six distinct layers. Others develop only a few. Answer: soil", "output": [ "While some climate regions have multiple layers, arid regions are poor for development of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2f2e6f3d8071426c9783302d6eb65f26", "input": "Passage: The primary feature shared by all vertebrates is the vertebral column , or backbone. The vertebral column protects the spinal cord. Answer: spinal cord", "output": [ "What does the vertebral column , or backbone, protect?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0693610803e8409cb5bf336452604741", "input": "Passage: Some volcanic eruptions are non-explosive ( Figure below ). This happens when there is little or no gas. The lava is thin, fluid and runny. It flows over the ground like a river. People generally have a lot of warning before a lava flow like this reaches them, so non-explosive eruptions are much less deadly. They may still be destructive to property, though. Even when we know that a lava flow is approaching, there are few ways of stopping it!. Answer: non-explosive", "output": [ "What kind of volcanic eruptions are less deadly?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1ae2f6fa3628483f9d74151604e2921b", "input": "Passage: Bicarbonate Bicarbonate is the second most abundant anion in the blood. Its principal function is to maintain your body’s acid-base balance by being part of buffer systems. This role will be discussed in a different section. Bicarbonate ions result from a chemical reaction that starts with carbon dioxide (CO2) and water, two molecules that are produced at the end of aerobic metabolism. Only a small amount of CO2 can be dissolved in body fluids. Thus, over 90 percent of the CO2 is converted into bicarbonate ions, HCO3–, through the following reactions:. Answer: buffer systems", "output": [ "Bicarbonate is the second most abundant anion in the blood. its principal function is to maintain your body’s acid-base balance by being part of these?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7377b781afcc4519997f2e3809b0396f", "input": "Passage: Endocrine Glands The secretions of endocrine glands are called hormones. Hormones are released into the interstitial fluid, diffused into the bloodstream, and delivered to targets, in other words, cells that have receptors to bind the hormones. The endocrine system is part of a major regulatory system coordinating the regulation and integration of body responses. A few examples of endocrine glands include the anterior pituitary, thymus, adrenal cortex, and gonads. Answer: hormones", "output": [ "What are the secretions released by the endocrine glands called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-253172d2cba6486ca2752cd534bfd5b2", "input": "Passage: The Cell Wall The cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells has a high concentration of dissolved solutes. Therefore, the osmotic pressure within the cell is relatively high. The cell wall is a protective layer that surrounds some cells and gives them shape and rigidity. It is located outside the cell membrane and prevents osmotic lysis (bursting due to increasing volume). The chemical composition of the cell walls varies between archaea and bacteria, and also varies between bacterial species. Bacterial cell walls contain peptidoglycan, composed of polysaccharide chains that are cross-linked by unusual peptides containing both L- and D-amino acids including D-glutamic acid and D-alanine. Proteins normally have only L-amino acids; as a consequence, many of our antibiotics work by mimicking D-amino acids and therefore have specific effects on bacterial cell wall development. There are more than 100 different forms of peptidoglycan. S-layer (surface layer) proteins are also present on the outside of cell walls of both archaea and bacteria. Bacteria are divided into two major groups: Gram positive and Gram negative, based on their reaction to Gram staining. Note that all Gram-positive bacteria belong to one phylum; bacteria in the other phyla (Proteobacteria, Chlamydias, Spirochetes, Cyanobacteria, and others) are Gram-negative. The Gram staining method is named after its inventor, Danish scientist Hans Christian Gram (1853–1938). The different bacterial responses to the staining procedure are ultimately due to cell wall structure. Gram-positive organisms typically lack the outer membrane found in Gram-negative organisms (Figure 22.15). Up to 90 percent of the cell wall in Gram-positive bacteria is composed of peptidoglycan, and most of the rest is composed of acidic substances called teichoic acids. Teichoic acids may be covalently linked to lipids in the plasma membrane to form lipoteichoic acids. Lipoteichoic acids anchor the cell wall to the cell membrane. Gram-negative bacteria have a relatively thin cell wall composed of a few layers of peptidoglycan (only 10 percent of the total cell wall), surrounded by an outer envelope containing lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and lipoproteins. This outer envelope is sometimes referred to as a second lipid bilayer. The chemistry of this outer envelope is very different, however, from that of the typical lipid bilayer that forms plasma membranes. Answer: relatively high", "output": [ "The cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells has a high concentration of dissolved solutes. therefore, the osmotic pressure within the cell is what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7f65fbb506884b98bc65895c9a19368d", "input": "Passage: Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes that occur in living things. Research may cover basic cellular processes up to understanding disease states so better treatments can be developed. Answer: biochemistry", "output": [ "What is the study of chemical processes that occur in living things?" ] }, { "id": "task594-979124e490f344a198378b48d8541659", "input": "Passage: Mitosis vs. Meiosis Comparison. Mitosis produces two diploid daughter cells, genetically identical to the parent cell. Meiosis produces four haploid daughter cells, each genetically unique. See How Cells Divide: Mitosis vs. Meiosis at http://www. pbs. org/wgbh/nova/miracle/divide. html for an animation comparing the two processes. Answer: meiosis", "output": [ "What process produces four haploid daughter cells, each genetically unique?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a4b124df28254be88db97537051b0206", "input": "Passage: Like a blanket on a sleeping person, greenhouse gases act as insulation for the planet. The warming of the atmosphere is because of insulation by greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gases are the component of the atmosphere that moderate Earth’s temperatures. Answer: insulation", "output": [ "Like a blanket on a sleeping person, greenhouse gases act as what for the planet?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0bfa2bbe3cc342d495c00c637eaa14b0", "input": "Passage: Wallace and Darwin both observed similar patterns in other organisms and independently conceived a mechanism to explain how and why such changes could take place. Darwin called this mechanism natural selection. Natural selection, Darwin argued, was an inevitable outcome of three principles that operated in nature. First, the characteristics of organisms are inherited, or passed from parent to offspring. Second, more offspring are produced than are able to survive; in other words, resources for survival and reproduction are limited. The capacity for reproduction in all organisms outstrips the availability of resources to support their numbers. Thus, there is a competition for those resources in each generation. Both Darwin and Wallace’s understanding of this principle came from reading an essay by the economist Thomas Malthus, who discussed this principle in relation to human populations. Third, offspring vary among each other in regard to their characteristics and those variations are inherited. Out of these three principles, Darwin and Wallace reasoned that offspring with inherited characteristics that allow them to best compete for limited resources will survive and have more offspring than those individuals with variations that are less able to compete. Because characteristics are inherited, these traits will be better represented in the next generation. This will lead to change in populations over generations in a process that Darwin called “descent with modification. ” Papers by Darwin and Wallace (Figure 11.3) presenting the idea of natural selection were read together in 1858 before the Linnaean Society in London. The following year Darwin’s book, On the Origin of Species, was published, which outlined in considerable detail his arguments for evolution by natural selection. Answer: descent with modifications", "output": [ "What did darwin call the evolutionary concept of change in populations over generations?" ] }, { "id": "task594-802742ac68024761a15c950f74a743dd", "input": "Passage: As the rust forms on the surface of the iron, it flakes off to expose more iron, which will continue to rust. Rust is clearly a substance that is different from iron. Rusting is an example of a chemical change. Some chemical changes are not as obvious but are still hugely important. For example, photosynthesis and cellular respiration are chemical changes that we could not live without. Chemical changes involve the combination, decomposition, or rearrangement of elements and compounds to form new substances. Answer: chemical changes", "output": [ "The combination decomposition or rearrangement of elements and compounds to form new substances is known as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8e429d197dfa4485879ef400a48476b2", "input": "Passage: For decades Pluto was a planet. But even then, scientists knew it was an unusual planet. The other outer planets are all gas giants. Pluto is small, icy and rocky. With a diameter of about 2400 kilometers, it has only about 1/5 the mass of Earth’s Moon. The other planets orbit in a plane. Pluto's orbit is tilted. The shape of the orbit is like a long, narrow ellipse. Pluto's orbit is so elliptical that sometimes it is inside the orbit of Neptune. Answer: neptune", "output": [ "Pluto's orbit is so elliptical that sometimes it is inside the orbit of which planet?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4bd7be60a96641d896d65a851f9f0147", "input": "Passage: Yeasts are an exception. They reproduce asexually by budding instead of by producing spores. An offspring cell forms on a parent cell. After it grows and develops, it buds off to form a new cell. The offspring cell is genetically identical to the parent cell. You can see yeast cells budding in Figure below . Answer: asexually", "output": [ "How do yeasts reproduce?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c44a2876054c4f639dc316f063dcb523", "input": "Passage: For an endothermic chemical reaction, energy is absorbed as reactants are converted to products. Exothermic and endothermic reactions can be thought of as having energy as either a product of the reaction or a reactant. Exothermic reactions give off energy, so energy is a product. Endothermic reactions require energy, so energy is a reactant. Answer: endothermic", "output": [ "Energy is absorbed as reactants are converted to products in what kind of chemical reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2201a63a9c61434d9a67486d9448ca4b", "input": "Passage: Carbon’s affinity for covalent bonding means that many distinct and relatively stable organic molecules nevertheless readily form larger, more complex molecules. Any large molecule is referred to as macromolecule (macro- = “large”), and the organic compounds in this section all fit this description. However, some macromolecules are made up of several “copies” of single units called monomer (mono- = “one”; -mer = “part”). Like beads in a long necklace, these monomers link by covalent bonds to form long polymers (poly- = “many”). There are many examples of monomers and polymers among the organic compounds. Monomers form polymers by engaging in dehydration synthesis (see Figure 2.14). As was noted earlier, this reaction results in the release of a molecule of water. Each monomer contributes: One gives up a hydrogen atom and the other gives up a hydroxyl group. Polymers are split into monomers by hydrolysis (-lysis = “rupture”). The bonds between their monomers are broken, via the donation of a molecule of water, which contributes a hydrogen atom to one monomer and a hydroxyl group to the other. Answer: macromolecule", "output": [ "Any large molecule is referred to as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b96578e40c914a0a80afbc66f76e289a", "input": "Passage: Ocean water also absorbs gases from the atmosphere. The most important are oxygen and carbon dioxide. Oxygen is needed by living things in the oceans. Much of the carbon dioxide sinks to the bottom of the seas. Carbon dioxide is a major cause of global warming. By absorbing carbon dioxide, the oceans help control global warming. At least as long as the carbon dioxide stays in the seas. Answer: carbon dioxide", "output": [ "Oceans help control global warming by absorbing what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1bed4b1d408f4d2db042728de87f556d", "input": "Passage: The majority of arthropods are insects (Class Insecta). In fact, more than half of all known organisms are insects. There may be more than 10 million insect species in the world, although most of them have not yet been identified. In terms of their numbers and diversity, insects clearly are the dominant animals in the world. Answer: insects", "output": [ "More than half of all known organisms are what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0b6469e5b4644cbdbea919c362db84ac", "input": "Passage: Negatively charged and has a very small mass compared to the mass of other subatomic particles. Electrons were initially called cathode rays. Answer: cathode rays", "output": [ "What were the electrons initially called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0f8d6664a02f45e9b2da0975a4ef2f08", "input": "Passage: Isotopes are named for their number of protons plus neutrons. If a carbon atom had 7 neutrons, what would it be named?. Answer: protons", "output": [ "Isotopes are named for their number of ______ plus neutrons?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7f62362b4038482b8a3fc3d0752e6552", "input": "Passage: Monatomic cations have the same name as their parent element, whereas monatomic anions end in - ide . Answer: ends in - de", "output": [ "Monatomic cations have the same name as their parent element. what happens to monatomic anions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d8a9334b8dd34375880eb2b4b6a69f04", "input": "Passage: Inhaling is an active movement that results from the contraction of a muscle called the diaphragm. The diaphragm is large, sheet-like muscle below the lungs (see Figure below ). When the diaphragm contracts, the ribcage expands and the contents of the abdomen move downward. This results in a larger chest volume, which decreases air pressure inside the lungs. With lower air pressure inside than outside the lungs, air rushes into the lungs. When the diaphragm relaxes, the opposite events occur. The volume of the chest cavity decreases, air pressure inside the lungs increases, and air flows out of the lungs, like air rushing out of a balloon. Answer: diaphragm", "output": [ "Contraction of what large, sheet-like muscle results in inhalation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f2a32a55ee0140c8bac740b39a354474", "input": "Passage: Average speed is calculated by dividing the total distance travelled by the time interval. For example, someone who takes 40 minutes to drive 20 miles north and then 20 miles south (to end up at the same place), has an average speed of 40 miles divided by 40 minutes, or 1 mile per minute (60 mph). Average velocity, however, involves total displacement, instead of distance. It is calculated by dividing the total displacement by the time interval. In this example, the driver's displacement is zero, which makes the average velocity zero mph. Answer: speed", "output": [ "Distance traveled divided by time is equal to what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9d3f921fe42a4e159dcdd42dddba6c9b", "input": "Passage: Learned behavior is behavior that occurs only after experience or practice. Answer: learned behavior", "output": [ "What kind of behavior occurs only after experience or practice?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e74f4f0aeac9482082ad672260dbb66c", "input": "Passage: The depression that allows water to collect to form a lake may come about in a variety of ways. The Great Lakes, for example, are glacial lakes. A glacial lake forms when a glacier scrapes a large hole in the ground. When the glacier melts, the water fills the hole and forms a lake. A kettle lake forms in the sediment left by a glacier when a block of ice melts. Kettle lakes are found where continental glaciers once covered the land ( Figure ' below ). Over time lakes get water from rain, streams, and groundwater coming to the surface. Answer: glacial lake", "output": [ "What forms when a glacier scrapes a large hole in the ground?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4049bab4029c47b19251324637b8306f", "input": "Passage: Cnidarians are invertebrates such as jellyfish and corals. They belong to Phylum Cnidaria. All cnidarians are aquatic. Most of them live in the ocean. Cnidarians are a little more complex than sponges. Besides specialized cells, they have tissues and radial symmetry. There are more than 10,000 cnidarian species, see Figure below . Answer: cnidarians", "output": [ "What type of invertebrates are jellyfish and corals known as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-545552e686a04c77baac2a9cb97bac5f", "input": "Passage: Agents of Decomposition The fungus-like protist saprobes are specialized to absorb nutrients from nonliving organic matter, such as dead organisms or their wastes. For instance, many types of oomycetes grow on dead animals or algae. Saprobic protists have the essential function of returning inorganic nutrients to the soil and water. This process allows for new plant growth, which in turn generates sustenance for other organisms along the food chain. Indeed, without saprobe species, such as protists, fungi, and bacteria, life would cease to exist as all organic carbon became “tied up” in dead organisms. Answer: decomposers", "output": [ "Fungus-like protist saprobes play what role in a food chain and are specialized to absorb nutrients from nonliving organic matter, such as dead organisms or their wastes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f86a9ac3875045a9b8646d1a6e478465", "input": "Passage: 4.6 Connections between Cells and Cellular Activities Animal cells communicate via their extracellular matrices and are connected to each other via tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions. Plant cells are connected and communicate with each other via plasmodesmata. When protein receptors on the surface of the plasma membrane of an animal cell bind to a substance in the extracellular matrix, a chain of reactions begins that changes activities taking place within the cell. Plasmodesmata are channels between adjacent plant cells, while gap junctions are channels between adjacent animal cells. However, their structures are quite different. A tight junction is a watertight seal between two adjacent cells, while a desmosome acts like a spot weld. Answer: plant and animal", "output": [ "Plasmodesmata and gap junctions are channels between adjacent cells of what respective types?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fa55465a5ab848f2a9ca7c77ec62e26e", "input": "Passage: Proper disposal depends on the waste. Many hazardous products have disposal guidelines on the label. That’s one reason why you should keep the products in their original containers. The labels also explain how to use the products safely. Follow the instructions to protect yourself and the environment. Most communities have centers for disposing of household hazardous waste (see Figure below ). Do you know how to dispose of hazardous waste in your community?. Answer: guidelines on label", "output": [ "What help should you use for disposing hazardous products?" ] }, { "id": "task594-919e9c6458ca4602abd339c014d287aa", "input": "Passage: Vaccines are available for some infectious diseases. For example, there are vaccines to prevent measles, mumps, whooping cough, and chicken pox. These vaccines are recommended for infants and young children. Answer: vaccines", "output": [ "What is used to prevent some infectious diseases?" ] }, { "id": "task594-43ba3bce7d094c26903f8796c509b94d", "input": "Passage: The Golgi apparatus works like a mail room. The Golgi apparatus receives proteins from the rough ER and puts \"shipping addresses\" on them. The Golgi then packages the proteins into vesicles and sends them to the right place in the cell or to the cell membrane. Some of these proteins are secreted from the cell (they exit the cell); others are placed into the cell membrane. Answer: proteins", "output": [ "The golgi apparatus works like a mail room by receiving and sending what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8c727987327d42619c33dbc9294cfada", "input": "Passage: A pulley is a simple machine that consists of a rope and grooved wheel. The rope fits into the groove in the wheel, and pulling on the rope turns the wheel. Pulleys are generally used to lift objects, especially heavy objects. The object lifted by a pulley is called the load. The force applied to the pulley is called the effort. Answer: lift", "output": [ "Pulleys are generally used to do what with objects?" ] }, { "id": "task594-036bf81f39e44f6fa100b37cb85d296e", "input": "Passage: Figure 32.25 A stolon, or runner, is a stem that runs along the ground. At the nodes, it forms adventitious roots and buds that grow into a new plant. Answer: runners", "output": [ "Some plants have stolons, or stems, that run along the ground and are commonly called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b2e5580f58f64569b0531df6170250bb", "input": "Passage: Fish have a circulatory system with a two-chambered heart. Their digestive system is complete and includes several organs and glands. Jawed fish use their jaws and teeth to grind up food before passing it to the rest of the digestive tract. This allows them to consume larger prey. Answer: heart", "output": [ "Fish have a circulatory system with a two-chambered what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-af6d977936ea4637af60db3ecb7a8878", "input": "Passage: Seedless vascular plants have vascular tissue but do not have seeds. Answer: seedless vascular plants", "output": [ "What type of plants have vascular tissue but do not have seeds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f52c9de3c85949c6b95fbbb1a51e7335", "input": "Passage: In the 1780s, an American scientist named Benjamin Thompson, also known as Count Rumford, was hired by the Elector of Bavaria to supervise the manufacture of cannons. During the manufacturing process, teams of horses harnessed to a large-toothed wheel supplied the power needed to drill a hole several inches in diameter straight down the center of a solid brass or bronze cylinder, which was cooled by water. Based on his observations, Rumford became convinced that heat and work are equivalent ways of transferring energy. Answer: heat and work", "output": [ "According to count rumford, which two are equivalent ways of transferring energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f9f1aaea2dc444e094aae06b97868e94", "input": "Passage: 22 Classification of Living Things 22.0.1 Classification of Living Things & Naming With so many flora and fauna on planet Earth, there must be a method to classify each organism to distinguish it from others so it can be correctly identified. Classification does not only apply to biology. For example, supermarkets and grocery stores organise their products by classifying them. Beverages may occupy one aisle, while cleaning supplies may occupy another. In science, the practice of classifying organisms is called taxonomy (Taxis means arrangement and nomos means law). The modern taxonomic system was developed by the Swedish botanist Carolus (Carl) Linneaeus (1707-1788). He used simple physical characteristics of organisms to identify and differentiate between different species. Linneaeus developed a hierarchy of groups for taxonomy. To distinguish different levels of similarity, each classifying group, called taxon (pl. taxa) is subdivided into other groups. To remember the order, it is helpful to use a mnemonic device. The taxa in hierarchical order: • • • • • • • •. Answer: taxonomy", "output": [ "The scientific practice of classifying organisms is also known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d2c81bbfc6304943b8eee93f4ac14b19", "input": "Passage: Just as the burning of wood releases energy in the form of heat, many other chemical reactions also release heat. There are also chemical reactions, such as photosynthesis in plants, which absorb energy in the form of heat. The study of energy changes in chemical reactions is called thermochemistry . The broader term thermodynamics also looks at how heat, work, and various forms of energy are related to one another. In this lesson, we will study the difference between reactions that absorb versus release heat as well as how to measure this change in energy. Answer: thermodynamics", "output": [ "What branch of physical science looks at how heat, work, and various forms of energy are related to one another?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2e1c0338eda049439c67f79a1fc470a7", "input": "Passage: The placenta permits a long period of fetal growth. As a result, the fetus can become relatively large and mature before birth. This increases its chances of survival. On the other hand, supporting a growing fetus may be difficult for the mother. She has to eat more while pregnant and may become less mobile as the fetus grows larger. Giving birth to a large infant is also risky. Answer: survival", "output": [ "The fetus becoming relatively large and mature before birth increases the chances of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7f43aaa6554f43149d98fd6c923abbdd", "input": "Passage: You are already very familiar with Earth’s gravity. It constantly pulls you toward the center of the planet. It prevents you and everything else on Earth from being flung out into space as the planet spins on its axis. It also pulls objects above the surface, from meteors to skydivers, down to the ground. Gravity between Earth and the moon and between Earth and artificial satellites keeps all these objects circling around Earth. Gravity also keeps Earth moving around the sun. Answer: gravity", "output": [ "What force pulls people and objects toward the center of the earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5f5595eff32b4b1c874d1e2dd4298e9a", "input": "Passage: Pearson Scott Foresman. The biceps help contract the arm, while the triceps help extend the arm . Public Domain. Answer: extend the arm", "output": [ "What bodily function do the triceps help perform?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5019a6c201eb403fb76789c662b86dc4", "input": "Passage: Translation is the second part of the central dogma of molecular biology: RNA → Protein . It is the process in which the genetic code in mRNA is read, one codon at a time, to make a protein. Figure below shows how this happens. After mRNA leaves the nucleus, it moves to a ribosome , which consists of rRNA and proteins. The ribosome reads the sequence of codons in mRNA. Molecules of tRNA bring amino acids to the ribosome in the correct sequence. Answer: molecular biology", "output": [ "Translation is the second part of the central dogma of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-db0ca6b8c4a54b1ba21ce7b3ff8af8d1", "input": "Passage: McKay Savage. Color vision may have developed to help our ancestors distinguish between ripe and unripe fruits . CC BY 2.0. Answer: color vision", "output": [ "What may have developed to help our ancestors distinguish between ripe and unripe fruits?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b2985865435e4765bfdef04901907456", "input": "Passage: Plant-like protists are called algae. They include single-celled diatoms and multicellular seaweed. Like plants, they contain chlorophyll and make food by photosynthesis. Types of algae include red and green algae, euglenids, and dinoflagellates. Answer: algae", "output": [ "Plant-like protists are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-da498b010c594cb89ee78ba9479acb68", "input": "Passage: How water transports particles depends on their size. When water slows down, it starts depositing sediment, starting with the largest particles first. Answer: largest", "output": [ "When water slows down, it starts depositing sediment, starting with which particles first?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3fe65dc120fd4376bb68deeba79bf0fd", "input": "Passage: Runner’s Knee Runner’s knee, also known as patellofemoral syndrome, is the most common overuse injury among runners. It is most frequent in adolescents and young adults, and is more common in females. It often results from excessive running, particularly downhill, but may also occur in athletes who do a lot of knee bending, such as jumpers, skiers, cyclists, weight lifters, and soccer players. It is felt as a dull, aching pain around the front of the knee and deep to the patella. The pain may be felt when walking or running, going up or down stairs, kneeling or squatting, or after sitting with the knee bent for an extended period. Patellofemoral syndrome may be initiated by a variety of causes, including individual variations in the shape and movement of the patella, a direct blow to the patella, or flat feet or improper shoes that cause excessive turning in or out of the feet or leg. These factors may cause in an imbalance in the muscle pull that acts on the patella, resulting in an abnormal tracking of the patella that allows it to deviate too far toward the lateral side of the patellar surface on the distal femur. Because the hips are wider than the knee region, the femur has a diagonal orientation within the thigh, in contrast to the vertically oriented tibia of the leg (Figure 8.17). The Q-angle is a measure of how far the femur is angled laterally away from vertical. The Q-angle is normally 10–15 degrees, with females typically having a larger Q-angle due to their wider pelvis. During extension of the knee, the quadriceps femoris muscle pulls the patella both superiorly and laterally, with the lateral pull greater in women due to their large Q-angle. This makes women more vulnerable to developing patellofemoral syndrome than men. Normally, the large lip on the lateral side of the patellar surface of the femur compensates for the lateral pull on the patella, and thus helps to maintain its proper tracking. However, if the pull produced by the medial and lateral sides of the quadriceps femoris muscle is not properly balanced, abnormal tracking of the patella toward the lateral side may occur. With continued use, this produces pain and could result in damage to the articulating surfaces of the patella and femur, and the possible future development of arthritis. Treatment generally involves stopping the activity that produces knee pain for a period of time, followed by a gradual resumption of activity. Proper strengthening of the quadriceps femoris muscle to correct for imbalances is also important to help prevent reoccurrence. Answer: knee", "output": [ "What body joint incurs the most common overuse injury among runners and other athletes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0037da823e19466a88ed646867aa8048", "input": "Passage: If two monosaccharides bond together, they form a carbohydrate called a disaccharide . An example of a disaccharide is sucrose (table sugar), which consists of the monosaccharides glucose and fructose ( Figure above ). Monosaccharides and disaccharides are also called simple sugars . They provide the major source of energy to living cells. Answer: disaccharide", "output": [ "What do you call the carbohydrate formed when two monosaccharides bond together?" ] }, { "id": "task594-81482ed5e34f4be0b451de170395d2e8", "input": "Passage: Of course not. A minority of people use most of the world’s energy and other resources. Not only are their needs met, but they have many luxuries. Many other people lack resources. Many don’t have enough to eat or live, with the threat of hunger. Many also do not have safe, clean water. Some people live in crowded, run-down housing. Some people live in mansions. Answer: resources", "output": [ "A minority of people on earth use up most of the planet's what, including energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d8f7774d8e5741b89f2d992c0f0b7728", "input": "Passage: Spinal Cord Development While the brain is developing from the anterior neural tube, the spinal cord is developing from the posterior neural tube. However, its structure does not differ from the basic layout of the neural tube. It is a long, straight cord with a small, hollow space down the center. The neural tube is defined in terms of its anterior versus posterior portions, but it also has a dorsal–ventral dimension. As the neural tube separates from the rest of the ectoderm, the side closest to the surface is dorsal, and the deeper side is ventral. As the spinal cord develops, the cells making up the wall of the neural tube proliferate and differentiate into the neurons and glia of the spinal cord. The dorsal tissues will be associated with sensory functions, and the ventral tissues will be associated with motor functions. Answer: neurons and glia", "output": [ "The spinal cord develops, cells making up the wall of the neural tube proliferate and differentiate into what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-aa7bb0173f9a41448658652879c3b1f4", "input": "Passage: the distance light can travel in one year, 9.5 trillion kilometers. Answer: light", "output": [ "What travels 9.5 trillion kilometers a year?" ] }, { "id": "task594-903bec4caf804f118dc3d0f332b980b0", "input": "Passage: Protein Structure. Primary protein structure is the sequence of amino acids in a single polypeptide. Secondary protein structure refers to internal shapes, such as alpha helices and beta pleated sheets, that a single polypeptide takes on due to bonds between atoms in different parts of the polypeptide. Tertiary protein structure is the overall three-dimensional shape of a protein consisting of one polypeptide. Quaternary protein structure is the shape of a protein consisting of two or more polypeptides. For a brief animation of protein structure, see www. stolaf. edu/people/giannini/flashanimat/proteins/protein%20structure. swf . Answer: proteins", "output": [ "A sequence of amino acids in single polypeptide is the primary structure for what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4bb25c59d3764ab0b8634f71a0c9ebce", "input": "Passage: Drumlins, eskers, and kettle lakes are features made of glacial till. Answer: glaciers", "output": [ "What are drumlins, eskers, and kettle lakes formed by?" ] }, { "id": "task594-89d47c6fa94449f88787dbdd06b89a75", "input": "Passage: Chapter 13 1 Figure 13.3 No. The predicted frequency of recombinant offspring ranges from 0% (for linked traits) to 50% (for unlinked traits). 3 Figure 13.6 B. 4 A 6 C 8 B 10 C 12 D 14 The Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance proposed that genes reside on chromosomes. The understanding that chromosomes are linear arrays of genes explained linkage, and crossing over explained recombination. Answer: genes", "output": [ "The chromosomal theory of inheritance proposed that what reside on chromosomes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-93f5b98fe58a4742a0151d2c0a49e1f6", "input": "Passage: Sedimentary rocks are very useful for determining the deformation history of an area. Answer: sedimentary", "output": [ "What type of rocks are very useful for determining the deformation history of an area?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3b9ef3bac1c34d02a52988c498bbdd54", "input": "Passage: An aquifer is an underground layer of rock that is saturated with groundwater. One of the biggest aquifers in the world is the Ogallala aquifer in the American Midwest. Answer: groundwater", "output": [ "An aquifer is an underground layer of rock that is saturated with what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f636865d1cdb40f8951b5600d0a727d5", "input": "Passage: Nitrogen oxides form when nitrogen and oxygen combine at high temperatures. This occurs in hot exhausts from vehicles, factories, and power plants. Answer: nitrogen oxide", "output": [ "What forms when nitrogen and oxygen combine at high temperatures?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d25f5ef9e70147e6b6c3211035f20ec9", "input": "Passage: There are other nerves in your body that are not found in the brain or spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) ( Figure below ) contains all the nerves in the body that are found outside of the central nervous system. They include nerves of the hands, arms, feet, legs, and trunk. They also include nerves of the scalp, neck, and face. Nerves that send and receive messages to the internal organs are also part of the peripheral nervous system. Answer: peripheral nervous system", "output": [ "Nerves of the hands, arms, feet, legs, and trunk are part of what system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-58ba224a31e946c5ad6d9c3544e5b9a2", "input": "Passage: Acid-base reactions involve a transfer of a hydrogen ion instead of an electron. Acid-base reactions, like the one below, are also not redox reactions. Answer: hydrogen ion", "output": [ "What is transferred in an acid-base reaction" ] }, { "id": "task594-1f45b7a10ba849f0b30ce5d7e70dfdbd", "input": "Passage: You’ve probably noticed dew on the grass on a summer morning. Why does dew form? Remember that the land heats up and cools down fairly readily. So when night comes, the land cools. Air that was warm and humid in the daytime also cools over night. As the air cools, it can hold less water vapor. Some of the water vapor condenses on the cool surfaces, such as blades of grass. The temperature at which water vapor condenses is called the dew point . If this temperature is below freezing, ice crystals of frost form instead of dew ( Figure below ). The dew point occurs at 100 percent relative humidity. Can you explain why?. Answer: dew point", "output": [ "What is the name of the \"point\" that refers to the temperature at which water vapor condenses?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a2cdfd32717149b7bb89db7f14d30895", "input": "Passage: Proto-oncogenes The genes that code for the positive cell cycle regulators are called proto-oncogenes. Proto-oncogenes are normal genes that, when mutated in certain ways, become oncogenes, genes that cause a cell to become cancerous. Consider what might happen to the cell cycle in a cell with a recently acquired oncogene. In most instances, the alteration of the DNA sequence will result in a less functional (or non-functional) protein. The result is detrimental to the cell and will likely prevent the cell from completing the cell cycle; however, the organism is not harmed because the mutation will not be carried forward. If a cell cannot reproduce, the mutation is not propagated and the damage is minimal. Occasionally, however, a gene mutation causes a change that increases the activity of a positive regulator. For example, a mutation that allows Cdk to be activated without being partnered with cyclin could push the cell cycle past a checkpoint before all of the required conditions are met. If the resulting daughter cells are too damaged to undergo further cell divisions, the mutation would not be propagated and no harm would come to the organism. However, if the atypical daughter cells are able to undergo further cell divisions, subsequent generations of cells will probably accumulate even more mutations, some possibly in additional genes that regulate the cell cycle. The Cdk gene in the above example is only one of many genes that are considered proto-oncogenes. In addition to the cell cycle regulatory proteins, any protein that influences the cycle can be altered in such a way as to override cell cycle checkpoints. An oncogene is any gene that, when altered, leads to an increase in the rate of cell cycle progression. Answer: proto-oncogenes", "output": [ "The genes that code for the positive cell cycle regulators are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-54aa5e550c2d49b384e6646d79239c73", "input": "Passage: The lungs of mammals are unique in having alveoli. These are tiny, sac-like structures. Each alveolus is surrounded by a network of very small blood vessels (see Figure below ). Because there are millions of alveoli in each lung, they greatly increase the surface area for gas exchange between the lungs and bloodstream. Human lungs, for example, contain about 300 million alveoli. They give the lungs a total surface area for gas exchange of up to 90 square meters (968 square feet). That’s about as much surface area as one side of a volleyball court!. Answer: alveoli", "output": [ "What in mammalian lungs, increases the surface area for gas exchange?" ] }, { "id": "task594-230623df8e764e20ba195fd581015ccd", "input": "Passage: Nearly all glacial ice is in the polar regions. The largest ice sheets are in Antarctica and Greenland. The remaining 1% of Earth's ice is found elsewhere, like in the mountains, for example. At higher altitudes, temperatures are colder. Snow is more likely to fall and not melt. Except Australia, every continent has glaciers in the high mountains. Answer: antarctica", "output": [ "Besides greenland, where are the earth's largest ice sheets found?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2f74c023bfb949a183dedb550aab923e", "input": "Passage: the conscious perception of the how the body interacts with the environment. The visceral senses are most often below the limit of conscious perception because they are involved in homeostatic regulation through the autonomic nervous system. The sensory exam tests the somatic senses, meaning those that are consciously perceived. Testing of the senses begins with examining the regions known as dermatomes that connect to the cortical region where somatosensation is perceived in the postcentral gyrus. To test the sensory fields, a simple stimulus of the light touch of the soft end of a cotton-tipped applicator is applied at various locations on the skin. The spinal nerves, which contain sensory fibers with dendritic endings in the skin, connect with the skin in a topographically organized manner, illustrated as dermatomes (Figure 16.13). For example, the fibers of eighth cervical nerve innervate the medial surface of the forearm and extend out to the fingers. In addition to testing perception at different positions on the skin, it is necessary to test sensory perception within the dermatome from distal to proximal locations in the appendages, or lateral to medial locations in the trunk. In testing the eighth cervical nerve, the patient would be asked if the touch of the cotton to the fingers or the medial forearm was perceptible, and whether there were any differences in the sensations. Answer: homeostatic regulation", "output": [ "The visceral senses are most often below the limit of conscious perception because they are involved in this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b4ee330f86754a47beddac4d0da5aa5e", "input": "Passage: As you can see from the figure, the egg rests in a nest of cells called a follicle . The follicle and egg grow larger and go through other changes. The follicle protects the egg as it matures in the ovary. Answer: the follicle", "output": [ "What nest of cells protect the egg as it matures in the ovary?" ] }, { "id": "task594-345e2442a22b41baa3e1b8b2aa82b03d", "input": "Passage: The state the water is in depends upon the temperature. Each state (solid, liquid, and gas) has its own unique set of physical properties. Answer: temperature", "output": [ "What makes water change to a different state?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7321a889888645bdbdd924e5ef510136", "input": "Passage: Aquatic biomes are water-based biomes. They include both freshwater biomes, such as rivers and lakes, and marine biomes, which are salt-water biomes in the ocean. The primary producers in most aquatic biomes are phytoplankton. Phytoplankton consist of microscopic bacteria and tiny algae that make food by photosynthesis. Unlike terrestrial biomes, which are determined mainly by temperature and moisture, aquatic biomes are determined mainly by sunlight and dissolved substances in the water. These factors, in turn, depend mainly on depth of water and distance from shore. Answer: marine biomes", "output": [ "Salt-water biomes in the ocean are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bc00f7e3aa48495da7cbbcdcb4125c0a", "input": "Passage: Feathers are also used all over the world to stuff pillows, mattresses, sleeping bags, coats, and quilting. Goose feathers are preferred because they are soft. Manufacturers often mix goose feathers with down feathers to provide extra softness. Answer: softness", "output": [ "Why are goose feathers preferred for stuffing by manufacturers?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a63b54e100d94548810f61971b273cf6", "input": "Passage: The most useful quantity for counting particles is the mole. So if each coefficient is multiplied by a mole, the balanced chemical equation tells us that 1 mole of nitrogen reacts with 3 moles of hydrogen to produce 2 moles of ammonia. This is the conventional way to interpret any balanced chemical equation. Answer: the mole", "output": [ "What is the most useful quantity for counting particles?" ] }, { "id": "task594-31f1781fc2644c2283274d3d2d7abe0e", "input": "Passage: Amines are molecules that contain carbon-nitrogen bonds. The nitrogen atom in an amine has a lone pair of electrons and three bonds to other atoms, either carbon or hydrogen. Various nomenclatures are used to derive names for amines, but all involve the class-identifying suffix –ine as illustrated here for a few simple examples:. Answer: amines", "output": [ "What term is used to describe molecules that contain carbon-nitrogen bonds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-830ec06fc1ab4e0da52b93dd309b8cf3", "input": "Passage: Minerals can form various shapes. Polygons are pictured below ( Figure below ). The shapes form as the minerals are broken along their cleavage planes. Cleavage planes determine how the crystals can be cut to make smooth surfaces. People who cut gemstones follow cleavage planes. Diamonds and emeralds can be cut to make beautiful gemstones. Answer: cleavage planes", "output": [ "The shapes of minerals form as they are broken along what planes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-68e64aa00dbe4987a555f2dea48cb0f4", "input": "Passage: The human eye can distinguish only red, green, and blue light. These three colors are the primary colors of light. All other colors of light can be created by combining the primary colors. Secondary colors of light—cyan, yellow, and magenta—form when two primary colors combine equally. Answer: red, green, blue", "output": [ "What three primary colors of light can be distinguished by the human eye?" ] }, { "id": "task594-95d86dd73c8f4ceea32d08e3027a1e5c", "input": "Passage: A trophic level is a feeding position in a food chain or food web. Most food chains and webs have a maximum of four trophic levels. There is less energy and biomass at higher trophic levels. Answer: 4", "output": [ "Most food chains and webs have a maximum of how many trophic levels?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4bf65a1cf13c46c8af60cbc733bfc815", "input": "Passage: Some lipids contain the element phosphorus as well as oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen. These lipids are called phospholipids. Two layers of phospholipid molecules make up most of the cell membrane in the cells of living things. Answer: phospholipids", "output": [ "What are lipids that contain phosphorus called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-14cc312965034964b47e07e70a33ca1f", "input": "Passage: Without weathering, we would not have any soil on Earth. People could not live on Earth without soil! Your life and the lives of most organisms depend on soil. Soil is only a very thin layer over solid rock. Yet, it is the place where reactions between solid rock, liquid water and air take place. We get wood, paper, cotton, medicines, and even pure water from soil. So soil is a very important resource. Our precious soil needs to be carefully managed and cared for. If we don’t take care of the soil we have, we may not be able to use it in the future. Answer: soil", "output": [ "Weathering is fundamental to the creation of what, which exists as a very thin layer over solid rock?" ] }, { "id": "task594-afe322a6d56e496b917c38054ef4a340", "input": "Passage: Neutrons consist of fundamental particles known as quarks and gluons. Gluons carry the strong nuclear force that binds together the quarks in a neutron. Answer: gluons", "output": [ "The two main fundamental particles that make up neutrons are quarks and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-44594cabfb694041b2da885be1dcf62d", "input": "Passage: 3.2 | Carbohydrates By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Discuss the role of carbohydrates in cells and in the extracellular materials of animals and plants • Explain the classifications of carbohydrates • List common monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides Most people are familiar with carbohydrates, one type of macromolecule, especially when it comes to what we eat. To lose weight, some individuals adhere to “low-carb” diets. Athletes, in contrast, often “carb-load” before important competitions to ensure that they have enough energy to compete at a high level. Carbohydrates are, in fact, an essential part of our diet; grains, fruits, and vegetables are all natural sources of carbohydrates. Carbohydrates provide energy to the body, particularly through glucose, a simple sugar that is a component of starch and an ingredient in many staple foods. Carbohydrates also have other important functions in humans, animals, and plants. Answer: glucose", "output": [ "Name the simple sugar that is a component of starch." ] }, { "id": "task594-f458bb6248094ac4a85f86eee59bf821", "input": "Passage: Many metals react with acids to produce hydrogen gas. A certain reaction produces 86.5 L of hydrogen gas at STP. How many moles of hydrogen were produced?. Answer: hydrogen", "output": [ "Many metals react with acids to produce what gas?" ] }, { "id": "task594-08f5d30a95a4422a8c1a748d08616f4b", "input": "Passage: You can see an example of a negative feedback loop in Figure below . It shows how levels of thyroid hormones regulate the thyroid gland. This loop involves the hypothalamus and pituitary gland as well as the thyroid gland. Low levels of thyroid hormones in the blood cause the release of hormones by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. These hormones stimulate the thyroid gland to secrete more hormones. The opposite happens with high levels of thyroid hormones in the blood. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland stop releasing hormones that stimulate the thyroid. Answer: hormones", "output": [ "Low levels of thyroid hormones in the blood cause the release of what by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3414a07c5e704ade94a1a1bd0cec12a5", "input": "Passage: Making Connections: Real-World Connections—Filling the Tank Differences in the thermal expansion of materials can lead to interesting effects at the gas station. One example is the dripping of gasoline from a freshly filled tank on a hot day. Gasoline starts out at the temperature of the ground under the gas station, which is cooler than the air temperature above. The gasoline cools the steel tank when it is filled. Both gasoline and steel tank expand as they warm to air temperature, but gasoline expands much more than steel, and so it may overflow. This difference in expansion can also cause problems when interpreting the gasoline gauge. The actual amount (mass) of gasoline left in the tank when the gauge hits “empty” is a lot less in the summer than in the winter. The gasoline has the same volume as it does in the winter when the “add fuel” light goes on, but because the gasoline has expanded, there is less mass. If you are used to getting another 40 miles on “empty” in the winter, beware—you will probably run out much more quickly in the summer. Answer: less mass", "output": [ "The actual amount (mass) of gasoline left in the tank when the gauge hits “empty” is a lot less in the summer than in the winter. the gasoline has the same volume as it does in the winter when the “add fuel” light goes on, but because the gasoline has expanded, there is what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fcf210cfa15e4f7ba59cbc98341b7279", "input": "Passage: 17.9 The Endocrine Pancreas The pancreas has both exocrine and endocrine functions. The pancreatic islet cell types include alpha cells, which produce glucagon; beta cells, which produce insulin; delta cells, which produce somatostatin; and PP cells, which produce pancreatic polypeptide. Insulin and glucagon are involved in the regulation of glucose metabolism. Insulin is produced by the beta cells in response to high blood glucose levels. It enhances glucose uptake and utilization by target cells, as well as the storage of excess glucose for later use. Dysfunction of the production of insulin or target cell resistance to the effects of insulin causes diabetes mellitus, a disorder characterized by high blood glucose levels. The hormone glucagon is produced and secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreas in response to low blood glucose levels. Glucagon stimulates mechanisms that increase blood glucose levels, such as the catabolism of glycogen into glucose. Answer: pancreas", "output": [ "Insulin is produced by what part of the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-76b07456afb94c8ead2c0305499470af", "input": "Passage: Phase and Surface Area Effects When two reactants are in the same fluid phase, their particles collide more frequently than when one or both reactants are solids (or when they are in different fluids that do not mix). If the reactants are uniformly dispersed in a single homogeneous solution, then the number of collisions per unit time depends on concentration and temperature, as we have just seen. If the reaction is heterogeneous, however, the reactants are in two different phases, and collisions between the reactants can occur only at interfaces between phases. The number of collisions between reactants per unit time is substantially reduced relative to the homogeneous case, and, hence, so is the reaction rate. The reaction rate of a heterogeneous reaction depends on the surface area of the more condensed phase. Automobile engines use surface area effects to increase reaction rates. Gasoline is injected into each cylinder, where it combusts on ignition by a spark from the spark plug. The gasoline is injected in the form of microscopic droplets because in that form it has a much larger surface area and can burn much more rapidly than if it were fed into the cylinder as a stream. Similarly, a pile of finely divided flour burns slowly (or not at all), but spraying finely divided flour into a flame produces a vigorous reaction (Figure 14.3 \"The Effect of Surface Area on Reaction Rates\"). Similar phenomena are partially responsible for dust explosions that occasionally destroy grain elevators or coal mines. Answer: fluid", "output": [ "Do particles collide more in two reactants when they are both in fluid forms or solid forms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b4790602c44147b9b20f510226bb36b1", "input": "Passage: Like other arthropods, insects have three body segments and many jointed appendages. The abdomen contains most of the internal organs. Six legs are attached to the thorax. There are several appendages on the insect’s head:. Answer: the abdomen", "output": [ "Where are most of the organs contained in insects?" ] }, { "id": "task594-50bc13d1ff1943a0ac760e89816895fa", "input": "Passage: Fungi are a kingdom in the domain Eukarya that includes molds, mushrooms, and yeasts. Answer: fungi", "output": [ "What kingdom in the domain eukarya that includes molds, mushrooms, and yeasts called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f0d4943787ac412c913e960cb93a3185", "input": "Passage: While the numerical aperture can be used to compare resolutions of various objectives, it does not indicate how far the lens could be from the specimen. This is specified by the “working distance,” which is the distance (in mm usually) from the front lens element of the objective to the specimen, or cover glass. The higher the NA the closer the lens will be to the specimen and the more chances there are of breaking the cover slip and damaging both the specimen and the lens. The focal length of an objective lens is different than the working distance. This is because objective lenses are made of a combination of lenses and the focal length is measured from inside the barrel. The working distance is a parameter that microscopists can use more readily as it is measured from the outermost lens. The working distance decreases as the NA and magnification both increase. Answer: specimen", "output": [ "While the numerical aperture can be used to compare resolutions of various objectives, it does not indicate how far the lens could be from the what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eca39c33365d46f79688b9438cb46c27", "input": "Passage: The process of producing eggs in the ovary is called oogenesis. Eggs, like sperm, are haploid cells, and their production occurs in several steps that involve different types of cells, as shown in Figure below . You can follow the process of oogenesis in the figure as you read about it below. Answer: oogenesis", "output": [ "What is the process of producing eggs in the ovary is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-db0e2327adf54de4a444f6250890fb6a", "input": "Passage: Internal energy—the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of a system’s atoms and molecules. Can be divided into many subcategories, such as thermal and chemical energy. Depends only on the state of a system (such as its P , V , and T ), not on how the energy entered the system. Change in internal energy is path independent. Answer: internal energy", "output": [ "The sum of the kinetic and potential energies of a system’s atoms and molecules is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-57a78f3692c24a4eb8235f50cb069209", "input": "Passage: The gene theory is the idea that the characteristics of living organisms are controlled by genes, which are passed from parents to their offspring. A gene is a segment of DNA that has the instructions to encode a protein. Genes are located on larger structures, called chromosomes , that are found inside every cell. Chromosomes, in turn, contain large molecules known as DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Molecules of DNA are encoded with instructions that tell cells what to do. To see how this happens, click on the animation titled Journey into DNA at the following link: http://www. pbs. org/wgbh/nova/genome/dna. html . Answer: gene theory", "output": [ "Which theory is the idea that the characteristics of living organisms are controlled by genes, which are passed from parents to their offspring?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1bbbe6fded9040b5bf0092875b16cf7c", "input": "Passage: The properties of cyclic hydrocarbons are generally quite similar to those of the corresponding open-chain compounds. So cycloalkanes (with the exception of cyclopropane, which has a highly strained ring) act very much like noncyclic alkanes. Cyclic structures containing five or six carbon atoms, such as cyclopentane and cyclohexane, are particularly stable. We will see in Chapter 16 \"Carbohydrates\" that some carbohydrates (sugars) form five- or six-membered rings in solution. Answer: stable", "output": [ "The properties of cyclic hydrocarbons are generally quite similar to those of the corresponding open-chain compounds. so cycloalkanes (with the exception of cyclopropane, which has a highly strained ring) act very much like noncyclic alkanes. cyclic structures containing five or six carbon atoms, such as cyclopentane and cyclohexane, are particularly what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c0dcf34232ab4122bc4c90f00f948f21", "input": "Passage: Some comets have periods of thousands or even millions of years. Most long-period comets come from a very distant region of the solar system. This region is called the Oort cloud. The Oort cloud is about 50,000–100,000 times the distance from the Sun to Earth. Answer: oort cloud", "output": [ "What is the name of the cloud where most long-period comets come from?" ] }, { "id": "task594-902f243968c741b7a541dc433811397a", "input": "Passage: 18.2 Formation of New Species Speciation occurs along two main pathways: geographic separation (allopatric speciation) and through mechanisms that occur within a shared habitat (sympatric speciation). Both pathways isolate a population reproductively in some form. Mechanisms of reproductive isolation act as barriers between closely related species, enabling them to diverge and exist as genetically independent species. Prezygotic barriers block reproduction prior to formation of a zygote, whereas postzygotic barriers block reproduction after fertilization occurs. For a new species to develop, something must cause a breach in the reproductive barriers. Sympatric speciation can occur through errors in meiosis that form gametes with extra chromosomes (polyploidy). Autopolyploidy occurs within a single species, whereas allopolyploidy occurs between closely related species. Answer: speciation", "output": [ "Both pathways that isolate a population reproductively in some form, allopatric and sympatric describe what, which means the creation of new species?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ffe4fab0c9134ff08a85de29ba3cf476", "input": "Passage: Alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with at least one triple bond between carbon atoms. Answer: alkynes", "output": [ "What are unsaturated hydrocarbons with at least one triple bond between carbon atoms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1246a64a345d4f108713749014fc7393", "input": "Passage: At certain times of year, a stream or river may overflow its banks. The area of land that is flooded is called the floodplain. The floodplain may be very wide where the river flows over a nearly flat surface. Answer: floodplain", "output": [ "At certain times of year, a stream or river may overflow its banks. what is the area of land that is flooded called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-68c9b77df3a84e07875580f1593f1552", "input": "Passage: Chemical reactions constantly occur inside the cells of living things. However, under the conditions inside cells, most biochemical reactions would occur too slowly to maintain life. That’s where enzymes come in. Enzymes are catalysts in living things. Like other catalysts, they speed up chemical reactions. Enzymes are proteins that are synthesized in the cells that need them, based on instructions encoded in the cells’ DNA. Answer: enzymes", "output": [ "What proteins synthesized in cells act as catalysts?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8f75fd10ed6845fd8bc73f75d35adb8f", "input": "Passage: Both the elephant and the boy are falling to the ground because of gravity. The force of gravity (F grav ) is greater for the elephant than it is for the boy because the elephant is much more massive. Nonetheless, both of them will reach the ground at the same time (assuming they fall from the same height at the same time and there is no air resistance. ). Answer: both same time", "output": [ "If an elephant and a boy are falling towards the ground, who will land first?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0ca72715cb9843da84a94c63e7378a15", "input": "Passage: Diseases One of the most talked about diseases is skin cancer. Cancer is a broad term that describes diseases caused by abnormal cells in the body dividing uncontrollably. Most cancers are identified by the organ or tissue in which the cancer originates. One common form of cancer is skin cancer. The Skin Cancer Foundation reports that one in five Americans will experience some type of skin cancer in their lifetime. The degradation of the ozone layer in the atmosphere and the resulting increase in exposure to UV radiation has contributed to its rise. Overexposure to UV radiation damages DNA, which can lead to the formation of cancerous lesions. Although melanin offers some protection against DNA damage from the sun, often it is not enough. The fact that cancers can also occur on areas of the body that are normally not exposed to UV radiation suggests that there are additional factors that can lead to cancerous lesions. In general, cancers result from an accumulation of DNA mutations. These mutations can result in cell populations that do not die when they should and uncontrolled cell proliferation that leads to tumors. Although many tumors are benign (harmless), some produce cells that can mobilize and establish tumors in other organs of the body; this process is referred to as metastasis. Cancers are characterized by their ability to metastasize. Answer: cancer", "output": [ "What term describes diseases caused by abnormal cells in the body dividing uncontrollably?" ] }, { "id": "task594-433d573aef0249e398b5c73cac361740", "input": "Passage: Conserving heat is also important, especially in small mammals. A small body has a relatively large surface area compared to its overall size. Because heat is lost from the surface of the body, small mammals lose a greater proportion of their body heat than large mammals. Mammals conserve body heat with their hair or fur. It traps a layer of warm air next to the skin. Most mammals can make their hair stand up from the skin, so it becomes an even better insulator. Even humans automatically contract these muscles when they are cold, causing goosebumps (see Figure below ). Mammals also have a layer of fat under the skin to help insulate the body. This fatty layer is not found in other vertebrates. Answer: heat", "output": [ "In mammals, hair or fur help conserve bodily what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-417f695d5af14918a04257c10faf98f0", "input": "Passage: Fructose, a sugar found in fruit, contains only carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. It is used in ice cream to prevent a sandy texture. Complete combustion of 32.4 mg of fructose in oxygen produced 47.6 mg of CO2 and 19.4 mg of H2O. What is the empirical formula of fructose? 11. Coniine, the primary toxin in hemlock, contains only carbon, nitrogen, and hydrogen. When ingested, it causes paralysis and eventual death. Complete combustion of 28.7 mg of coniine produced 79.4 mg of CO2 and 34.4 mg of H2O. What is the empirical formula of the coniine? 12. Copper and tin alloys (bronzes) with a high arsenic content were presumably used by Bronze Age metallurgists because bronze produced from arsenic-rich ores had superior casting and working properties. The compositions of some representative bronzes of this type are as follows:. Answer: by using fructose", "output": [ "How can you prevent your ice cream from getting a sandy texture?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f2428a4f49064bf5b12301833f956f4d", "input": "Passage: energy is released when particles in the nucleus of the atom are rearranged. (e) Chemical energy results from the particular arrangement of atoms in a chemical compound; the heat and light produced in this reaction are due to energy released during the breaking and reforming of chemical bonds. Electrical energy, nuclear energy, and chemical energy are different forms ofpotential energy (PE), which is energy stored in an object because of the relative positions or orientations of its components. A brick lying on the windowsill of a 10th-floor office has a great deal of potential energy, but until its position changes by falling, the energy is contained. In contrast, kinetic energy (KE) is energy due to the motionof an object. When the brick falls, its potential energy is transformed to kinetic energy, which is then transferred to the object on the ground that it strikes. Answer: chemical bonds", "output": [ "Chemical energy results from the particular arrangement of atoms in a chemical compound; the heat and light produced in this reaction are due to energy released during the breaking and reforming of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6431f0a74016486c9920a59638d9e7bf", "input": "Passage: The iris is the colored part of the eye. It controls the size of the pupil. Answer: iris", "output": [ "What part of the eye controls the size of the pupil?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f94201e884544dcf975be68d365401f1", "input": "Passage: Salty taste is simply the perception of sodium ions (Na+) in the saliva. When you eat something salty, the salt crystals dissociate into the component ions Na+ and Cl–, which dissolve into the saliva in your mouth. The Na+ concentration becomes high outside the gustatory cells, creating a strong concentration gradient that drives the diffusion of the ion into the cells. The entry of Na+ into these cells results in the depolarization of the cell membrane and the generation of a receptor potential. Sour taste is the perception of H+ concentration. Just as with sodium ions in salty flavors, these hydrogen ions enter the cell and trigger depolarization. Sour flavors are, essentially, the perception of acids in our food. Increasing hydrogen ion concentrations in the saliva (lowering saliva pH) triggers progressively stronger graded potentials in the gustatory cells. For example, orange juice—which contains citric acid—will taste sour because it has a pH value of approximately 3. Of course, it is often sweetened so that the sour taste is masked. The first two tastes (salty and sour) are triggered by the cations Na+ and H+. The other tastes result from food molecules binding to a G protein–coupled receptor. A G protein signal transduction system ultimately leads to depolarization of the gustatory cell. The sweet taste is the sensitivity of gustatory cells to the presence of glucose dissolved in the saliva. Other monosaccharides such as fructose, or artificial sweeteners such as aspartame (NutraSweet™), saccharine, or sucralose (Splenda™) also activate the sweet receptors. The affinity for each of these molecules varies, and some will taste sweeter than glucose because they bind to the G protein–coupled receptor differently. Bitter taste is similar to sweet in that food molecules bind to G protein–coupled receptors. However, there are a number of different ways in which this can happen because there are a large diversity of bitter-tasting molecules. Some bitter molecules depolarize gustatory cells, whereas others hyperpolarize gustatory cells. Likewise, some bitter molecules increase G protein. Answer: sweet", "output": [ "Just as salty taste involves perception of sodium ions in saliva, what taste correlates with presence of glucose?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0b47507a67b040d7a6937f4e69d9f1db", "input": "Passage: The Hardy-Weinberg model describes how a population can remain at genetic equilibrium , referred to as the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. Genetic equilibrium occurs when there is no evolution within the population. In other words, the frequency of alleles (variants of a gene) will be the same from one generation to another. At genetic equilibrium, the gene or allele frequencies are stable — they do not change. For example, let's assume that red hair is determined by the inheritance of a gene with two alleles— R and r . The dominant allele, R , encodes for non-red hair, while the recessive allele, r , encodes for red hair. If a population's gene pool contains 90% R and 10% r alleles, then the next generation would also have 90% R and 10% r alleles. However, this only works under a strict set of conditions. Answer: evolution", "output": [ "Genetic equilibrium occurs when what process doesn't exist within the population?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5e31cd721b704228b8c409b9e18e8130", "input": "Passage: Quantum-mechanical calculations suggest why the observed bond angles in H2O differ from those predicted by the overlap of the 1s orbital of the hydrogen atoms with the 2p orbitals of the oxygen atom. The mathematical expression known as the wave function, ψ, contains information about each orbital and the wavelike properties of electrons in an isolated atom. When atoms are bound together in a molecule, the wave functions combine to produce new mathematical descriptions that have different shapes. This process of combining the wave functions for atomic orbitals is called hybridization and is mathematically accomplished by the linear combination of atomic orbitals, LCAO, (a technique that we will encounter again later). The new orbitals that result are called hybrid orbitals. The valence orbitals in an isolated oxygen atom are a 2s orbital and three 2p orbitals. The valence orbitals in an oxygen atom in a water molecule differ; they consist of four equivalent hybrid orbitals that point approximately toward the corners of a tetrahedron (Figure 8.7). Consequently, the overlap of the O and H orbitals should result in a tetrahedral bond angle (109.5°). The observed angle of 104.5° is experimental evidence for which quantummechanical calculations give a useful explanation: Valence bond theory must include a hybridization component to give accurate predictions. Note that orbitals may sometimes be drawn in an elongated “balloon” shape rather than in a more realistic “plump” shape in order to make the geometry easier to visualize. Answer: hybridization", "output": [ "This process of combining the wave functions for atomic orbitals is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b82b32d4b2a548a5b5a95b6e78b0042f", "input": "Passage: Mammals generate heat mainly by keeping their metabolic rate high. The cells of mammals have many more mitochondria than the cells of other animals. The extra mitochondria generate enough energy to keep the rate of metabolism high. Mammals can also generate little bursts of heat by shivering. Shivering occurs when many muscles contract a little bit all at once. Each muscle that contracts produces a small amount of heat. Answer: metabolism", "output": [ "Mammals generate heat primarily by maintaining a high rate of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-23091758401047cd981fc5a7bc7e1961", "input": "Passage: How metalloids behave in chemical interactions with other elements depends mainly on the number of electrons in the outer energy level of their atoms. Metalloids may act either like metals or nonmetals in chemical reactions. Answer: metalloids", "output": [ "In chemical reactions, what substances can act like metals or nonmetals, depending on their number of electrons?" ] }, { "id": "task594-015dbcad58294c93b69de9de83c2f4bb", "input": "Passage: Blood Vessels The blood from the heart is carried through the body by a complex network of blood vessels (Figure 16.12). Arteries take blood away from the heart. The main artery of the systemic circulation is the aorta; it branches into major arteries that take blood to different limbs and organs. The aorta and arteries near the heart have heavy but elastic walls that respond to and smooth out the pressure differences caused by the beating heart. Arteries farther away from the heart have more muscle tissue in their walls that can constrict to affect flow rates of blood. The major arteries diverge into minor arteries, and then smaller vessels called arterioles, to reach more deeply into the muscles and organs of the body. Arterioles diverge into capillary beds. Capillary beds contain a large number, 10’s to 100’s of capillaries that branch among the cells of the body. Capillaries are narrow-diameter tubes that can fit single red blood cells and are the sites for the exchange of nutrients, waste, and oxygen with tissues at the cellular level. Fluid also leaks from the blood into the interstitial space from the capillaries. The capillaries converge again into venules that connect to minor veins that finally connect to. Answer: aorta", "output": [ "What is the main artery of the systematic circulation called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1fae660f041d467f8ad617b7115cf71f", "input": "Passage: Carbon is the most important element to life. Without this element, life as we know it would not exist. As you will see, carbon is the central element in compounds necessary for life-organic compounds. These compounds include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. Answer: carbon", "output": [ "What is the most important element to life?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d7e4d0e0557c406faf184f67264da8e7", "input": "Passage: The rate of evolution depends on how many of an organism’s genes have changed over a period of time. Evolution is usually so gradual that we do not see the change for many, many generations. The rate of evolution also depends on the generation time of a particular species. Answer: evolution", "output": [ "The rate of what process depends on how many of an organism’s genes have changed over a period of time and on the generation time of a particular species?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ff4e88ae106c4b63b408e8e558ae5ceb", "input": "Passage: Another obvious change that occurs during puberty is rapid growth. This is called the adolescent growth spurt . In boys, it is controlled by testosterone. The rate of growth usually starts to increase relatively early in puberty. At its peak rate, growth in height is about 10 centimeters (almost 4 inches) per year in the average male. Growth generally remains rapid for several years. Growth and development of muscles occur toward the end of the growth spurt in height. Muscles may continue to develop and gain strength after growth in height is finished. Answer: testosterone", "output": [ "What drives puberty in male humans?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4e93a2d0312e48d59fa2e707b6b81079", "input": "Passage: Two factors influence the pressure of fluids. They are the depth of the fluid and its density. Answer: depth and density", "output": [ "What two factors influence the pressure of fluids?" ] }, { "id": "task594-488d433d03db41ecb930461601b560f0", "input": "Passage: Many corals secrete an exoskeleton that builds up to become a coral reef. Answer: exoskeletons", "output": [ "What do corals secrete that builds up to become a coral reef?" ] }, { "id": "task594-62bc77dc74bf40b9b0cf42b4031b8278", "input": "Passage: After spermatids form, they move into the epididymis to mature into sperm, like the one shown in Figure below . The spermatids grow a tail and lose excess cytoplasm from the head. When a sperm is mature, the tail can rotate like a propeller, so the sperm can propel itself forward. Mitochondria in the connecting piece produce the energy (ATP) needed for movement. The head of the mature sperm consists mainly of the nucleus, which carries copies of the father’s chromosomes. The part of the head called the acrosome produces enzymes that help the sperm head penetrate an egg. Answer: into the epididymis", "output": [ "After spermatids form, they move where to mature into sperm?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7ec12d080d5949d3afbe8bed4ec0c2b4", "input": "Passage: Urinalysis (urine analysis) often provides clues to renal disease. Normally, only traces of protein are found in urine, and when higher amounts are found, damage to the glomeruli is the likely basis. Unusually large quantities of urine may point to diseases like diabetes mellitus or hypothalamic tumors that cause diabetes insipidus. The color of urine is determined mostly by the breakdown products of red blood cell destruction (Figure 25.2). The “heme” of hemoglobin is converted by the liver into water-soluble forms that can be excreted into the bile and indirectly into the urine. This yellow pigment is urochrome. Urine color may also be affected by certain foods like beets, berries, and fava beans. A kidney stone or a cancer of the urinary system may produce sufficient bleeding to manifest as pink or even bright red urine. Diseases of the liver or obstructions of bile drainage from the liver impart a dark “tea” or “cola” hue to the urine. Dehydration produces darker, concentrated urine that may also possess the slight odor of ammonia. Most of the ammonia produced from protein breakdown is converted into urea by the liver, so ammonia is rarely detected in fresh urine. The strong ammonia odor you may detect in bathrooms or alleys is due to the breakdown of urea into ammonia by bacteria in the environment. About one in five people detect a distinctive odor in their urine after consuming asparagus; other foods such as onions, garlic, and fish can impart their own aromas! These food-caused odors are harmless. Answer: glomeruli", "output": [ "Normally, only traces of protein are found in urine, and when higher amounts are found, damage to what is the likely cause?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8f197aa369a943a39401fc02106e1d23", "input": "Passage: The volume of a gas contains only about 10% matter, with the rest being empty space. ΔHsub is equal to ΔHvap. Answer: empty space", "output": [ "The volume of a gas is comprised of about 10% matter. what is the rest?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3f47774e89a347698fc29f482009a17b", "input": "Passage: 24.7 Nutrition and Diet Nutrition and diet affect your metabolism. More energy is required to break down fats and proteins than carbohydrates; however, all excess calories that are ingested will be stored as fat in the body. On average, a person requires 1500 to 2000 calories for normal daily activity, although routine exercise will increase that amount. If you ingest more than that, the remainder is stored for later use. Conversely, if you ingest less than that, the energy stores in your body will be depleted. Both the quantity and quality of the food you eat affect your metabolism and can affect your overall health. Eating too much or too little can result in serious medical conditions, including cardiovascular disease, cancer, and diabetes. Vitamins and minerals are essential parts of the diet. They are needed for the proper function of metabolic pathways in the body. Vitamins are not stored in the body, so they must be obtained from the diet or synthesized from precursors available in the diet. Minerals are also obtained from the diet, but they are also stored, primarily in skeletal tissues. Answer: carbohydrates", "output": [ "Nutrition and diet affect your metabolism. more energy is required to break down fats and proteins than this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a033d85bec204db386e7c3bd6f4b1a97", "input": "Passage: Many important crops, such as corn, are planted and harvested as seeds. These seeds are important sources of food. For example, corn is ground into feed for chickens and cows. And corn syrup is used to sweeten beverages and candy. But most importantly, seeds are the starting point for a new plant. Answer: seeds", "output": [ "Many important crops, such as corn, are planted and harvested as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4326608b50254547bbc3f6f12f1889af", "input": "Passage: Functional Receptor Types A third classification of receptors is by how the receptor transduces stimuli into membrane potential changes. Stimuli are of three general types. Some stimuli are ions and macromolecules that affect transmembrane receptor proteins when these chemicals diffuse across the cell membrane. Some stimuli are physical variations in the environment that affect receptor cell membrane potentials. Other stimuli include the electromagnetic radiation from visible light. For humans, the only electromagnetic energy that is perceived by our eyes is visible light. Some other organisms have receptors that humans lack, such as the heat sensors of snakes, the ultraviolet light sensors of bees, or magnetic receptors in migratory birds. Receptor cells can be further categorized on the basis of the type of stimuli they transduce. Chemical stimuli can be interpreted by a chemoreceptor that interprets chemical stimuli, such as an object’s taste or smell. Osmoreceptors respond to solute concentrations of body fluids. Additionally, pain is primarily a chemical sense that interprets the presence of chemicals from tissue damage, or similar intense stimuli, through a nociceptor. Physical stimuli, such as pressure and vibration, as well as the sensation of sound and body position (balance), are interpreted through a mechanoreceptor. Another physical stimulus that has its own type of receptor is temperature, which is sensed through a thermoreceptor that is either sensitive to temperatures above (heat) or below (cold) normal body temperature. Answer: physical", "output": [ "Pressure and vibration are examples of what type of stimuli?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5134a1ad092e4f85b1a4fb94ee229bcc", "input": "Passage: Some processes in the body are regulated by positive feedback. Positive feedback is when a response to an event increases the likelihood of the event to continue. An example of positive feedback is milk production in nursing mothers. As the baby drinks her mother's milk, the hormone prolactin, a chemical signal, is released. The more the baby suckles, the more prolactin is released, which causes more milk to be produced. Other examples of positive feedback include contractions during childbirth. When constrictions in the uterus push a baby into the birth canal, additional contractions occur. Answer: birth canal", "output": [ "Where does a baby travel to after leaving the uterus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7029567de2d0453384ff664496fcdde7", "input": "Passage: A: If calcium chloride dissolves in water, it breaks down into its ions (Ca 2+ and Cl - ). When water has ions dissolved in it, it has a lower freezing point. Pure water freezes at 0°C. With calcium and chloride ions dissolved in it, it won’t freeze unless the temperature reaches -29°C or lower. Answer: zero degrees", "output": [ "In celsius, what is the temperature at which water freezes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3b8fb836fffa4d1f87a123b4c3abd9a3", "input": "Passage: You can't go to the mantle but small pieces of the mantle can come to you. Kimberlite forms deep in the mantle and is erupted violently into the crust. Kimberlite can contain diamonds. Most kimberlites reached the surface much earlier in Earth history. Answer: crust", "output": [ "What is the upper most level of earth's layers called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0ae3633875c143429a83cebe67d84cff", "input": "Passage: Insulators In contrast to metals, electrical insulators are materials that conduct electricity poorly because their valence bands are full. The energy gap between the highest filled levels and the lowest empty levels is so large that the empty levels are inaccessible: thermal energy cannot excite an electron from a filled level to an empty one. The valence-band structure of diamond, for example, is shown in part (a) in . Because diamond has only 4 bonded neighbors rather than the 6 to 12 typical of metals, the carbon 2s and 2p orbitals combine to form two bands in the solid, with the one at lower energy representing bonding molecular orbitals and the one at higher energy representing antibonding molecular orbitals. Each band can accommodate four electrons per atom, so only the lower band is occupied. Because the energy gap between the filled band and the empty band is very large (530 kJ/mol), at normal temperatures thermal energy cannot excite electrons from the filled level into the empty band. Thus there is no pathway by which electrons can move through the solid, so diamond has one of the lowest electrical conductivities known. Figure 12.23 Energy-Band Diagrams for Diamond, Silicon, and Germanium. Answer: full", "output": [ "In contrast to metals, electrical insulators are materials that conduct electricity poorly because their valence bands are what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-62121d42e1644f2b93f4c1b0878fff82", "input": "Passage: In the absence of a net force, objects move in a straight line. If they turn — that is, if their velocity changes, even only in direction — there must be an applied force. Forces which cause objects to turn around continuously in a circle are known as centripetal forces. When an object moves in a circle its velocity at any particular instant points in a direction tangent to the circle. The acceleration points towards the center of the circle, and so does the force acting on it. This is only natural, when you think about it — if you feel a force pushing you towards your left as you walk forward, you will walk in a circle, always turning left. Answer: centripetal forces", "output": [ "Forces which cause objects to turn around continuously in a circle are known as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-14322d493eba4093bdf1d0d321244d4b", "input": "Passage: All crocodilians are carnivores. They feed on live animals such as birds, small mammals and fish. Crocodilians use several methods of attack when pursuing live prey. One approach is that of the ambush. The crocodilian lies motionless beneath the water's surface with only their nostrils above the water line. This keeps them concealed while they watch for prey that approaches the water's edge. The crocodilian then lunges out of the water, taking their prey by surprise and dragging it from the shoreline into deep water where the prey is killed. Answer: carnivores", "output": [ "With a diet of live animals such as birds, small mammals and fish, all crocodilians are considered what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d4eaa75ed17744caad1b99298978051d", "input": "Passage: Bacteria that cause foodborne illnesses include Salmonella , a bacterium found in many foods, including raw and undercooked meat, poultry, dairy products, and seafood. Campylobacter jejuni is found in raw or undercooked chicken and unpasteurized milk. Several strains of E. coli can cause illnesses, and are found in raw or undercooked hamburger, unpasteurized fruit juices and milk, and even fresh produce. Vibrio is a bacterium that may contaminate fish or shellfish. Listeria has been found in raw and undercooked meats, unpasteurized milk, soft cheeses, and ready-to-eat deli meats and hot dogs. Most of these bacterial illnesses can be prevented with proper cooking of food and washing of hands. Answer: hands", "output": [ "Most of these bacterial illnesses can be prevented with proper cooking of food and washing what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dc342b791e58491b9f60c09ac905a884", "input": "Passage: Mammals are very intelligent. Of all vertebrates, they are the animals that are most capable of learning. Mammalian offspring are fed and taken care of by their parents for a relatively long time. This gives them plenty of time to learn from their parents. By learning, they can benefit from the experiences of their elders. The ability to learn is the main reason that the large mammalian brain evolved. It’s also the primary reason for the success of mammals. Answer: mammals", "output": [ "Among vertebrates, what broad category of animals is most capable of learning?" ] }, { "id": "task594-76264f2bd640485b8f4abdbbe2976cd0", "input": "Passage: described in the chapter on muscle tissue, an action potential travels along the motor neuron axon into the periphery. The axon terminates on muscle fibers at the neuromuscular junction. Acetylcholine is released at this specialized synapse, which causes the muscle action potential to begin, following a large potential known as an end plate potential. When the lower motor neuron excites the muscle fiber, it contracts. All of this occurs in a fraction of a second, but this story is the basis of how the nervous system functions. Answer: nervous system", "output": [ "The axon terminates on muscle fibers at the neuromuscular junction. acetylcholine is released at this specialized synapse, which causes the muscle action potential to begin, following a large potential known as an end plate potential. when the lower motor neuron excites the muscle fiber, it contracts. all of this occurs in a fraction of a second, but this story is the basis of how this functions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5aaac314f20a4e3f9ce87694fd94bc1f", "input": "Passage: You couldn’t survive without your skin. It has many important functions. In several ways, it helps maintain homeostasis. The main function of the skin is controlling what enters and leaves the body. It prevents the loss of too much water from the body. It also prevents bacteria and other microorganisms from entering the body. Melanin in the epidermis absorbs ultraviolet light. This prevents the light from reaching and damaging the dermis. Answer: your skin", "output": [ "What is the largest organ of the human body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ac9047b1380d4b8295122fe632ea9cf8", "input": "Passage: The atmosphere is a thin layer of gas that surrounds Earth. Climatologists study the atmosphere. These scientists work to understand the climate as it is now. They also study how climate will change in response to global warming. Answer: the atmosphere", "output": [ "What is a thin layer of gas that surrounds earth called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d4a571c6475a4a78832ba241e381333d", "input": "Passage: Nearly all earthquakes occur at plate boundaries, and all types of plate boundaries have earthquakes. Answer: plate boundaries", "output": [ "Nearly all earthquakes occur where?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6afd5292df144f9ebc5e642165d9ed54", "input": "Passage: The majority of human genes have two or more possible alleles , which are alternative forms of a gene. Differences in alleles account for the considerable genetic variation among people. In fact, most human genetic variation is the result of differences in individual DNA bases within alleles. Answer: a vestigial structure", "output": [ "The structure of the human tail bone is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f4094e6a4f4c4904ab32ebe3c5a73975", "input": "Passage: All gases exert pressure; it is one of the fundamental measurable quantities of this phase of matter. Even our atmosphere exerts pressure—in this case, the gas is being “held in” by the earth’s gravity, rather than the gas being in a container. The pressure of the atmosphere is about 14.7 pounds of force for every square inch of surface area: 14.7 lb/in2. Pressure has a variety of units. The formal, SI-approved unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa), which is defined as 1 N/m2 (one newton of force over an area of one square meter). However, this is usually too small in magnitude to be useful. A common unit of pressure is the atmosphere (atm), which was originally defined as the average atmospheric pressure at sea level. However, “average atmospheric pressure at sea level” is difficult to pinpoint because of atmospheric pressure variations. A more reliable and common unit is millimeters of mercury (mmHg), which is the amount of pressure exerted by a column of mercury exactly 1 mm high. An equivalent unit is the torr, which equals 1 mmHg. (The torr is named after Evangelista Torricelli, a seventeenth-century Italian scientist who invented the mercury barometer. ) With these definitions of pressure, the atmosphere unit is redefined: 1 atm is defined as exactly 760 mmHg, or 760 torr. We thus have the following equivalences: 1 atm=760 mmHg=760 torr. Answer: gravity", "output": [ "The pressurized gas of earth's atmosphere is contained by what force?" ] }, { "id": "task594-35f8401c4fcb4a0c91774fb0958dfe08", "input": "Passage: The use of nuclear fusion for energy has several pros. Unlike nuclear fission, which involves dangerous radioactive elements, nuclear fusion involves just hydrogen and helium. These elements are harmless. Hydrogen is also very plentiful. There is a huge amount of hydrogen in ocean water. The hydrogen in just a gallon of water could produce as much energy by nuclear fusion as burning 1,140 liters (300 gallons) of gasoline! The hydrogen in the oceans would generate enough energy to supply all the world’s people for a very long time. Answer: nuclear fusion", "output": [ "Hydrogen and helium are specifically involved as reactants in what nuclear reaction that is useful for making energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-222fe62531264a748c78b8fa6afdde95", "input": "Passage: Another major problem caused by air pollution is global climate change. Gases such as carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels increase the natural greenhouse effect. This raises the temperature of Earth’s surface. Answer: carbon dioxide", "output": [ "What gas is contributing to the greenhouse effect?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fdc22a42229f4d6389c0ab5aa25eff64", "input": "Passage: Earthquakes at convergent plate boundaries mark the location of the subducting lithosphere. The motion of the lithosphere as it plunges through the mantle causes the quakes ( Figure below ). At greater depths, the plate heats up enough to deform plastically. Answer: subducting lithosphere", "output": [ "Earthquakes at convergent plate boundaries mark the location of the what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3041a8fe786a4266ae753cc1d8458347", "input": "Passage: Plasma Anticoagulants An anticoagulant is any substance that opposes coagulation. Several circulating plasma anticoagulants play a role in limiting the coagulation process to the region of injury and restoring a normal, clot-free condition of blood. For instance, a cluster of proteins collectively referred to as the protein C system inactivates clotting factors involved in the intrinsic pathway. TFPI (tissue factor pathway inhibitor) inhibits the conversion of the inactive factor VII to the active form in the extrinsic pathway. Antithrombin inactivates factor X and opposes the conversion of prothrombin (factor II) to thrombin in the common pathway. And as noted earlier, basophils release heparin, a short-acting anticoagulant that also opposes prothrombin. Heparin is also found on the surfaces of cells lining the blood vessels. A pharmaceutical form of heparin is often administered therapeutically, for example, in surgical patients at risk for blood clots. Answer: anticoagulant", "output": [ "What do you call any substance that opposes coagulation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ba2b824724de4a2fa436f6fe01e36aa9", "input": "Passage: Fungi are simple eukaryotic organisms that consist of one or more cells. They include mushrooms and yeasts. Human diseases caused by fungi include ringworm and athlete’s foot. Both are skin diseases that are not usually serious. A ringworm infection is pictured below ( Figure below ). A more serious fungus disease is histoplasmosis. It is a lung infection. Though fungal infections can be annoying, they are rarely as serious or deadly as bacterial or viral infections. Answer: fungi", "output": [ "Ringworm and athlete's foot are human diseases caused by what simple organisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6a12953cf7ea40bb9db8eac483f4485f", "input": "Passage: Neural Responses to Food In reaction to the smell, sight, or thought of food, like that shown in Figure 34.20, the first response is that of salivation. The salivary glands secrete more saliva in response to stimulation by the autonomic nervous system triggered by food in preparation for digestion. Simultaneously, the stomach begins to produce hydrochloric acid to digest the food. Recall that the peristaltic movements of the esophagus and other organs of the digestive tract are under the control of the brain. The brain prepares these muscles for movement as well. When the stomach is full, the part of the brain that detects satiety signals fullness. There are three overlapping phases of gastric control—the cephalic phase, the gastric phase, and the intestinal phase—each requires many enzymes and is under neural control as well. Answer: hydrochloric acid", "output": [ "What does the stomach produce to help digest food?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f1f83b865112482f921ce7c60cf13ef8", "input": "Passage: 2. Sedimentary rocks form when sediments are compacted and cemented together ( Figure below ). These sediments may be gravel, sand, silt or clay. Sedimentary rocks often have pieces of other rocks in them. Some sedimentary rocks form the solid minerals left behind after a liquid evaporates. Answer: sedimentary", "output": [ "What kind of rock forms when material such as gravel, sand, silt or clay is compacted and cemented together?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1a209f9d338b45ffbaa338c0962f26cb", "input": "Passage: Starch is a large, complex carbohydrate made of thousands of glucose units (monomers) joined together. Starches are found in foods such as vegetables and grains. Starches are broken down by the body into sugars that provide energy. Breads and pasta are good sources of complex carbohydrates. Answer: glucose units (monomers)", "output": [ "Starch is a large, complex carbohydrate made of thousands of _____ joined together?" ] }, { "id": "task594-56686b3117674275807ed7aa455c91e7", "input": "Passage: The elements of the halogen group (Group 17) gain electrons most readily, as can be seen from their large negative electron affinities. This means that more energy is released in the formation of a halide ion than for the anions of any other elements. Considering electron configuration, it is easy to see why. The outer configuration of all halogens is n s 2 n p 5 . The addition of one more electron gives the halide ions the same electron configuration as a noble gas, which we have seen is particularly stable. Answer: a noble gas", "output": [ "The addition of electron gives the halide ions the same electron configuration as what gas?" ] }, { "id": "task594-90d19e0ffd064c3e9e9f9c0d03073d44", "input": "Passage: Composite volcanoes are also called stratovolcanoes. This is because they are formed by alternating layers (strata) of magma and ash ( Figure below ). The magma that creates composite volcanoes tends to be thick. The steep sides form because the lava cannot flow too far from the vent. The thick magma may also create explosive eruptions. Ash and pyroclasts erupt into the air. Much of this material falls back down near the vent. This creates the steep sides of stratovolcanoes. The composition of magma that erupts at composite volcanoes is usually felsic (rhyolite) or intermediate (andesite). Answer: stratovolcanoes", "output": [ "What is another name for composite volcanos?" ] }, { "id": "task594-926ac8b415304b25a5985c5ce9fd0189", "input": "Passage: The surface of Venus is shrouded by thick clouds. Radar images show a complex surface. There are volcanoes and craters like those found on other planets and moons. The surface is not nearly as complex as the surface of Earth. Answer: chromosomes", "output": [ "A diploid cell contains two sets of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-639cb00e0884403a9551166e4a76c901", "input": "Passage: Neurons are usually classified based on the role they play in the body. Two main types of neurons are sensory neurons and motor neurons. Answer: aphotic zone", "output": [ "What do you call the zone in a body of water where there is too little sunlight for photosynthesis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cc44129b0a224750aee0c5133dd45912", "input": "Passage: The Karakoram Range is part of the Himalaya Mountains. K2, pictured here, is the second highest mountain the world at over 28,000 feet. The number and height of mountains is impressive. Answer: k2", "output": [ "What is the second highest mountain in the world, at over 28,000 feet?" ] }, { "id": "task594-45b24a67d5b440c4845645badec81190", "input": "Passage: Liquids have a definite volume, but take the shape of the container. Answer: liquid", "output": [ "What state of matter has a definite volume, but takes the shape of the container?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b3598cb0860940b6bb68dd7f4bed33d7", "input": "Passage: Most protists also have a complex life cycle. The life cycle of an organism is the cycle of phases it goes through until it returns to the starting phase. The protist life cycle includes both sexual and asexual reproduction. Why reproduce both ways? Each way has benefits. Asexual reproduction is fast. It allows rapid population growth when conditions are stable. Sexual reproduction increases genetic variation. This helps ensure that some organisms will survive if conditions change. Answer: asexual and sexual", "output": [ "The protist life cycle benefits by including what forms of reproduction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-df3a9fbcbd304a64b02efa5bd31c4c51", "input": "Passage: Figure 21.3 Lymphatic Capillaries Lymphatic capillaries are interlaced with the arterioles and venules of the cardiovascular system. Collagen fibers anchor a lymphatic capillary in the tissue (inset). Interstitial fluid slips through spaces between the overlapping endothelial cells that compose the lymphatic capillary. Answer: cardiovascular system", "output": [ "Lymphatic capillaries are interlaced with the arterioles and venules of which system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8796dd53ef2347368d671adb67c96e51", "input": "Passage: Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have structures in common. All cells have a plasma membrane, ribosomes, cytoplasm, and DNA. The plasma membrane , or cell membrane, is the phospholipid layer that surrounds the cell and protects it from the outside environment. Ribosomes are the non-membrane bound organelles where proteins are made, a process called protein synthesis. The cytoplasm is all the contents of the cell inside the cell membrane, not including the nucleus. Answer: nucleus", "output": [ "The cytoplasm is all the contents of the cell inside the cell membrane, with the exception of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8dc37273b5cb4092855e997f7443e75c", "input": "Passage: Primate ancestors also mainly ate fruit. They needed to be able to spot colored fruits in the leafy background of the trees ( Figure below ). They also had to be able to judge which fruits were ripe and which were still green. Ripe fruits are usually red, orange, yellow, or purple. Being able to see in color was important for finding food. It was an adaptation that would help fruit-eating primates survive. Answer: purple", "output": [ "Ripe fruits are usually red, orange, yellow, or what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8ae5370ff133415da10bec0caf12f1ef", "input": "Passage: Landslides often occur on steep slopes in dry or semi-arid climates. The California coastline, with its steep cliffs and years of drought punctuated by seasons of abundant rainfall, is prone to landslides. Wet soil becomes slippery and heavy. Earthquakes often trigger landslides. The shaking ground causes soil and rocks to break loose and start sliding. Answer: landslides", "output": [ "What often occurs on steep slopes in dry climates?" ] }, { "id": "task594-137454a7e8584b00a49c2e26916409fb", "input": "Passage: For natural selection to take place, organisms must vary in their traits. Asexual reproduction results in offspring that are all the same. They are also identical to the parent cell. So how can prokaryotes increase genetic variation? They can exchange plasmids. This is called genetic transfer . It may happen by direct contact between cells. Or a \"bridge\" may form between cells. Genetic transfer mixes the genes of different cells. It creates new combinations of alleles. Answer: genetic transfer", "output": [ "What is the exchange of plasmids by prokaryotes called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-be390a28e7dc4d6ea77a4d679d430902", "input": "Passage: Six atoms are evenly organized around a central atom. Answer: six", "output": [ "How many atoms are evenly organized around a central atom?" ] }, { "id": "task594-318432189a6c4f2b9d33e056995c7486", "input": "Passage: Liverworts, hornworts, and mosses are modern bryophytes. Liverworts are named for the liver-shaped leaves of some species. Hornworts are named for their horn-like sporophytes. Answer: hornworts", "output": [ "Which type of bryophytes are named for their horn-like sporophytes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7aa75171075e42408a4b7fda3390f66e", "input": "Passage: Peroxisomes Peroxisomes are small, round organelles enclosed by single membranes. They carry out oxidation reactions that break down fatty acids and amino acids. They also detoxify many poisons that may enter the body. Alcohol is detoxified by peroxisomes in liver cells. A byproduct of these oxidation reactions is hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, which is contained within the peroxisomes to prevent the chemical from causing damage to cellular components outside of the organelle. Hydrogen peroxide is safely broken down by peroxisomal enzymes into water and oxygen. Answer: fatty acids and amino acids", "output": [ "Peroxisomes carry out oxidation reactions that break down what acids?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fb3ddbca1b0d4c0eb9ab46cdca87dd0c", "input": "Passage: Wavelength is one way of measuring the size of waves. It is the distance between two corresponding points on adjacent waves, usually measured in meters. Answer: wavelength", "output": [ "What is the term for the distance between two corresponding points on adjacent waves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-626f4f792e1c4f1698a6ac6c377e6ab3", "input": "Passage: The pressure of a gas in a gas mixture is termed the partial pressure. Answer: partial pressure", "output": [ "What is the pressure of gas in a gas mixture termed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cd2a8e07baf14aa0927b972d96ef9c19", "input": "Passage: ability to diversify at each step. The totipotent stem cell is the zygote, or fertilized egg. The totipotent (toti- = “all”) stem cell gives rise to all cells of the human body. The next level is the pluripotent stem cell, which gives rise to multiple types of cells of the body and some of the supporting fetal membranes. Beneath this level, the mesenchymal cell is a stem cell that develops only into types of connective tissue, including fibrous connective tissue, bone, cartilage, and blood, but not epithelium, muscle, and nervous tissue. One step lower on the hierarchy of stem cells is the hemopoietic stem cell, or hemocytoblast. All of the formed elements of blood originate from this specific type of cell. Hemopoiesis begins when the hemopoietic stem cell is exposed to appropriate chemical stimuli collectively called hemopoietic growth factors, which prompt it to divide and differentiate. One daughter cell remains a hemopoietic stem cell, allowing hemopoiesis to continue. The other daughter cell becomes either of two types of more specialized stem cells (Figure 18.4): • Lymphoid stem cells give rise to a class of leukocytes known as lymphocytes, which include the various T cells, B cells, and natural killer (NK) cells, all of which function in immunity. However, hemopoiesis of lymphocytes progresses somewhat differently from the process for the other formed elements. In brief, lymphoid stem cells quickly migrate from the bone marrow to lymphatic tissues, including the lymph nodes, spleen, and thymus, where their production and differentiation continues. B cells are so named since they mature in the bone marrow, while T cells mature in the thymus. • Myeloid stem cells give rise to all the other formed elements, including the erythrocytes; megakaryocytes that produce platelets; and a myeloblast lineage that gives rise to monocytes and three forms of granular leukocytes: neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. Answer: totipotent stem cell", "output": [ "Which cell gives rise to all cells of the human body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c1bf9adb1043450f89e13ebf6a1e0315", "input": "Passage: Seafloor spreading is the mechanism for the drifting continents. Answer: seafloor spreading", "output": [ "What is the mechanism that accounts for the drifting of continents?" ] }, { "id": "task594-33ba3651c63b4ac797c905b98c88c6cc", "input": "Passage: whereas atherosclerosis is a more specific term for the build-up of plaque in the walls of the vessel and is a specific type of arteriosclerosis. There is also a distinct genetic component, and pre-existing hypertension and/or diabetes also greatly increase the risk. However, obesity, poor nutrition, lack of physical activity, and tobacco use all are major risk factors. Treatment includes lifestyle changes, such as weight loss, smoking cessation, regular exercise, and adoption of a diet low in sodium and saturated fats. Medications to reduce cholesterol and blood pressure may be prescribed. For blocked coronary arteries, surgery is warranted. In angioplasty, a catheter is inserted into the vessel at the point of narrowing, and a second catheter with a balloon-like tip is inflated to widen the opening. To prevent subsequent collapse of the vessel, a small mesh tube called a stent is often inserted. In an endarterectomy, plaque is surgically removed from the walls of a vessel. This operation is typically performed on the carotid arteries of the neck, which are a prime source of oxygenated blood for the brain. In a coronary bypass procedure, a non-vital superficial vessel from another part of the body (often the great saphenous vein) or a synthetic vessel is inserted to create a path around the blocked area of a coronary artery. Answer: endarterectomy", "output": [ "Plaque is surgically removed from the walls of a vessel in which surgery?" ] }, { "id": "task594-03abf5f16ace46ed86faf078f54cf7a2", "input": "Passage: After an adaptive defense is produced against a pathogen, typically plasma cells first secrete IgM into the blood. BCRs on naïve B cells are of the IgM class and occasionally IgD class. IgM molecules make up approximately ten percent of all antibodies. Prior to antibody secretion, plasma cells assemble IgM molecules into pentamers (five individual antibodies) linked by a joining (J) chain, as shown in Figure 42.23. The pentamer arrangement means that these macromolecules can bind ten identical antigens. However, IgM molecules released early in the adaptive immune response do not bind to antigens as stably as IgGs, which are one of the possible types of antibodies secreted in large quantities upon re-exposure to the same pathogen. Figure 42.23 summarizes the properties of immunoglobulins and illustrates their basic structures. Answer: antibodies", "output": [ "After an adaptive defense is produced against a pathogen, typically plasma cells first secrete immunoglobin, which constitutes about ten percent of all what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f0dd42834f474a24bf61fb060e4a47ef", "input": "Passage: Lymphocytes are the key cells in the immune response. They are leukocytes that become activated by a particular antigen. There are two major type of lymphocytes: B cells and T cells. Answer: lymphocytes", "output": [ "What are the key cells in the immune response?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f1e1ffb91c1148f3922dbf4f9dc1b8cd", "input": "Passage: The electrode at which reduction occurs is called the cathode . The cathode gradually increases in mass because of the production of copper metal. The concentration of copper(II) ions in the half-cell solution decreases. The cathode is the positive electrode. Answer: cathode", "output": [ "What is the electrode at which reduction occurs called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1404b5991de84845b1951d38c9fe1872", "input": "Passage: Volcanic eruptions can be devastating, particularly to the people who live close to volcanoes. Volcanologists study volcanoes to be able to predict when a volcano will erupt. Many changes happen when a volcano is about to erupt. Answer: volcanologists", "output": [ "Who study volcanoes to be able to predict when a volcano will erupt?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d36b0f1fbb014dd98c4302e35e7313f4", "input": "Passage: In intelligent mammals, such as primates, the cerebrum is larger compared to the rest of the brain. A larger cerebrum allows primates to develop higher levels of intelligence. Primates have the ability to learn new behaviors. They also engage in complex social interactions, such as fighting and play. Answer: cerebrum", "output": [ "What part of the brain is largest in intelligent mammals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-321c179041154235998d52044290ccdd", "input": "Passage: 24.5 Metabolic States of the Body There are three main metabolic states of the body: absorptive (fed), postabsorptive (fasting), and starvation. During any given day, your metabolism switches between absorptive and postabsorptive states. Starvation states happen very rarely in generally well-nourished individuals. When the body is fed, glucose, fats, and proteins are absorbed across the intestinal membrane and enter the bloodstream and lymphatic system to be used immediately for fuel. Any excess is stored for later fasting stages. As blood glucose levels rise, the pancreas releases insulin to stimulate the uptake of glucose by hepatocytes in the liver, muscle cells/fibers, and adipocytes (fat cells), and to promote its conversion to glycogen. As the postabsorptive state begins, glucose levels drop, and there is a corresponding drop in insulin levels. Falling glucose levels trigger the pancreas to release glucagon to turn off glycogen synthesis in the liver and stimulate its breakdown into glucose. The glucose is released into the bloodstream to serve as a fuel source for cells throughout the body. If glycogen stores are depleted during fasting, alternative sources, including fatty acids and proteins, can be metabolized and used as fuel. When the body once again enters the absorptive state after fasting, fats and proteins are digested and used to replenish fat. Answer: insulin", "output": [ "As blood glucose levels rise what is released from the pancreas?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6416723f90144912ba178d18c8145de3", "input": "Passage: This animation (http://openstaxcollege. org/l/insulin) describe the role of insulin and the pancreas in diabetes. Impaired insulin function can lead to a condition called diabetes mellitus, the main symptoms of which are illustrated in Figure 37.10. This can be caused by low levels of insulin production by the beta cells of the pancreas, or by reduced sensitivity of tissue cells to insulin. This prevents glucose from being absorbed by cells, causing high levels of blood glucose, or hyperglycemia (high sugar). High blood glucose levels make it difficult for the kidneys to recover all the glucose from nascent urine, resulting in glucose being lost in urine. High glucose levels also result in less water being reabsorbed by the kidneys, causing high amounts of urine to be produced; this may result in dehydration. Over time, high blood glucose levels can cause nerve damage to the eyes and peripheral body tissues, as well as damage to the kidneys and cardiovascular system. Oversecretion of insulin can cause hypoglycemia, low blood glucose levels. This causes insufficient glucose availability to cells, often leading to muscle weakness, and can sometimes cause unconsciousness or death if left untreated. Answer: hypoglycemia", "output": [ "Oversecretion of insulin can cause what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ea7173a67f0d4d16b707bd4f7e32d09f", "input": "Passage: True predation is when a predator kills and eats its prey. Some predators of this type, such as jaguars, kill large prey. They tear it apart and chew it before eating it. Others, like bottlenose dolphins or snakes, may eat their prey whole. In some cases, the prey dies in the mouth or the digestive system of the predator. Baleen whales, for example, eat millions of plankton at once. The prey is digested afterward. True predators may hunt actively for prey, or they may sit and wait for prey to get within striking distance. Certain traits enable organisms to be effective hunters. These include camouflage, speed, and heightened senses. These traits also enable certain prey to avoid predators. Answer: true", "output": [ "When a predator kills and eats its prey, what sort of predation is this referred to as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-003fe32cb825452eadd1a4b63402f6b6", "input": "Passage: The sun and other stars produce light because they are so hot. They glow with light due to their extremely high temperatures. This way of producing light is called incandescence . Some objects produce light without becoming very hot. They generate light through chemical reactions or other processes. Producing light without heat is called luminescence . Objects that produce light by luminescence are said to be luminous. Luminescence, in turn, can occur in different ways:. Answer: luminescence", "output": [ "Producing light without heat is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-69b26ebacf904844bca3c29993d5fda5", "input": "Passage: Most plants continue to grow throughout their lives. Like other multicellular organisms, plants grow through a combination of cell growth and cell division. Cell growth increases cell size. Cell division increases the number of cells. Answer: through cell growth and cell division", "output": [ "How do plants grow?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ee6661c83ba5422d9239feb8f47020d1", "input": "Passage: Scientists use models to help them understand and explain ideas. Models explain objects or systems in a more simple way. Models often only show only a part of a system. The real situation is more complicated. Models help scientists to make predictions about complex systems. Some models are something that you can see or touch. Other types of models use an idea or numbers. Each type is useful in certain ways. Answer: models", "output": [ "What do scientists use to help explain objects or systems in simpler ways?" ] }, { "id": "task594-663ed314a2f1477fa878a25536d65ebc", "input": "Passage: Carbon moves through ecosystems in two cycles that overlap. In the biotic cycle, it moves between living things and the air. In the abiotic cycle, it moves between the air, ground, and oceans. By burning fossil fuels, humans have increased the amount of carbon dioxide in the air. Answer: biotic cycle", "output": [ "In what part of the carbon cycle does carbon move between living things and the air?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bc2d5b8c606b4331941ab5989c4562ef", "input": "Passage: Osmotic pressure is important in biological systems because cell walls are semipermeable membranes. In particular, when a person is receiving intravenous (IV) fluids, the osmotic pressure of the fluid needs to be approximately the same as blood serum; otherwise bad things can happen. Figure 11.4 \"Osmotic Pressure and Red Blood Cells\" shows three red blood cells: Figure 11.4 \"Osmotic Pressure and Red Blood Cells\"a shows a healthy red blood cell. Figure 11.4 \"Osmotic Pressure and Red Blood Cells\"b shows a red blood cell that has been exposed to a lower concentration than normal blood serum (a socalled hypotonic solution); the cell has plumped up as solvent moves into the cell to dilute the solutes inside. Figure 11.4 \"Osmotic Pressure and Red Blood Cells\"c shows a red blood cell exposed to a higher concentration than normal blood serum (hypertonic); water leaves the red blood cell, so it collapses onto itself. Only when the solutions inside and outside the cell are the same (isotonic) will the red blood cell be able to do its job. Answer: semipermeable membranes", "output": [ "Osmotic pressure is important in biological systems because cell walls are what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b8bd69dfb9614b9a89c6f5352033fb75", "input": "Passage: 34.8 Humans are mammals that have a large brain and bipedal locomotion. Answer: bipedal", "output": [ "What type of locomotion do humans have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6da7f14d0af54279be9603324db44c4b", "input": "Passage: boundary between air masses that is stalled in one place. Answer: aids", "output": [ "Opportunistic diseases are usually the direct cause of death of people with what disease?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2b3cbd8e967d4ab1b3ad4b65922cf19f", "input": "Passage: Ecosystems require constant inputs of energy from sunlight or chemicals. Producers use energy and inorganic molecules to make food. Consumers take in food by eating producers or other living things. Decomposers break down dead organisms and other organic wastes and release inorganic molecules back to the environment. Answer: inorganic molecules", "output": [ "What do decomposers release once they have broken down the dead organisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a96aa4a3189d4502a3eaa48724af0596", "input": "Passage: Head hair protects the scalp from ultraviolet light exposure and loss of body heat. Hair in eyelashes, eyebrows, and nostrils traps water, dust, and other irritants. Nails protect the ends of fingers and toes and enhance the sense of touch. Answer: head hair", "output": [ "What protects the scalp from ultraviolet light exposure and loss of body heat?" ] }, { "id": "task594-100402bfcd184597a4d473cd10287fbc", "input": "Passage: Sponges have an internal skeleton that gives them support and protection. An internal skeleton is called an endoskeleton . A sponge endoskeleton consists of short, sharp rods called spicules (see Figure below ). Spicules are made of silica, calcium carbonate, or spongin, a tough protein. They grow from specialized cells in the body of the sponge. Answer: endoskeleton", "output": [ "Sponges possess an internal skeleton called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e42e98bb3ede41b1aff5d1364c85156f", "input": "Passage: Crystalline solids are generally classified according the nature of the forces that hold its particles together. These forces are primarily responsible for the physical properties exhibited by the bulk solids. The following sections provide descriptions of the major types of crystalline solids: ionic, metallic, covalent network, and molecular. Answer: crystalline solids", "output": [ "What kind of solids are generally classified by the forces that hold their particles together and include ionic, metallic, covalent network, and molecular types?" ] }, { "id": "task594-77d62d3d006d4f8cb222848d9ebf9636", "input": "Passage: The driving force to combine with nonmetals to create ionic compounds varies quite a bit between different metals. Some pure metals, like cesium and potassium, are so eager to react that they must be stored under oil to avoid an immediate reaction with the oxygen present in air. Others, like platinum and gold, are stable enough that they can be found in nature as pure metals rather than as the cationic portion of an ionic compound. Gradual degradation of a material due to its exposure to the environment is known as corrosion . Metals like gold and platinum are unusually resistant to corrosion, which makes them especially valuable for both structural and decorative purposes. Answer: corrosion", "output": [ "Gradual degradation of a material due to its exposure to the environment is known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e75658d7362e4c968ff1e30809728f0d", "input": "Passage: There are two basic types of cells, prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells . The main difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells is that eukaryotic cells have a nucleus . The nucleus is where cells store their DNA , which is the genetic material. The nucleus is surrounded by a membrane. Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus. Instead, their DNA floats around inside the cell. Organisms with prokaryotic cells are called prokaryotes . All prokaryotes are single-celled (unicellular) organisms. Bacteria and Archaea are the only prokaryotes. Organisms with eukaryotic cells are called eukaryotes . Animals, plants, fungi, and protists are eukaryotes. All multicellular organisms are eukaryotes. Eukaryotes may also be single-celled. Answer: eukaryotic cells have a nucleus", "output": [ "What is the main difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8633b90c79164bab8b22ab9dd0ce74a8", "input": "Passage: Tides in the ocean can also turn a turbine to create electricity. This energy can then be stored until needed ( Figure below ). Answer: electricity", "output": [ "A turbine using tides in the ocean can create what type of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9caa55e6527747edafba8521d81a8c52", "input": "Passage: The majority of the human genome is non-coding sequence. These sequences include regulatory sequences, and DNA with unknown functions. These sequences include tandem repeat elements known as satellite DNA , and transposons. Satellite DNA consists of very large arrays of tandemly repeating, non-coding DNA. The repeating units can be just a single base (a mono nucleotide repeat), two bases (a dinucleotide repeat), three bases (a trinucleotide repeat) or a much larger repeating unit. Some repeating units are several thousand base pairs long, and the total size of a satellite DNA segment can be several megabases without interruption. Answer: satellite dna", "output": [ "What is the term for very large arrays of tandemly repeating, non-coding dna?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3f6aa27b500741728c4969c973ceae2f", "input": "Passage: Ether molecules have an oxygen atom and can engage in hydrogen bonding with water molecules. An ether molecule has about the same solubility in water as the alcohol that is isomeric with it. Answer: water", "output": [ "Ether molecules have an oxygen atom and can engage in hydrogen bonding with which other molecules?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d88e5fc4403148319037c5cbedb73258", "input": "Passage: Adrenaline, or epinephrine, is a hormone and a neurotransmitter. It increases heart rate, constricts blood vessels, dilates air passages, and participates in the fight-or-flight response of the sympathetic nervous system. Adrenaline is produced in the adrenal medulla of the adrenal gland. So how does it effect processes all over the body?. Answer: adrenaline", "output": [ "What neurotransmitter is associated with the fight-or-flight response?" ] }, { "id": "task594-46d2506fcde94ddf8d3e7ffd025969ea", "input": "Passage: Phenotypes and Genotypes Two alleles for a given gene in a diploid organism are expressed and interact to produce physical characteristics. The observable traits expressed by an organism are referred to as its phenotype. An organism’s underlying genetic makeup, consisting of both the physically visible and the non-expressed alleles, is called its genotype. Mendel’s hybridization experiments demonstrate the difference between phenotype and genotype. For example, the phenotypes that Mendel observed in his crosses between pea plants with differing traits are connected to the diploid genotypes of the plants in the P, F1, and F2 generations. We will use a second trait that Mendel investigated, seed color, as an example. Seed color is governed by a single gene with two alleles. The yellow-seed allele is dominant and the green-seed allele is recessive. When true-breeding plants were cross-fertilized, in which one parent had yellow seeds and one had green seeds, all of the F1 hybrid offspring had yellow seeds. That is, the hybrid offspring were phenotypically identical to the true-breeding parent with yellow seeds. However, we know that the allele donated by the parent with green seeds was not simply lost because it reappeared in some of the F2 offspring (Figure 8.5). Therefore, the F1 plants must have been genotypically different from the parent with yellow seeds. The P plants that Mendel used in his experiments were each homozygous for the trait he was studying. Diploid organisms that are homozygous for a gene have two identical alleles, one on each of their homologous chromosomes. The genotype is often written as YY or yy, for which each letter represents one of the two alleles in the genotype. The dominant allele is capitalized and the recessive allele is lower case. The letter used for the gene (seed color in this case) is usually related to the dominant trait (yellow allele, in this case, or “Y”). Mendel’s parental pea plants always bred true because both. Answer: genotype", "output": [ "What is the term for an organism’s underlying genetic makeup, consisting of both the physically visible and the non-expressed alleles?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5222b0c9e1774c119b58d285274bda10", "input": "Passage: The dense, iron core forms the center of the Earth. Scientists know that the core is metal. The inner core is solid, and the outer core is molten. Here are some of the reasons they know this:. Answer: the outer core", "output": [ "Which layer of the earth is molten?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4cd8f73d7c5b4bea925f880bedd40ff2", "input": "Passage: Coriolis force to the right. Just the opposite occurs in the southern hemisphere; there, the force is to the left. Because Earth’s angular velocity is small, the Coriolis force is usually negligible, but for large-scale motions, such as wind patterns, it has substantial effects. The Coriolis force causes hurricanes in the northern hemisphere to rotate in the counterclockwise direction, while the tropical cyclones (what hurricanes are called below the equator) in the southern hemisphere rotate in the clockwise direction. The terms hurricane, typhoon, and tropical storm are regionally-specific names for tropical cyclones, storm systems characterized by low pressure centers, strong winds, and heavy rains. Figure 6.19 helps show how these rotations take place. Air flows toward any region of low pressure, and tropical cyclones contain particularly low pressures. Thus winds flow toward the center of a tropical cyclone or a low-pressure weather system at the surface. In the northern hemisphere, these inward winds are deflected to the right, as shown in the figure, producing a counterclockwise circulation at the surface for low-pressure zones of any type. Low pressure at the surface is associated with rising air, which also produces cooling and cloud formation, making low-pressure patterns quite visible from space. Conversely, wind circulation around high-pressure zones is clockwise in the northern hemisphere but is less visible because high pressure is associated with sinking air, producing clear skies. The rotation of tropical cyclones and the path of a ball on a merry-go-round can just as well be explained by inertia and the rotation of the system underneath. When non-inertial frames are used, fictitious forces, such as the Coriolis force, must be invented to explain the curved path. There is no identifiable physical source for these fictitious forces. In an inertial frame, inertia explains the path, and no force is found to be without an identifiable source. Either view allows us to describe nature, but a view in an inertial frame is the simplest and truest, in the sense that all forces have real origins and explanations. Answer: coriolis force", "output": [ "The direction of the rotation of hurricanes is influenced by which force?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a1906482e7534711a8620bff51e2cde0", "input": "Passage: The periodic table is one of the cornerstones of chemistry because it organizes all the known elements on the basis of their chemical properties. A modern version is shown in Figure 2.7 \"A Modern Periodic Table\". Most periodic tables provide additional data (such as atomic mass) in a box that contains each element’s symbol. The elements are listed in order of atomic number. Answer: chemical properties", "output": [ "The periodic table is one of the cornerstones of chemistry because it organizes all the known elements on the basis of their what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c4ba5a0c4d8f4e56a57a12bbc6e33c33", "input": "Passage: Early researchers in radioactivity found that the emissions from radioactivity could be classified into three distinct types according to their penetrating power. One type of radiation could barely penetrate a sheet of paper. The second type could pass through as much as 3 mm of aluminum. The third type was extremely penetrating and could pass through several centimeters of lead. They named these three types of radiation alpha , beta , and gamma respectively. Eventually, each type of radiation was further identified. Alpha particles are the nuclei of helium atoms, . Beta particles are electrons, and gamma rays are very high energy photons (even higher energy than x-rays). Answer: radiation", "output": [ "Alpha, beta and gamma are three types of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-436c6a4692364affa654896808c8351e", "input": "Passage: The cytoplasm consists of everything inside the plasma membrane, including watery cytosol and organelles. The cytoplasm suspends the organelles and does other jobs. The cytoskeleton crisscrosses the cytoplasm and gives the cell an internal framework. Answer: internal framework", "output": [ "The cytoskeleton crisscrosses the cytoplasm, this gives what to the cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-99a42ccb5adb4a6bb3bbc692e8c0c1f4", "input": "Passage: Upon compiling his results for many thousands of plants, Mendel concluded that the characteristics could be divided into expressed and latent traits. He called these, respectively, dominant and recessive traits. Dominant traits are those that are inherited unchanged in a hybridization. Recessive traits become latent, or disappear, in the offspring of a hybridization. The recessive trait does, however, reappear in the progeny of the hybrid offspring. An example of a dominant trait is the violet-flower trait. For this same characteristic (flower color), white-colored flowers are a recessive trait. The fact that the recessive trait reappeared in the F2 generation meant that the traits remained separate (not blended) in the plants of the F1 generation. Mendel also proposed that plants possessed two copies of the trait for the flower-color characteristic, and that each parent transmitted one of its two copies to its offspring, where they came together. Moreover, the physical observation of a dominant trait could mean that the genetic composition of the organism included two dominant versions of the characteristic or that it included one dominant and one recessive version. Conversely, the observation of a recessive trait meant that the organism lacked any dominant versions of this characteristic. Answer: they disappear", "output": [ "What happens to the recessive traits in the offspring of a hybridization?" ] }, { "id": "task594-94638f7a493d4db2ac981b1f593c8d17", "input": "Passage: 16.7 | Cancer and Gene Regulation By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Describe how changes to gene expression can cause cancer • Explain how changes to gene expression at different levels can disrupt the cell cycle • Discuss how understanding regulation of gene expression can lead to better drug design Cancer is not a single disease but includes many different diseases. In cancer cells, mutations modify cell-cycle control and cells don’t stop growing as they normally would. Mutations can also alter the growth rate or the progression of the cell through the cell cycle. One example of a gene modification that alters the growth rate is increased phosphorylation of cyclin B, a protein that controls the progression of a cell through the cell cycle and serves as a cell-cycle checkpoint protein. For cells to move through each phase of the cell cycle, the cell must pass through checkpoints. This ensures that the cell has properly completed the step and has not encountered any mutation that will alter its function. Many proteins, including cyclin B, control these checkpoints. The phosphorylation of cyclin B, a post-translational event, alters its function. As a result, cells can progress through the cell cycle unimpeded, even if mutations exist in the cell and its growth should be terminated. This post-translational change of cyclin B prevents it from controlling the cell cycle and contributes to the development of cancer. Answer: mutations", "output": [ "Cancer involves what changes that modify cell-cycle control and alter the growth rate or progression of the cell through the cell cycle?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d7b51782742543d88752a3e2daa0dace", "input": "Passage: Chloride ions are important in neutralizing positive ion charges in the body. If chloride is lost, the body uses bicarbonate ions in place of the lost chloride ions. Thus, lost chloride results in an increased reabsorption of bicarbonate by the renal system. Answer: increased bicarbonate reabsorption", "output": [ "Why does the body react to a loss of chloride ions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d4148284a3d7498b87af3396650ca266", "input": "Passage: Primary Producers/Food Sources Protists are essential sources of nutrition for many other organisms. In some cases, as in plankton, protists are consumed directly. Alternatively, photosynthetic protists serve as producers of nutrition for other organisms. For instance, photosynthetic dinoflagellates called zooxanthellae use sunlight to fix inorganic carbon. In this symbiotic relationship, these protists provide nutrients for coral polyps (Figure 23.29) that house them, giving corals a boost of energy to secrete a calcium carbonate skeleton. In turn, the corals provide the protist with a protected environment and the compounds needed for photosynthesis. This type of symbiotic relationship is important in nutrient-poor environments. Without dinoflagellate symbionts, corals lose algal pigments in a process called coral bleaching, and they eventually die. This explains why reefbuilding corals do not reside in waters deeper than 20 meters: insufficient light reaches those depths for dinoflagellates to photosynthesize. Answer: symbiotic", "output": [ "Without dinoflagellate symbionts, corals lose algal pigments in a process called coral bleaching and eventually die, while corals in turn provide protection, making this what type of relationship?." ] }, { "id": "task594-40e71c10e15348a7a239df13e3bf6997", "input": "Passage: In a similar fashion, viral therapy uses viruses to genetically modify diseased cells and tissues. Viral therapy shows promise as a method of gene therapy and in the treatment of cancer. Gene therapy is the insertion of genes into a person’s cells and tissues to treat a disease. In the case of a genetic disease, the defective gene is replaced with a working gene. Although the technology is still new, it has been used with some success. Answer: viral therapy", "output": [ "Which therapy uses viruses to genetically modify diseased cells and tissues?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3383746ae8b741fdaf802d105e63551c", "input": "Passage: Many of the organisms that made up the Pleistocene megafauna went extinct as conditions warmed. Some may have been driven to extinction by human activities. Answer: extinction", "output": [ "Warming conditions and, perhaps, human activities contributed to what fate of many organisms of the pleistocene era?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1a494abef950402d9ee53e037e30007a", "input": "Passage: animals exposed to similar levels of urea. Sharks are cartilaginous fish with a rectal gland to secrete salt and assist in osmoregulation. Answer: rectal gland", "output": [ "What do sharks use to secrete salt to assist in osmoregulation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ff1f5fe0d0c44857922624ccd43858e1", "input": "Passage: Sometimes people who are feeling anxious breathe too fast and become lightheaded. This is called hyperventilation. Hyperventilation can upset the pH balance of the blood, resulting in blood that is too basic. Explain why. Answer: they become lightheaded", "output": [ "What also happens when people feel anxious and breathe too fast?" ] }, { "id": "task594-86bcefbfe801461f8ed7944fc88f5524", "input": "Passage: Many marine invertebrates have internal salt levels matched to their environments, making them isotonic with the water in which they live. Fish, however, must spend approximately five percent of their metabolic energy maintaining osmotic homeostasis. Freshwater fish live in an environment that is hypotonic to their cells. These fish actively take in salt through their gills and excrete diluted urine to rid themselves of excess water. Saltwater fish live in the reverse environment, which is hypertonic to their cells, and they secrete salt through their gills and excrete highly concentrated urine. In vertebrates, the kidneys regulate the amount of water in the body. Osmoreceptors are specialized cells in the brain that monitor the concentration of solutes in the blood. If the levels of solutes increase beyond a certain range, a hormone is released that retards water loss through the kidney and dilutes the blood to safer levels. Animals also have high concentrations of albumin, which is produced by the liver, in their blood. This protein is too large to pass easily through plasma membranes and is a major factor in controlling the osmotic pressures applied to tissues. Answer: osmoreceptors", "output": [ "What are specialized cells in the brain that monitor the concentration of solutes in the blood called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2525bacf059b42c1acd438911e5a3684", "input": "Passage: Layers of Human Skin. The outer layer of the skin is the epidermis, and the inner layer is the dermis. Most skin structures originate in the dermis. Answer: dermis", "output": [ "Where do most skin structures originate in?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b525658da36b48e79b25af6b1a5fbd59", "input": "Passage: The cardiovascular system moves nutrients and other substances throughout the body. Answer: cardiovascular system", "output": [ "Which human body system system moves nutrients and other substances throughout the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-520ee17cb66b4b93b71dc18adeac86ab", "input": "Passage: Chemical sedimentary rocks form when crystals precipitate out from a liquid. The mineral halite, also called rock salt, forms this way. You can make halite! Leave a shallow dish of salt water out in the Sun. As the water evaporates, salt crystals form in the dish. There are other chemical sedimentary rocks, like gypsum. Answer: chemical sedimentary rocks", "output": [ "What forms when crystals precipitate out from a liquid?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a351bd17a1ce4ff690941a3a2914dd1a", "input": "Passage: Moving particles transfer thermal energy through a fluid by forming convection currents. Answer: fluid", "output": [ "Through what do moving particles transfer thermal energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-117f270351ae4ae78b26a613f344388c", "input": "Passage: The body's second line of defense against pathogens includes the inflammatory response. If bacteria enter the skin through a scrape, the area may become red, warm, and painful. These are signs of inflammation. Inflammation is one way the body reacts to infections or injuries. Inflammation is caused by chemicals that are released when skin or other tissues are damaged. The chemicals cause nearby blood vessels to dilate, or expand. This increases blood flow to the damaged area, which makes the area red and slightly warm. The chemicals also attract white blood cells called neutrophils to the wound and cause them to leak out of blood vessels into the damaged tissue. Answer: inflammatory", "output": [ "The body's second line of defense against pathogens includes which response?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a35f1accfe634bed889bb7510be8fbbf", "input": "Passage: Chromosomes are coiled structures made of DNA and proteins. Chromosomes are the form of the genetic material of a cell during cell division. During other phases of the cell cycle, DNA is not coiled into chromosomes. Instead, it exists as a grainy material called chromatin . Answer: chromosomes", "output": [ "What is the term for coiled structures made of dna and proteins?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3edc64c77b13498eac5cee79d22449c9", "input": "Passage: 33.3 Homeostasis Homeostasis is a dynamic equilibrium that is maintained in body tissues and organs. It is dynamic because it is constantly adjusting to the changes that the systems encounter. It is in equilibrium because body functions are kept within a normal range, with some fluctuations around a set point for the processes. Answer: homeostasis", "output": [ "What is the term for a dynamic equilibrium that is maintained in body tissues and organs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-33a9516eba254b5bad7a69537d7b0e27", "input": "Passage: The pancreas and liver secrete fluids that aid in digestion. Answer: pancreas and liver", "output": [ "What two organs secrete fluids that aid in digestion?" ] }, { "id": "task594-edbb710427a641038bfc624d7d745496", "input": "Passage: Indeed, scientists discovered something astonishing. Many times in Earth’s history, the magnetic poles have switched positions. North becomes south and south becomes north! When the north and south poles are aligned as they are now, geologists say it is normal polarity. When they are in the opposite position, they say that it is reversed polarity. Answer: three-dimensional shape", "output": [ "What feature of the land do contour lines show?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dc3313f52bc94e6399153539aa9e290e", "input": "Passage: Inductive reasoning involves reaching conclusions about unobserved things on the basis of what has already been observed. Induction is used regularly in fields such as archaeology, where inferences about the past from present are made. Inductions could also be made across outer space, as in astronomy, where conclusions about the whole universe are drawn from the limited number of observations we are able to make. Answer: inductive", "output": [ "Reaching conclusions about unobserved things on the basis of what has already been observed is known as what kind of reasoning?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4ac89fc7d1824317b4be956b19934e6a", "input": "Passage: Polarized filters block 50% of unpolarized light. If two filters are oriented so that their polarization axes are aligned, how much light is transmitted? What about if their axes are oriented perpendicular to each other? Draw two diagrams below to support your answers. Answer: 50%", "output": [ "How much unpolarized light does a polarized filter block?" ] }, { "id": "task594-60c37b553f9e4a31984415e256ecb739", "input": "Passage: Severe thunderstorms have a lot of energy and strong winds. This allows them to produce tornadoes. A tornado is a funnel-shaped cloud of whirling high winds. You can see a tornado in Figure below . The funnel moves along the ground, destroying everything in its path. As it moves it loses energy. Before this happens it may have gone up to 25 kilometers (16 miles). Fortunately, tornadoes are narrow. They may be only 150 meters (500 feet) wide. Answer: tornado", "output": [ "What is a funnel-shaped cloud of whirling high winds known as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eb6d9200045842dabc8fe931f07ed14a", "input": "Passage: Humans have collected and grown mushrooms for food for thousands of years. Figure below shows some of the many types of mushrooms that people eat. Yeasts are used in bread baking and brewing alcoholic beverages. Other fungi are used in fermenting a wide variety of foods, including soy sauce, tempeh, and cheeses. Blue cheese has its distinctive appearance and flavor because of the fungus growing though it (see Figure below ). Answer: fungus", "output": [ "What grows through blue cheese that gives it the distinctive appearance and flavor?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d211830507774af39a1d70665df31134", "input": "Passage: Cranial Nerves Cranial nerves convey specific sensory information from the head and neck directly to the brain. For sensations below the neck, the right side of the body is connected to the left side of the brain and the left side of the body to the right side of the brain. Whereas spinal information is contralateral, cranial nerve systems are mostly ipsilateral, meaning that a cranial nerve on the right side of the head is connected to the right side of the brain. Some cranial nerves contain only sensory axons, such as the olfactory, optic, and vestibulocochlear nerves. Other cranial nerves contain both sensory and motor axons, including the trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerves (however, the vagus nerve is not associated with the somatic nervous system). The general senses of somatosensation for the face travel through the trigeminal system. Answer: brain", "output": [ "Cranial nerves convey specific sensory information from the head and neck directly to what organ?" ] }, { "id": "task594-319bbea662ce4f5287bf08dd388914b3", "input": "Passage: Types of neurons include sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons. Answer: interneurons", "output": [ "Types of neurons include sensory neurons, motor neurons, and?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b544712752084900b72458c93c1c388c", "input": "Passage: About 75% of the tar sands in the world are in Venezuela and Alberta, Canada ( Figure below ). Large areas of land are degraded when tar sands are mined. A tremendous amount of waste rock is produced from mining tar sands. Answer: venezuela and alberta, canada", "output": [ "Where are about 75% of the tar sands in the world located?" ] }, { "id": "task594-380ad3c9d740410da65f14dc02cae2f1", "input": "Passage: Phytoplankton are the primary producers in the ocean. They form the base of most marine food chains. Answer: phytoplankton", "output": [ "What are the primary producers in the ocean?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a35875bc2ced4dfca85f0f0c76921ff5", "input": "Passage: There are two basic types of pollutants in air. They are known as primary pollutants and secondary pollutants. Answer: primary and secondary pollutants", "output": [ "What are two basic types of pollutants in the air?" ] }, { "id": "task594-804a929999c844109c93e120282badb7", "input": "Passage: Adipose Tissue Adipose tissue produces and secretes several hormones involved in lipid metabolism and storage. One important example is leptin, a protein manufactured by adipose cells that circulates in amounts directly proportional to levels of body fat. Leptin is released in response to food consumption and acts by binding to brain neurons involved in energy intake and expenditure. Binding of leptin produces a feeling of satiety after a meal, thereby reducing appetite. It also appears that the binding of leptin to brain receptors triggers the sympathetic nervous system to regulate bone metabolism, increasing deposition of cortical bone. Adiponectin—another hormone synthesized by adipose cells—appears to reduce cellular insulin resistance and to protect blood vessels from inflammation and atherosclerosis. Its levels are lower in people who are obese, and rise following weight loss. Answer: adipose tissue", "output": [ "What type of tissue produces and secretes several hormones involved in lipid metabolism and storage?" ] }, { "id": "task594-09fbfa82c8824808b68a9839cb40d43a", "input": "Passage: Breast cancer is the most common type of cancer in females. It occurs when cells in the breast grow out of control and form a tumor. Breast cancer is rare in teens but becomes more common as females get older. Regular screening is recommended for most women starting around age 40. If found early, breast cancer usually can be cured with surgery. Answer: breast cancer", "output": [ "What disease occurs when cells in the breast grow out of control and form a tumor?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b70570e1b3b344eb84d56264b786d768", "input": "Passage: One of the first uses of rockets in space was to launch satellites. A satellite is an object that orbits a larger object. An orbit is a circular or elliptical path around an object. Natural objects in orbit are called natural satellites. The Moon is a natural satellite. Human-made objects in orbit are called artificial satellites. Answer: satellites", "output": [ "What did rockets help launch into space during their beginning?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ea5b3efa6d574880807806b1e0aeae62", "input": "Passage: The Chemistry of Carbon What makes organic compounds ubiquitous is the chemistry of their carbon core. Recall that carbon atoms have four electrons in their valence shell, and that the octet rule dictates that atoms tend to react in such a way as to complete their valence shell with eight electrons. Carbon atoms do not complete their valence shells by donating or accepting four electrons. Instead, they readily share electrons via covalent bonds. Answer: carbon core", "output": [ "What makes organic compounds ubiquitous is the chemistry of their what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-662b8bb0b9a244c398d027613a2d6bc2", "input": "Passage: The arthropod exoskeleton consists of several layers of cuticle. The exoskeleton prevents water loss and gives support and protection. It also acts as a counterforce for the contraction of muscles. The exoskeleton doesn’t grow as the animal grows. Therefore, it must be shed and replaced with a new one periodically through life. This is called molting . Answer: exoskeleton", "output": [ "What part of an animal helps to prevent water loss and gives support and protection?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fb4fbc96e625496fa2b1e142ccf5d2b5", "input": "Passage: Old age begins in the mid-60s and lasts until the end of life. Most people over 65 have retired from work, freeing up their time for hobbies, grandchildren, and other interests. Stamina, strength, reflex time, and the senses all decline during old age, and the number of brain cells decreases as well. The immune system becomes less efficient, increasing the risk of serious illnesses such as cancer and pneumonia. Diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease that cause loss of mental function also become more common. Answer: old age", "output": [ "When does diseases like alzheimer's become more common?" ] }, { "id": "task594-234f37d61d9b45518c7a05110551d900", "input": "Passage: Bacteria are modified to produce the human protein cytokine. This is a protein that helps fight infections. Answer: infections", "output": [ "What does the human protein cytokine help fight?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f2c35767edbf40e5962b88eac9c20dd2", "input": "Passage: Nitrogen-fixing bacteria change nitrogen gas from the atmosphere to nitrates in soil. Answer: nitrogen fixing bacteria", "output": [ "What type of bacteria change nitrogen gas from the atmosphere to nitrates in soil?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9594c2fc823e4d8383484ea4aa65406b", "input": "Passage: Bacteria can be used to make cheese from milk. The bacteria turn the milk sugars into lactic acid. The acid is what causes the milk to curdle to form cheese. Bacteria are also involved in producing other foods. Yogurt is made by using bacteria to ferment milk ( Figure below ). Fermenting cabbage with bacteria produces sauerkraut. Answer: lactic acid", "output": [ "Bacteria can be used to make cheese from milk. the bacteria turn the milk sugars into what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-848a128f27374fd9ab8627416ee698f0", "input": "Passage: Scientists do the same thing when they classify , or put into categories, living things. Scientists classify organisms not only by their physical features, but also by how closely related they are. Lions and tigers look like each other more than they look like bears, but are lions and tigers related? Evolutionarily speaking, yes. Evolution is the change in a species over time. Lions and tigers both evolved from a common ancestor. So it turns out that the two cats are actually more closely related to each other than to bears. How an organism looks and how it is related to other organisms determines how it is classified. Answer: evolution", "output": [ "What is the change in a species over time?" ] }, { "id": "task594-54db6159bd6d482b88c62f6e805b39d4", "input": "Passage: Vertebrates have one of three reproductive strategies, known as ovipary, ovovivipary, or vivipary. Answer: reproduction", "output": [ "In vertebrates, ovipary, ovovivipary, and vivipary are different strategies for what vital process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2bb3008600a143958f2a6d9b2894f188", "input": "Passage: One common application of inductance is used in traffic lights that can tell when vehicles are waiting at the intersection. An electrical circuit with an inductor is placed in the road under the place a waiting car will stop over. The body of the car increases the inductance and the circuit changes sending a signal to the traffic lights to change colors. Similarly, metal detectors used for airport security employ the same technique. A coil or inductor in the metal detector frame acts as both a transmitter and a receiver. The pulsed signal in the transmitter coil induces a signal in the receiver. The self-inductance of the circuit is affected by any metal object in the path. Such detectors can be adjusted for sensitivity and also can indicate the approximate location of metal found on a person. (But they will not be able to detect any plastic explosive such as that found on the “underwear bomber. ”) See Figure 23.43. Answer: inductance", "output": [ "Metal detectors used for airport security work on which principle?" ] }, { "id": "task594-89770251281e4569a68b241bb33f77ea", "input": "Passage: The focal length , , of a lens or mirror is the distance from the surface of the lens or mirror to the place where the light is focused. This is called the focal point or focus . For diverging lenses or mirrors, the focal length is negative. Answer: diverging", "output": [ "What type of lens and mirrors have a negative focal length?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d27dedd58ac247d58d52f3bbf1a185df", "input": "Passage: In prokaryotes, a combination of activators and repressors determines whether a gene is transcribed. As you know, prokaryotic organisms are fairly simple organisms with much less DNA. Prokaryotic genes are arranged in operons , a region of DNA with a promoter, an operator , and one or more genes that encode proteins needed to perform a certain task. To maintain homeostasis (and survive), the organism must quickly adapt changing environmental conditions. The regulation of transcription plays a key role in this process. Answer: homeostasis", "output": [ "In order to survive and maintain what state, an organism must quickly adapt to changing environmental conditions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-960b32e5969342a9bbd950e0147c12cd", "input": "Passage: Monotreme eggs have a leathery shell, like the eggs of reptiles. The eggs are retained inside the mother’s body for at least a couple of weeks. During that time, the mother provides the eggs with nutrients. Platypus females lay their eggs in a burrow. Echidna females have a pouch in which they store their eggs. Female monotremes have mammary glands but lack nipples. Instead, they “sweat” milk from a patch on their belly. Answer: monotreme", "output": [ "Females of what mammalian group have mammary glands but lack nipples?" ] }, { "id": "task594-358d7afa8ecc48f392ea96c14a9c4460", "input": "Passage: Stereoisomers Molecules with the same connectivity but different arrangements of the atoms in space are called stereoisomers. There are two types of stereoisomers: geometric and optical. Geometric isomers differ in the relative position(s) of substituents in a rigid molecule. (For more information on stereoisomers, see Chapter 23 \"The \", Section 23.4 \"Coordination Compounds\". ) Simple rotation about a C–C σ bond in an alkene, for example, cannot occur because of the presence of the π bond. The substituents are therefore rigidly locked into a particular spatial arrangement (part (a) in Figure 2.16 \"Some Simple (a) Alkenes, (b) Alkynes, and (c) Cyclic Hydrocarbons\"). Thus a carbon–carbon multiple bond, or in some cases a ring, prevents one geometric isomer from being readily converted to the other. The members of an isomeric pair are identified as either cis or trans, and interconversion between the two forms requires breaking and reforming one or more bonds. Because their structural difference causes them to have different physical and chemical properties, cis and trans isomers are actually two distinct chemical compounds. Answer: breaking and reforming", "output": [ "What is required for interconversion between the two forms of an isomeric pair?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d35645dc11264ad9be796184e808b851", "input": "Passage: Chapter 15 1 The heart rate increases to send more blood to the muscles, and the liver releases stored glucose to fuel the muscles. 3 The effect of gravity on circulation means that it is harder to get blood up from the legs as the body takes on a vertical orientation. 5 The release of urine in extreme fear. The sympathetic system normally constricts sphincters such as that of the urethra. 7 D 9 C 11 A 13 D 15 A 17 A 19 B 21 B 23 C 25 D 27 Whereas energy is needed for running away from the threat, blood needs to be sent to the skeletal muscles for oxygen supply. The additional fuel, in the form of carbohydrates, probably wouldn’t improve the ability to escape the threat as much as the diversion of oxygen-rich blood would hinder it. 29 The nerves that carry sensory information from the diaphragm enter the spinal cord in the cervical region where somatic sensory fibers from the shoulder and neck would enter. The brain superimposes this experience onto the sensory homunculus where the somatic nerves are connected. 31 Pupillary dilation and sweating, two functions lost in Horner’s syndrome, are caused by the sympathetic system. A tumor in the thoracic cavity may interrupt the output of the thoracic ganglia that project to the head and face. 33 Blood vessels, and therefore blood pressure, are primarily influenced by only the sympathetic system. There is no parasympathetic influence on blood pressure, so nicotine activation of autonomic ganglia will preferentially increase blood pressure. Also, cardiac muscle tissue is only modulated by autonomic inputs, so the conflicting information from both sympathetic and parasympathetic postganglionic fibers will cause arrhythmias. Both hypertension and arrhythmias are cardiac risk factors. Answer: vertical orientation", "output": [ "The effect of gravity on circulation means that it is harder to get blood up from the legs as the body takes on this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f84359170d334d1f8cbbb6b254c445d7", "input": "Passage: Population density is the average number of individuals in a population per unit of area or volume. For example, a population of 100 insects that live in an area of 100 square meters has a density of 1 insect per square meter. If the same population lives in an area of only 1 square meter, what is its density? Which population is more crowded? How might crowding affect the health of a population?. Answer: population density", "output": [ "What is the term for the average number of individuals in a population per unit of area or volume?" ] }, { "id": "task594-23b469c4e0fd415ca517fdb8ad052190", "input": "Passage: Ferns are common in the understory of the tropical rainforest. Answer: understory", "output": [ "What part of the rainforest commonly has ferns and other ground plants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1dc3bdfe80da4cfbb58457c4290531c7", "input": "Passage: Matter can be described with both physical properties and chemical properties. Answer: physical and chemical", "output": [ "Matter can be described with what two encompassing types of properties?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4ba9c32343bb4b3398be1aaf521bd0ab", "input": "Passage: Polar molecules result from differences in electronegativity of the atoms in the molecule. Answer: atoms", "output": [ "Polar molecules result from differences in electronegativity of what in the molecule?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9d37d93ec0684110a3cc6561f084368f", "input": "Passage: Terrestrial biomes include all the land areas on Earth where organisms live. The distinguishing features of terrestrial biomes are determined mainly by climate. Terrestrial biomes include tundras, temperate forests and grasslands, chaparral, temperate and tropical deserts, and tropical forests and grasslands. Answer: climate", "output": [ "What factor largely determines the distinguishing features of terrestrial biomes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bb6850c1d7124a33be9a5d62b677e82d", "input": "Passage: Temperature does not change during a phase change. The process of a liquid becoming a gas is called boiling; the process of a solid becoming a gas is called sublimation. Answer: sublimation", "output": [ "The process of a liquid becoming a gas is called boiling, while the process of a solid becoming a gas is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d54afb4d776b41e7894b6250b8cc4f56", "input": "Passage: Sediments are deposited in an environment of deposition. This can be a sand dune, beach, lake, river bend, or a great number of other locations. Scientists can figure out the environment of deposition of a sedimentary rock by looking at the size of sediments and the sedimentary features in the rock. Answer: sedimentary", "output": [ "The term \"environment of deposition\" is useful for understanding the characteristics of what type of rock?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d1f8aa2ec5bf4ffca0642c131d44df26", "input": "Passage: A natural resource is something supplied by nature that helps support life. When you think of natural resources, you may think of fossil fuels, like the coal in the coal field pictured in Figure below . However, sunlight, wind, soil, and living things are also important natural resources. Answer: natural resource", "output": [ "What term refers to something supplied by nature that helps support life?" ] }, { "id": "task594-be99cdb12c234defbd97253810af6ff0", "input": "Passage: Two forces may act on an object in the same direction. You can see an example of this in Figure below . After the man on the left lifts up the couch, he will push the couch to the right with a force of 25 newtons. At the same time, the man to the right is pulling the couch to the right with a force of 20 newtons. When two forces act in the same direction, the net force is equal to the sum of the forces. This always results in a stronger force than either of the individual forces alone. In this case, the net force on the couch is 45 newtons to the right, so the couch will move to the right. Answer: sum of the forces", "output": [ "What is the net force when two forces act in the same direction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6cbd5d4b623a48fa924f68b204422a65", "input": "Passage: In some species, the same individual produces both sperm and eggs. But worms mate to exchange sperm, rather than self-fertilizing their own eggs. Fertilized eggs are deposited in a mucous cocoon. Offspring emerge from the cocoon looking like small adults. They grow to adult size without going through a larval stage. Answer: larval", "output": [ "Worms grow to adult size without going through what stage?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1188798873d14a9dacf5146f14be946d", "input": "Passage: Frogs The frog order also includes toads. Unlike other amphibians, frogs and toads lack a tail by adulthood. Their back legs are also longer because they are specialized for jumping. Frogs can jump as far as 20 times their body length. That’s like you jumping more than the length of a basketball court! red-eyed tree frog. Answer: jumping", "output": [ "Frogs and toads have long back legs which are specialized for what action?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3e702521693148d8ac2346fe6156c839", "input": "Passage: The inner ear is often described as a bony labyrinth, as it is composed of a series of canals embedded within the temporal bone. It has two separate regions, the cochlea and the vestibule, which are responsible for hearing and balance, respectively. The neural signals from these two regions are relayed to the brain stem through separate fiber bundles. However, these two distinct bundles travel together from the inner ear to the brain stem as the vestibulocochlear nerve. Sound is transduced into neural signals within the cochlear region of the inner ear, which contains the sensory neurons of the spiral ganglia. These ganglia are located within the spiral-shaped cochlea of the inner ear. The cochlea is attached to the stapes through the oval window. The oval window is located at the beginning of a fluid-filled tube within the cochlea called the scala vestibuli. The scala vestibuli extends from the oval window, travelling above the cochlear duct, which is the central cavity of the cochlea that contains the sound-transducing neurons. At the uppermost tip of the cochlea, the scala vestibuli curves over the top of the cochlear duct. The fluid-filled tube, now called the scala tympani, returns to the base of the cochlea, this time travelling under the cochlear duct. The scala tympani ends at the round window, which is covered by a membrane that contains the fluid within the scala. As vibrations of the ossicles travel through the oval window, the fluid of the scala vestibuli and scala tympani moves in a wave-like motion. The frequency of the fluid waves match the frequencies of the sound waves (Figure 14.6). The membrane covering the round window will bulge out or pucker in with the movement of the fluid within the scala tympani. Answer: inner ear", "output": [ "What part of the ear is often described as a bony labyrinth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3ba15b64ba934b3aa52b119f3f007c93", "input": "Passage: Bees are beautiful creatures that help plants flourish. They carry pollen from one plant to another to facilitate plant growth and development. But, they can also be troublesome when they sting you. For people who are allergic to bee venom, this can be a serious, life-threatening problem. For the rest of us, it can be a painful experience. When stung by a bee, one first-aid treatment is to apply a paste of baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) to the stung area. This weak base helps with the itching and swelling that accompanies the bee sting. Answer: pollen", "output": [ "What do bees carry from one plant to another to facilitate plant growth and development?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a14c8f9af2f340198ec188ae828e9f70", "input": "Passage: Chapter 12 1 MRI uses the relative amount of water in tissue to distinguish different areas, so gray and white matter in the nervous system can be seen clearly in these images. 3 Neurons enable thought, perception, and movement. Plants do not move, so they do not need this type of tissue. Microorganisms are too small to have a nervous system. Many are single-celled, and therefore have organelles for perception and movement. 5 Sodium is moving into the cell because of the immense concentration gradient, whereas potassium is moving out because of the depolarization that sodium causes. However, they both move down their respective gradients, toward equilibrium. 7 A second signal from a separate presynaptic neuron can arrive slightly later, as long as it arrives before the first one dies off, or dissipates. 9 C 11 D 13 B 15 B 17 A 19 C 21 C 23 A 25 B 27 D 29 B 31 D 33 A 34 Running on a treadmill involves contraction of the skeletal muscles in the legs, increase in contraction of the cardiac muscle of the heart, and the production and secretion of sweat in the skin to stay cool. 36 The disease would target oligodendrocytes. In the CNS, oligodendrocytes provide the myelin for axons. 38 Afferent means “toward,” as in sensory information traveling from the periphery into the CNS. Efferent means “away from,” as in motor commands that travel from the brain down the spinal cord and out into the periphery. 40 The cell membrane must reach threshold before voltage-gated Na+ channels open. If threshold is not reached, those channels do not open, and the depolarizing phase of the action potential does not occur, the cell membrane will just go back to its resting state. 42 EPSP1 = +5 mV, EPSP2 = +7 mV, EPSP 3 = +10 mV, IPSP1 = -4 mV, IPSP2 = -3 mV. 5 + 7 + 10 – 4 – 3 = +15 mV. Answer: organelles", "output": [ "Many microorganisms are single celled and use what for perception and movement?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cd8bede22a134292b527eb5a6996057d", "input": "Passage: A seamount is a volcanic mountain on the ocean floor. Seamounts that rise above the water surface are known as islands. There are many seamounts dotting the seafloor. Answer: islands", "output": [ "What are seamounts that rise above the water surface called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b3c891ca21fe4312934d0b659d290815", "input": "Passage: Controlling muscles and maintaining balance are just two of the functions of the human nervous system. What else does the nervous system do?. Answer: controlling muscles", "output": [ "What is one function of the nervous system in humans?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f54e97232a0a4206a7dfc3c1e3c76b15", "input": "Passage: Evolution of Mammals Mammals are synapsids, meaning they have a single opening in the skull. They are the only living synapsids, as earlier forms became extinct by the Jurassic period. The early non-mammalian synapsids can be divided into two groups, the pelycosaurs and the therapsids. Within the therapsids, a group called the cynodonts are thought to be the ancestors of mammals (Figure 29.36). Answer: skull", "output": [ "Mammals are synapsids, meaning they have a single opening in what structure?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3b742b34428d437f8f73d9529842b1d8", "input": "Passage: ART CONNECTION QUESTIONS 1. Figure 14.10 In eukaryotic cells, DNA and RNA synthesis occur in a separate compartment from protein synthesis. In prokaryotic cells, both processes occur together. What advantages might there be to separating the processes? What advantages might there be to having them occur together? 2. Figure 14.14 You isolate a cell strain in which the joining together of Okazaki fragments is impaired and. Answer: protein", "output": [ "Unlike eukaryotic cells, dna and rna synthesis in prokaryotic cells occurs together with synthesis of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e4371c506c984532aa46e25c01a5ca24", "input": "Passage: The range is the total spread of values. It gives you an idea of the variation in the measurements. The range is calculated by subtracting the smallest value from the largest value. For the data in Table above , the range in numbers of vehicles by type is: 150 - 50 = 100. Answer: the range", "output": [ "What is calculated by subtracting the smallest value from the largest value?" ] }, { "id": "task594-41badc0b687d4d3599848cb9b01db2b6", "input": "Passage: The hint of symmetry between electricity and magnetism found in the preceding chapter will be elaborated upon in this chapter. Specifically, we know that a current creates a magnetic field. If nature is symmetric here, then perhaps a magnetic field can create a current. The Hall effect is a voltage caused by a magnetic force. That voltage could drive a current. Historically, it was very shortly after Oersted discovered currents cause magnetic fields that other scientists asked the following question: Can magnetic fields cause currents? The answer was soon found by experiment to be yes. In 1831, some 12 years after Oersted’s discovery, the English scientist Michael Faraday (1791–1862) and the American scientist Joseph Henry (1797–1878) independently demonstrated that magnetic fields can produce currents. The basic process of generating emfs (electromotive force) and, hence, currents with magnetic fields is known as induction; this process is also called magnetic induction to distinguish it from charging by induction, which utilizes the Coulomb force. Today, currents induced by magnetic fields are essential to our technological society. The ubiquitous generator—found in automobiles, on bicycles, in nuclear power plants, and so on—uses magnetism to generate current. Other devices that use magnetism to induce currents include pickup coils in electric guitars, transformers of every size, certain microphones, airport security gates, and damping mechanisms on sensitive chemical balances. Not so familiar perhaps, but important nevertheless, is that the behavior of AC circuits depends strongly on the effect of magnetic fields on currents. Answer: magnetism", "output": [ "What does the ubiquitous generator use to generate currents?" ] }, { "id": "task594-540f9f0e01e4474aa4ff835566dba1b4", "input": "Passage: Of the four nerve plexuses, two are found at the cervical level, one at the lumbar level, and one at the sacral level (Figure 13.24). The cervical plexus is composed of axons from spinal nerves C1 through C5 and branches into nerves in the posterior neck and head, as well as the phrenic nerve, which connects to the diaphragm at the base of the thoracic cavity. The other plexus from the cervical level is the brachial plexus. Spinal nerves C4 through T1 reorganize through this plexus to give rise to the nerves of the arms, as the name brachial suggests. A large nerve from this plexus is the radial nerve from which the axillary nerve branches to go to the armpit region. The radial nerve continues through the arm and is paralleled by the ulnar nerve and the median nerve. The lumbar plexus arises from all the lumbar spinal nerves and gives rise to nerves enervating the pelvic region and the anterior leg. The femoral nerve is one of the major nerves from this plexus, which gives rise to the saphenous nerve as a branch that extends through the anterior lower leg. The sacral plexus comes from the lower lumbar nerves L4 and L5 and the sacral nerves S1 to S4. The most significant systemic nerve to come from this plexus is the sciatic nerve, which is a combination of the tibial nerve and the fibular nerve. The sciatic nerve extends across the hip joint and is most commonly associated with the condition sciatica, which is the result of compression or irritation of the nerve or any of the spinal nerves giving rise to it. These plexuses are described as arising from spinal nerves and giving rise to certain systemic nerves, but they contain fibers that serve sensory functions or fibers that serve motor functions. This means that some fibers extend from cutaneous or other peripheral sensory surfaces and send action potentials into the CNS. Those are axons of sensory neurons in the dorsal root ganglia that enter the spinal cord through the dorsal nerve root. Other fibers are the axons of motor neurons of the anterior horn of the spinal cord, which emerge in the ventral nerve root and send action potentials to cause skeletal muscles to contract in their target regions. For example, the radial nerve contains fibers of cutaneous sensation in the arm, as well as motor fibers that move muscles in the arm. Spinal nerves of the thoracic region, T2 through T11, are not part of the plexuses but rather emerge and give rise to the intercostal nerves found between the ribs, which articulate with the vertebrae surrounding the spinal nerve. Answer: sacral", "output": [ "Of the four nerve plexuses, two are found at the cervical level, one at the lumbar level, and one at which level ?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d418f2290d5e45a3b7a469ac8b8ca7f2", "input": "Passage: Cancer is the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the body. Cancerous cells are also called malignant cells. There are over 200 different known cancers that afflict humans. Answer: malignant", "output": [ "Characterized by uncontrolled growth, cancerous cells are also called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d05d914b27c3429ab66435f1b7a0d117", "input": "Passage: Meiosis is the type of cell division that produces gametes. Answer: meiosis", "output": [ "What is the type of cell division that produces gametes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-040afaec3b9444079b713fc502b2c810", "input": "Passage: 3.6 Active Transport The combined gradient that affects an ion includes its concentration gradient and its electrical gradient. Living cells need certain substances in concentrations greater than they exist in the extracellular space. Moving substances up their electrochemical gradients requires energy from the cell. Active transport uses energy stored in ATP to fuel the transport. Active transport of small molecular-size material uses integral proteins in the cell membrane to move the material—these proteins are analogous to pumps. Some pumps, which carry out primary active transport, couple directly with ATP to drive their action. In secondary transport, energy from primary transport can be used to move another substance into the cell and up its concentration gradient. Endocytosis methods require the direct use of ATP to fuel the transport of large particles such as macromolecules; parts of cells or whole cells can be engulfed by other cells in a process called phagocytosis. In phagocytosis, a portion of the membrane invaginates and flows around the particle, eventually pinching off and leaving the particle wholly enclosed by an envelope of plasma membrane. Vacuoles are broken down by the cell, with the particles used as food or dispatched in some other way. Pinocytosis is a similar process on a smaller scale. The cell expels waste and other particles through the reverse process, exocytosis. Wastes are moved outside the cell, pushing a membranous vesicle to the plasma membrane, allowing the vesicle to fuse with the membrane and incorporating itself into the membrane structure, releasing its contents to the exterior of the cell. Answer: exocytosis", "output": [ "The cell expels waste and other particles through a process called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0ed707c2d15f49a8bf2e71c38bd1018f", "input": "Passage: During active transport, specialized integral membrane proteins recognize the substance and allows it access. Essentially this process is forcing a ion or molecule to cross the membrane when normally it would not. Moving a substance against its concentration gradient is known as primary active transport , and the proteins involved in it as \"pumps\". This process uses the energy of ATP. In secondary active transport , energy from an electrochemical gradient is used to transport substances. This process involves pore-forming proteins that form channels through the cell membrane. Answer: primary active transport", "output": [ "What phenomenon involves the forcing of a substance into a cell against its concentration gradient?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4a6ecae17fc748a9809638100a07904d", "input": "Passage: Predicting the weather requires a lot of weather data. Technology is used to gather the data and computers are used to analyze the data. Using this information gives meteorologists the best chance of predicting the weather. Answer: meteorologists", "output": [ "What do you call scientists that study the weather, specifically?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d6000ec9e1974aa19bf04d1644eaa5a7", "input": "Passage: Roundworms have a pseudocoelom and hydrostatic skeleton. Their body is covered with tough cuticle. Answer: tough cuticle", "output": [ "What is the body of a roundworm covered with?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b1bcbae03aff40868f11b25ade3f60d4", "input": "Passage: The electrical potential difference between the two plates is expressed as , the electric field strength times the distance between the plates. The units in this expression are Newtons/coulomb times meters, which gives the final units Joules/coulomb. Voltage is an expression of the amount of potential energy per unit charge. The work done moving a charge against the field can be calculated by multiplying the electric field potential by the charge, . Answer: work", "output": [ "What is it called when a charge moves against a field?" ] }, { "id": "task594-15499d28f054471fb68621c06afc5415", "input": "Passage: Quantities have two parts: the number and the unit. The number tells “how many. ” It is important to be able to express numbers properly so that the quantities can be communicated properly. Standard notation is the straightforward expression of a number. Numbers such as 17, 101.5, and 0.00446 are expressed in standard notation. For relatively small numbers, standard notation is fine. However, for very large numbers, such as 306,000,000, or for very small numbers, such as 0.000000419, standard notation can be cumbersome because of the number of zeros needed to place nonzero numbers in the proper position. Answer: he unit", "output": [ "Quantities have two parts: the number (how many) and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d1ea579f3b8a4524bb4c715507067ef1", "input": "Passage: Roots are covered with thin-walled dermal cells and tiny root hairs. These features are well suited to absorb water and dissolved minerals from the soil. Answer: roots", "output": [ "Well suited to absorb water and dissolved minerals from the soil, thin-walled dermal cells and tiny hairs cover what basic plant structures?" ] }, { "id": "task594-64f15915f18c429fb728f84c6cdc3ad0", "input": "Passage: Insects are arthropods in the class Hexapoda. They are the most numerous organisms in the world. Most are terrestrial, and many are aerial. Insects have six legs and a pair of antennae for sensing chemicals. They also have several eyes and specialized mouthparts for feeding. Insects are the only invertebrates that can fly. Flight is the main reason for their success. Insects may live in large colonies and have complex social behaviors. Insects spread disease and destroy crops. However, they are essential for pollinating flowering plants. Answer: hexapoda", "output": [ "Insects are arthropods in which class?" ] }, { "id": "task594-09b74a3f7dd643cba758bc8152c0cd7b", "input": "Passage: Figure 21.14 Vaccinations are designed to boost immunity to a virus to prevent infection. (credit: USACE Europe District). Answer: infection", "output": [ "Vaccinations are designed to boost immunity to a virus to prevent this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d84bc8610fc94182ad1c76a21be2a958", "input": "Passage: Water is the most common substance on Earth, and most of it exists in the liquid state. A liquid is one of four well-known states of matter, along with solid, gas, and plasma states. The particles of liquids are in close contact with each other but not as tightly packed as the particles in solids. The particles can slip past one another and take the shape of their container. However, they cannot pull apart and spread out to take the volume of their container, as particles of a gas can. If the volume of a liquid is less than the volume of its container, the top surface of the liquid will be exposed to the air, like the vinegar in the bottle pictured in the Figure below . Answer: liquid", "output": [ "The most common substance on earth, water, is primarily present in what state?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6bfc51c906884982bacb4743d02bc0bc", "input": "Passage: The active transport of ions across the cell membrane causes an electrical gradient to build up across this membrane. The number of positively charged ions outside the cell is usually greater than the number of positively charged ions in the cytosol. This results in a relatively negative charge on the inside of the membrane, and a positive charge on the outside. This difference in charges causes a voltage to exist across the membrane. Voltage is electrical potential energy that is caused by a separation of opposite charges, in this case across the membrane. The voltage across a membrane is the membrane potential . Membrane potential is very important for the conduction of electrical impulses along nerve cells. The membrane potential of a cell at rest is known as its resting potential , and is discussed below. A non-excited nerve cell is an example of a cell at rest. Answer: difference in charges", "output": [ "What causes a voltage to exist across the membrane in cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e87fcdd6f75147c3b6840c8bdeb83cb9", "input": "Passage: The Chesapeake Bay (Figure 20.15a) is one of the most scenic areas on Earth; it is now in distress and is recognized as a case study of a declining ecosystem. In the 1970s, the Chesapeake Bay was one of the first aquatic ecosystems to have identified dead zones, which continue to kill many fish and bottomdwelling species such as clams, oysters, and worms. Several species have declined in the Chesapeake Bay because surface water runoff contains excess nutrients from artificial fertilizer use on land. The source of the fertilizers (with high nitrogen and phosphate content) is not limited to agricultural practices. There are many nearby urban areas and more than 150 rivers and streams empty into the bay that are carrying fertilizer runoff from lawns and gardens. Thus, the decline of the Chesapeake Bay is a complex issue and requires the cooperation of industry, agriculture, and individual homeowners. Of particular interest to conservationists is the oyster population (Figure 20.15b); it is estimated that more than 200,000 acres of oyster reefs existed in the bay in the 1700s, but that number has now declined to only 36,000 acres. Oyster harvesting was once a major industry for Chesapeake Bay, but it declined 88 percent between 1982 and 2007. This decline was caused not only by fertilizer runoff and dead zones, but also because of overharvesting. Oysters require a certain minimum population density because they must be in close proximity to reproduce. Human activity has altered the oyster population and locations, thus greatly disrupting the ecosystem. The restoration of the oyster population in the Chesapeake Bay has been ongoing for several years with mixed success. Not only do many people find oysters good to eat, but the oysters also clean up the bay. They are filter feeders, and as they eat, they clean the water around them. Filter feeders eat by pumping a continuous stream of water over finely divided appendages (gills in the case of oysters) and capturing prokaryotes, plankton, and fine organic particles in their mucus. In the 1700s, it was estimated that it took only a few days for the oyster population to filter the entire volume of the bay. Today, with the changed water conditions, it is estimated that the present population would take nearly a year to do the same job. Restoration efforts have been ongoing for several years by non-profit organizations such as the Chesapeake Bay Foundation. The restoration goal is to find a way to increase population density so the. Answer: reproduce", "output": [ "Oysters require a certain minimum population density because they must be in close proximity to do this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-799493e8aea84b869454ff25b8d7a303", "input": "Passage: Solubility may increase or decrease with temperature; the magnitude of this temperature dependence varies widely among compounds. Notice in particular the curves for NH4NO3 and CaCl2. The dissolution of ammonium nitrate in water is endothermic (ΔHsoln = +25.7 kJ/mol), whereas the dissolution of calcium chloride is exothermic (ΔHsoln = −68.2 kJ/mol), yet Figure 13.9 \"Solubilities of Several Inorganic and Organic Solids in Water as a Function of Temperature\" shows that the solubility of both compounds increases sharply with increasing temperature. In fact, the magnitudes of the changes in both enthalpy and entropy for dissolution are temperature dependent. Because the solubility of a compound is ultimately determined by relatively small differences between large numbers, there is generally no good way to predict how the solubility will vary with temperature. The variation of solubility with temperature has been measured for a wide range of compounds, and the results are published in many standard reference books. Chemists are often able to use this information to separate the components of a mixture byfractional crystallization, the separation of compounds on the basis of their solubilities in a given solvent. For example, if we have a mixture of 150 g of sodium acetate (CH3CO2Na) and 50 g of KBr, we can separate the two compounds by dissolving the mixture in 100 g of water at 80°C and then cooling the solution slowly to 0°C. According to the temperature curves in Figure 13.9 \"Solubilities of Several Inorganic and Organic Solids in Water as a Function of Temperature\", both compounds dissolve in water at 80°C, and all 50 g of KBr remains in solution at 0°C. Only about 36 g of CH3CO2Na are soluble in 100 g of water at 0°C, however, so approximately 114 g (150 g − 36 g) of Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: fractional crystallization", "output": [ "The separation of compounds on the basis of their solubilities in a given solvent is known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-295c9b7ff2024e81ad93e6f78f4cf444", "input": "Passage: Scars and Keloids Most cuts or wounds, with the exception of ones that only scratch the surface (the epidermis), lead to scar formation. A scar is collagen-rich skin formed after the process of wound healing that differs from normal skin. Scarring occurs in cases in which there is repair of skin damage, but the skin fails to regenerate the original skin structure. Fibroblasts generate scar tissue in the form of collagen, and the bulk of repair is due to the basket-weave pattern generated by collagen fibers and does not result in regeneration of the typical cellular structure of skin. Instead, the tissue is fibrous in nature and does not allow for the regeneration of accessory structures, such as hair follicles, sweat glands, or sebaceous glands. Sometimes, there is an overproduction of scar tissue, because the process of collagen formation does not stop when the wound is healed; this results in the formation of a raised or hypertrophic scar called a keloid. In contrast, scars that result from acne and chickenpox have a sunken appearance and are called atrophic scars. Scarring of skin after wound healing is a natural process and does not need to be treated further. Application of mineral oil and lotions may reduce the formation of scar tissue. However, modern cosmetic procedures, such as dermabrasion, laser treatments, and filler injections have been invented as remedies for severe scarring. All of these procedures try to reorganize the structure of the epidermis and underlying collagen tissue to make it look more natural. Answer: scar", "output": [ "What is name for a piece of collagen-rich skin formed after the process of wound healing that differs from normal skin?" ] }, { "id": "task594-260d40beea1b45659da95a8cc5075e5f", "input": "Passage: Sand is blown up a slope. Gravity pulls it down the other side. This is how dunes migrate. Answer: gravity", "output": [ "Sand dunes migrate when sand is blown up a slope and this force pulls it down the other side?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cc3fb7a009914458b4ca38d7fd87d454", "input": "Passage: Even though large life forms have been very successful on Earth, most of the life forms on Earth today are still prokaryotes—small, relatively simple single-celled organisms. As it is difficult to identify, observe and study such small forms of life, most of these organisms remain unknown to scientists. Advancing technologies, however, do allow for the identification and study of such organisms. Answer: prokaryote", "output": [ "What is a small, relatively simple single-celled organism called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3d41bcc324534fedb610e2897f15f6c4", "input": "Passage: glands in the skin that produce sweat, a salty fluid that helps cool down the body. Answer: sweat", "output": [ "What do glands in the skin produce to cool down the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9a42ae361b5548629d6e877b627b8a85", "input": "Passage: Solids can be categorized by the forces holding the individual atoms, ions, or molecules together. The Table below summarizes the properties of different solids:. Answer: solids", "output": [ "What is categorized by the forces holding the individual atoms, ions, or molecules together?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dab182ea8d7b4e7cb74994ef8fd22e2d", "input": "Passage: Sahara Desert in northern Africa (left). Rainforest in northeastern Australia (right). Two very different biomes are pictured here. A biome is a group of similar ecosystems with the same general abiotic factors and primary producers. Both are found at roughly the same distance from the equator. Answer: biome", "output": [ "What is a group of similar ecosystems with the same general abiotic factors and primary producers called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cc4a0161950840ccbd85b51e31cbf4a5", "input": "Passage: They are ectothermic , meaning their temperature depends on the temperature of their environment. Ectothermic animals are cold-blooded in that they cannot raise their body temperature on their own. This is unlike humans, whose temperature is controlled from inside the body. Answer: ectothermic", "output": [ "What is the term for animals that cannot raise their body temperature on their own?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7bc64117e7ff43bc9fbb0fdb2b8a4ba9", "input": "Passage: Most flowers carry both stamens and carpels; however, a few species self-pollinate. These are known as “perfect” flowers because they contain both types of sex organs (Figure 14.25. Biochemical and anatomical barriers to self-pollination promote cross-pollination. Self-pollination is a severe form of inbreeding, and can increase the number of genetic defects in offspring. A plant may have perfect flowers, and thus have both genders in each flower; or, it may have imperfect flowers of both kinds on one plant (Figure 14.28). In each case, such species are called monoecious plants, meaning “one house. ” Some botanists refer to plants with perfect flowers simply as hermaphroditic. Some plants are dioecious, meaning “two houses,” and have male and female flowers (“imperfect flowers”) on different plants. In these species, cross-pollination occurs all the time. Answer: self-pollination", "output": [ "Most flowers carry both stamens and carpels; however, a few species are capable of what and are nicknamed \"perfect\" flowers?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a8a6dfa0d4ad4619978d7af0fb5e3476", "input": "Passage: Alternative energy sources include wind power, solar power, hydropower, and geothermal power. Answer: alternative energy", "output": [ "Wind power, solar power, hydropower, and geothermal power are called renewable sources of energy or what other term?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8b5a6c24ecf349b1b9cd338a6c53f1d6", "input": "Passage: 4.2 Newton’s First Law of Motion: Inertia • Newton’s first law of motion states that a body at rest remains at rest, or, if in motion, remains in motion at a constant velocity unless acted on by a net external force. This is also known as the law of inertia. • Inertia is the tendency of an object to remain at rest or remain in motion. Inertia is related to an object’s mass. • Mass is the quantity of matter in a substance. Answer: inertia", "output": [ "What is the tendency of an object to remain at rest or remain in motion called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-66e01185025f49a2bd705ef38b10458c", "input": "Passage: Enzymes are critical to the body’s healthy functioning. They assist, for example, with the breakdown of food and its conversion to energy. In fact, most of the chemical reactions in the body are facilitated by enzymes. Answer: enzymes", "output": [ "Most of the chemical reactions in the body are facilitated by what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fa06e96402c24823a3bb1fddaebfe4d8", "input": "Passage: Each myofibril is made up of two types of proteins, called actin and myosin. These proteins form thread-like filaments. Answer: myosin", "output": [ "Each myofibril is made up of two types of proteins, called actin and what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9866374b71f044dd8e82c8a36f96f240", "input": "Passage: The rate of radioactive decay varies from one radioisotope to another. The rate is measured by the half-life. This is the length of time it takes for half of a given amount of a radioisotope to decay. Answer: half-life", "output": [ "How is the radioactive decay measured?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c97ad847e47048b1b7694417a2e4c376", "input": "Passage: Strategy: A Based on the conductivity of the elements, determine whether each is a metal, a nonmetal, or a semimetal. Confirm your prediction from its physical appearance. B From the compounds each element forms, determine its common oxidation states. C If the element is a nonmetal, it must be located in the p block of the periodic table. If a semimetal, it must lie along the diagonal line of semimetals from B to At. Transition metals can have two oxidation states separated by one electron. D From your classification, the oxidation states of the element, and its physical appearance, deduce its identity. Solution:. Answer: elements", "output": [ "Conductivity, oxidation state and physical appearance are properties that help determine whether what are metals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-86bcf469efca426692f00b39aeb886d1", "input": "Passage: When the volume of a gas is decreased, its pressure is increased. Answer: increases", "output": [ "When the volume of a gas is decreased, what happens to its pressure?" ] }, { "id": "task594-978c4dd83555470f97010712fabdb7d7", "input": "Passage: The nonmetals are elements located in the upper right portion of the periodic table. Their properties and behavior are quite different from those of metals on the left side. Under normal conditions, more than half of the nonmetals are gases, one is a liquid, and the rest include some of the softest and hardest of solids. The nonmetals exhibit a rich variety of chemical behaviors. They include the most reactive and least reactive of elements, and they form many different ionic and covalent compounds. This section presents an overview of the properties and chemical behaviors of the nonmetals, as well as the chemistry of specific elements. Many of these nonmetals are important in biological systems. In many cases, trends in electronegativity enable us to predict the type of bonding and the physical states in compounds involving the nonmetals. We know that electronegativity decreases as we move down a given group and increases as we move from left to right across a period. The nonmetals have higher electronegativities than do metals, and compounds formed between metals and nonmetals are generally ionic in nature because of the large differences in electronegativity between them. The metals form cations, the nonmetals form anions, and the resulting compounds are solids under normal conditions. On the other hand, compounds formed between two or more nonmetals have small differences in electronegativity between the atoms, and covalent bonding—sharing of electrons—results. These substances tend to be molecular in nature and are gases, liquids, or volatile solids at room temperature and pressure. In normal chemical processes, nonmetals do not form monatomic positive ions (cations) because their ionization energies are too high. All monatomic nonmetal ions are anions; examples include the chloride ion, Cl−, the nitride ion, N3−, and the selenide ion, Se2−. The common oxidation states that the nonmetals exhibit in their ionic and covalent compounds are shown in Figure 18.19. Remember that an element exhibits a positive oxidation state when combined with a more electronegative element and that it exhibits a negative oxidation state when combined with a less electronegative element. Answer: it decreases", "output": [ "When we move down a group of elements on the periodic table, what happens to their electronegativity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a38a59e29c0646abb85ab1886828c9a5", "input": "Passage: Mercury(II) oxide is a red solid. When it is heated, it decomposes into mercury metal and oxygen gas. Answer: red", "output": [ "What is the color of mercury oxide?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d4f03bfac122413f8455ba2ac762e8e9", "input": "Passage: Example Problem: The density of steel is 9000. kg/m 3 and the density of water is 1000. kg/m 3 . If a cube of steel that is 0.100 m on each side is placed in a tank of water and weighed while under water, what is the apparent weight of the cube?. Answer: head", "output": [ "Cephalization refers to the development of what anatomical region, which evolved at the same time as bilateral symmetry in animals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9c561841eb554a258f5ddea7015c6b88", "input": "Passage: Anabolic Steroids The endocrine system can be exploited for illegal or unethical purposes. A prominent example of this is the use of steroid drugs by professional athletes. Commonly used for performance enhancement, anabolic steroids are synthetic versions of the male sex hormone, testosterone. By boosting natural levels of this hormone, athletes experience increased muscle mass. Synthetic versions of human growth hormone are also used to build muscle mass. The use of performance-enhancing drugs is banned by all major collegiate and professional sports organizations in the United States because they impart an unfair advantage to athletes who take them. In addition, the drugs can cause significant and dangerous side effects. For example, anabolic steroid use can increase cholesterol levels, raise blood pressure, and damage the liver. Altered testosterone levels (both too low or too high) have been implicated in causing structural damage to the heart, and increasing the risk for cardiac arrhythmias, heart attacks, congestive heart failure, and sudden death. Paradoxically, steroids can have a feminizing effect in males, including shriveled testicles and enlarged breast tissue. In females, their use can cause masculinizing effects such as an enlarged clitoris and growth of facial hair. In both sexes, their use can promote increased aggression (commonly known as “roid-rage”), depression, sleep disturbances, severe acne, and infertility. Answer: anabolic steroids", "output": [ "What performance-enhancing drugs are synthetic versions of the male sex hormone, testosterone?" ] }, { "id": "task594-aa0f6016e69e44dfa41163833c13daad", "input": "Passage: Check to see that gas lines are made of flexible material so they do not rupture. Any equipment that uses gas should be well secured. Answer: flexible material", "output": [ "Gas lines should be made of what so they do not rupture?" ] }, { "id": "task594-42e122dfebd444d9881dfaf496013121", "input": "Passage: Uranus is the least massive outer planet. Its mass is only about 14 times the mass of Earth. Like all of the outer planets, Uranus is much less dense than Earth. Gravity is actually weaker than on Earth’s surface. If you were at the top of the clouds on Uranus, you would weigh about 10 percent less than what you weigh on Earth. Answer: uranus", "output": [ "Which is the least massive outer planet?" ] }, { "id": "task594-60f92f9d1ee84863a549fd3c03c46070", "input": "Passage: There are three types of mammals, characterized by their method of reproduction. All mammals, except for a few, are viviparous , meaning they produce live young instead of laying eggs. The monotremes , however, have birdlike and reptilian characteristics, such as laying eggs and a cloaca. An example of a monotreme is the platypus with its birdlike beak and egg-laying characteristics. The echidnas are the only other monotreme mammals. A second type of mammal, the marsupial mammal, includes kangaroos, wallabies, koalas and possums. These mammals give birth to underdeveloped embryos, which then climb from the birth canal into a pouch on the front of the mother's body, where it feeds and continues to grow. The remainder of mammals, which is the majority of mammals, are placental mammals. These mammals develop in the mother's uterus, receiving nutrients across the placenta. Placental mammals include humans, rabbits, squirrels, whales, elephants, shrews, and armadillos. Dogs and cats, and sheep, cattle and horses are also placental mammals. Answer: reproduction", "output": [ "The three types of mammals are characterized by their method of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d7a076a0446a425897cbb400f550ceeb", "input": "Passage: Venus is the second planet from the Sun and the closest planet to Earth, in distance and in size. Venus has a very thick, corrosive atmosphere, and the surface temperature is extremely high. Answer: extremely high", "output": [ "What kind of surface temperature is found on venus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-04737f0f869a49be82b44ef47822bd93", "input": "Passage: A: The weakest acid on the scale is milk, which has a pH value between 6.5 and 6.8. The strongest base on the scale is liquid drain cleaner, which has a pH of 14. Answer: lower than 7", "output": [ "Is an acid lower or higher than 7 on the ph scale?" ] }, { "id": "task594-521561c419d54b76bd21b0b64dd1dd3c", "input": "Passage: People may dispose of harmful substances incorrectly. For example, motor oil must not be drained into a storm sewer. Answer: motor oil", "output": [ "What harmful substance must not be drained into s storm sewer?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7fa27f523cc340dba3ab813f02e55307", "input": "Passage: Unsafe drinking water causes 88% of diseases worldwide. In many nations, these diseases are the leading cause of death in children under the age of five. More than 14,000 people die every day from such diseases. Cholera is caused by bacteria. A person gets guinea worm from drinking the guinea worm larvae ( Figure below ). The cholera bacteria and guinea worms are pathogens. Answer: bacteria", "output": [ "What is cholera?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7a72deedff2a4081826345f9034ab38b", "input": "Passage: Tobacco smoke contains dozens of carcinogens, including nicotine and formaldehyde. Exposure to tobacco smoke is the leading cause of lung cancer. Answer: tobacco smoke", "output": [ "What is the leading cause of lung cancer?" ] }, { "id": "task594-26926769297743d2b9d65b1b645e120d", "input": "Passage: Volume is the amount of space occupied by a sample of matter. Answer: volume", "output": [ "What term is used to describe the amount of space occupied by a sample of matter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7db66269d9334245b6a5b8e67243e10d", "input": "Passage: Gas exchange is needed to provide cells with the oxygen they need for cellular respiration. Cells cannot survive for long without oxygen. Gas exchange is also needed to carry away carbon dioxide waste. Some of the carbon dioxide in the blood dissolves to form carbonic acid, which keeps blood pH within a normal range. Answer: gas exchange", "output": [ "What is needed to provide cells with the oxygen they need for cellular respiration?" ] }, { "id": "task594-909cbe6328f148cfaddedaf5325957c1", "input": "Passage: Constructive interference occurs when two waves combine to create a larger wave. This occurs when the peaks of two waves line up. Answer: constructive interference", "output": [ "What is it called when two waves combine to create a larger wave?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a4de25be26df447d8784f3a516356b60", "input": "Passage: We know from seismic waves produced by earthquakes that parts of the interior of the Earth are liquid. Shear or transverse waves cannot travel through a liquid and are not transmitted through the Earth’s core. Yet compression or longitudinal waves can pass through a liquid and do go through the core. From this information, the temperature of the interior can be 9 estimated. As noticed, the interior should have cooled more from its initial temperature in the 4.5×10 years since its 9 formation. In fact, it should have taken no more than about 10 years to cool to its present temperature. What is keeping it hot? The answer seems to be radioactive decay of primordial elements that were part of the material that formed the Earth (see the blowup in Figure 31.26). Nuclides such as 238 U and 40 K have half-lives similar to or longer than the age of the Earth, and their decay still contributes energy to the interior. Some of the primordial radioactive nuclides have unstable decay products that also release energy— 238 U has a long decay chain of these. Further, there were more of these primordial radioactive nuclides early in the life of the Earth, and thus the activity and energy contributed were greater then (perhaps by an order of magnitude). The amount of power created by these decays per cubic meter is very small. However, since a huge volume of material lies deep below the surface, this relatively small amount of energy cannot escape quickly. The power produced near the surface has much less distance to go to escape and has a negligible effect on surface temperatures. Answer: seismic", "output": [ "We know from what type of waves produced by earthquakes that parts of the interior of the earth are liquid?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8131a8b54e514cd3add5cec054cb195e", "input": "Passage: The kidneys filter blood and form urine. They are part of the urinary system, which also includes the ureters, bladder, and urethra. Answer: the kidneys", "output": [ "What organs filter blood and form urine?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ce817ba1fe59498ca164f99d41d48324", "input": "Passage: 30.3 The reproductive adaptations of angiosperms include flowers and fruits. Answer: reproduction", "output": [ "In angiosperms, flowers and fruits are adaptations essential for what process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-397fac7e5359432991d83a13108443da", "input": "Passage: and procaine. Not only do catalysts greatly increase the rates of reactions, but in some cases such as in petroleum refining, they also control which products are formed. The acceleration of a reaction by a catalyst is called catalysis. Answer: reactions", "output": [ "Catalysts can greatly increase the rates of chemical what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0aaa9e83eed94b5199bda890d3703a9b", "input": "Passage: An example of a mutualistic relationship is between herbivores (plant-eaters) and the bacteria that live in their intestines. The bacteria get a place to live. Meanwhile, the bacteria help the herbivore digest food. Both species benefit, so this is a mutualistic relationship. The clownfish and the sea anemones also have a mutualistic relationship. The clownfish protects the anemone from anemone-eating fish, and the stinging tentacles of the anemone protect the clownfish from predators ( Figure below ). Another example of this type of symbiotic relationship is the relationship between the plover bird and the African crocodile. The tiny blackbird acts as a toothpick for the fierce crocodile, and helps by removing tiny morsels of food that are stuck between the crocodile's teeth. These food remains are the source of food for the bird. Another example is between the ostrich and the zebra. The ostrich always moves with the herd of zebras since it has a poor sense of hearing and smell, whereas the zebra has very sharp senses. The ostrich has a keen sense of sight, which the zebra lacks. Hence, these two species depend on each other to warn one another of any nearby imposing dangers. Answer: mutualism", "output": [ "Herbivores and the bacteria that live in their intestines demonstrate a two-way beneficial relationship called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5cd7d97ba68e4579adb3a35926c6d1fe", "input": "Passage: The Golgi apparatus is usually made up of five to eight cup-shaped, membrane-covered stacks of discs called cisternae (singular, cisterna ), as shown in Figure below . Both plant and animal cells have a Golgi apparatus. A typical mammalian cell will have 40 to 80 of these stacks. While plant cells can have up to several hundred Golgi stacks scattered throughout the cytoplasm. In plants, the Golgi apparatus contains enzymes that synthesize some of the cell wall polysaccharides. Answer: golgi apparatus", "output": [ "Which organelle is made up of 5 to eight cup shaped, membrane covered stacks of discs known as cisternae?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2465afaf832240bcae6b7f3e9a26e56b", "input": "Passage: Did you ever hear an echo of your own voice? An echo occurs when sound waves bounce back from a surface that they can’t pass through. The woman pictured here is trying to create an echo by shouting toward a large building. When the sound waves strike the wall of the building, most of them bounce back toward the woman, and she hears an echo of her voice. An echo is just one example of how waves interact with matter. Answer: echo", "output": [ "What is heard when sound waves bounce back from a surface that they can't pass through?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bf3811e84f0e45d4be411cc41113eac0", "input": "Passage: 17.6 | The Adrenal Glands By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Describe the location and structure of the adrenal glands • Identify the hormones produced by the adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla, and summarize their target cells and effects The adrenal glands are wedges of glandular and neuroendocrine tissue adhering to the top of the kidneys by a fibrous capsule (Figure 17.17). The adrenal glands have a rich blood supply and experience one of the highest rates of blood flow in the body. They are served by several arteries branching off the aorta, including the suprarenal and renal arteries. Blood flows to each adrenal gland at the adrenal cortex and then drains into the adrenal medulla. Adrenal hormones are released into the circulation via the left and right suprarenal veins. Answer: adrenal glands", "output": [ "What glands are wedges of glandular and neuroendocrine tissue adhering to the top of the kidneys by a fibrous capsule?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6b0cafc42d384b0aa9bba0ab3330dac9", "input": "Passage: Contour lines are lines of equal elevation. Contour intervals are the difference in elevation between two contour lines. Answer: contour interval", "output": [ "What is the term for the difference in elevation between two contour lines?" ] }, { "id": "task594-923b2c8f5ec447cc980d3157562d81d3", "input": "Passage: Cranial Nerves The nerves attached to the brain are the cranial nerves, which are primarily responsible for the sensory and motor functions of the head and neck (one of these nerves targets organs in the thoracic and abdominal cavities as part of the parasympathetic nervous system). There are twelve cranial nerves, which are designated CNI through CNXII for “Cranial Nerve,” using Roman numerals for 1 through 12. They can be classified as sensory nerves, motor nerves, or a combination of both, meaning that the axons in these nerves originate out of sensory ganglia external to the cranium or motor nuclei within the brain stem. Sensory axons enter the brain to synapse in a nucleus. Motor axons connect to skeletal muscles of the head or neck. Three of the nerves are solely composed of sensory fibers; five are strictly motor; and the remaining four are mixed nerves. Learning the cranial nerves is a tradition in anatomy courses, and students have always used mnemonic devices to remember the nerve names. A traditional mnemonic is the rhyming couplet, “On Old Olympus’ Towering Tops/A Finn And German Viewed Some Hops,” in which the initial letter of each word corresponds to the initial letter in the name of each nerve. The names of the nerves have changed over the years to reflect current usage and more accurate naming. An exercise to help learn this sort of information is to generate a mnemonic using words that have personal significance. The names of the cranial nerves are listed in Table 13.3 along with a brief description of their function, their source (sensory ganglion or. Answer: cranial nerves", "output": [ "What nerves attached to the brain are mainly responsible for motor and sensory functions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7bc34ee0d0a74233951352785db1e630", "input": "Passage: Many chemicals that we use on a daily basis are transported in a concentrated form but used in a more diluted form. For example, concentrated cleaners are often diluted before they are used. To perform a dilution , pure solvent is added to a concentrated solution in order to make a less concentrated (more dilute) solution. The resultant solution will contain the same amount of solute but a greater amount of solvent. It will therefore have a lower concentration than the original solution. When performing a simple dilution, the concentration and volume of the initial solution are related to the new concentration and volume as follows:. Answer: solvent", "output": [ "The resultant solution will contain the same amount of solute but a greater amount of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f1556748ca6c43cfa4c17da6b69d63fe", "input": "Passage: 6O 2 + C 6 H 12 O 6 → 6CO 2 + 6H 2 O Photosynthesis produces oxygen as a byproduct, and respiration produces carbon dioxide as a byproduct. In nature, there is no such thing as waste. Every single atom of matter is conserved, recycling indefinitely. Substances change form or move from one type of molecule to another, but never disappear (Figure 5.18). CO2 is no more a form of waste produced by respiration than oxygen is a waste product of photosynthesis. Both are byproducts of reactions that move on to other reactions. Photosynthesis absorbs energy to build carbohydrates in chloroplasts, and aerobic cellular respiration releases energy by using oxygen to break down carbohydrates. Both organelles use electron transport chains to generate the energy necessary to drive other reactions. Photosynthesis and cellular respiration function in a biological cycle, allowing organisms to access life-sustaining energy that originates millions of miles away in a star. Answer: carbon dioxide", "output": [ "Photosynthesis produces oxygen as a byproduct, and respiration produces what as a byproduct?" ] }, { "id": "task594-72ad986c235949aa8bd3713e299d538e", "input": "Passage: The primary function of leaves is to collect sunlight and make food by photosynthesis. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "The process by which leaves collect sunlight and make food is called this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bdf052f65ada432b9ed169afc2544fea", "input": "Passage: Weeks 16–24 Once the respiratory bronchioles form, further development includes extensive vascularization, or the development of the blood vessels, as well as the formation of alveolar ducts and alveolar precursors. At about week 19, the respiratory bronchioles have formed. In addition, cells lining the respiratory structures begin to differentiate to form type I and type II pneumocytes. Once type II cells have differentiated, they begin to secrete small amounts of pulmonary surfactant. Around week 20, fetal breathing movements may begin. Answer: respiratory", "output": [ "Alveolar ducts and broncioles are developing parts of what organ system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-430be1817b6f42268c868b50a8bd3853", "input": "Passage: Some materials are natural permanent magnets. The most magnetic material in nature is the mineral magnetite. Answer: magnetite", "output": [ "The most magnetic material in nature is what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9e8a25bc77784657a600af807afc769d", "input": "Passage: There are only about 1,000 living species of gymnosperms, whereas there are hundreds of thousands of living species of angiosperms. Living gymnosperms are typically classified in the divisions described in the Table below . Most modern gymnosperms are trees with woody trunks. The majority are conifers such as pine trees. Answer: conifers", "output": [ "The majoirty of modern gymnosperms belong to what group, which includes pine trees?" ] }, { "id": "task594-488d93f253d547f2b53b1242650eca62", "input": "Passage: Homologous structures are structures that are similar in related organisms because they were inherited from a common ancestor. These structures may or may not have the same function in the descendants. Figure below shows the hands of several different mammals. They all have the same basic pattern of bones. They inherited this pattern from a common ancestor. However, their forelimbs now have different functions. Answer: homologous", "output": [ "What do we call structures that are similar in related organisms because they were inherited from a common ancestor?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6895b983950e4416940285d44851f9a4", "input": "Passage: Hemoglobin Hemoglobin is a large molecule made up of proteins and iron. It consists of four folded chains of a protein called globin, designated alpha 1 and 2, and beta 1 and 2 (Figure 18.7a). Each of these globin molecules is bound to a red pigment molecule called heme, which contains an ion of iron (Fe2+) (Figure 18.7b). Answer: globin", "output": [ "Hemoglobin is a large molecule made up of proteins and iron. it consists of four folded chains of a protein called this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9dd8a55adc1b4e3e818a8d81d40c61e6", "input": "Passage: Atoms, which are always neutral in electric charge, contain electrons as well as protons and neutrons. An electron has an electrical charge of -1. If an atom has three electrons, infer how many protons it has. Answer: neutral", "output": [ "What charge do atoms carry?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8c484df8d4a44ad7a92241c98315c375", "input": "Passage: Two unique features of mollusks are the mantle and radula (see Figure above ). The mantle is a layer of tissue that lies between the shell and the body. It secretes calcium carbonate to form the shell. It forms a cavity, called the mantle cavity , between the mantle and the body. The mantle cavity pumps water for filter feeding. The radula is a feeding organ with teeth made of chitin. It is located in front of the mouth in the head region. Herbivorous mollusks use the radula to scrape food such as algae off rocks. Predatory mollusks use the radula to drill holes in the shells of their prey. Answer: mantle and radula", "output": [ "What are the two unique features of mollusks?" ] }, { "id": "task594-afc59d34481246fc8a4e7e2abd3257e5", "input": "Passage: Of course, calcium is critical for many other biological processes. It is a second messenger in many signaling pathways, and is essential for muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, and blood clotting. Given these roles, it is not surprising that blood calcium levels are tightly regulated by the endocrine system. The organs involved in the regulation are the parathyroid glands. Answer: endocrine", "output": [ "Blood calcium levels are tightly regulated by the what system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fc13076ae03943c0a1bb1462bade99ff", "input": "Passage: The penis is an external, cylinder-shaped organ that contains the urethra. The urethra is the tube that carries urine out of the body. It also carries sperm out of the body. Answer: carries urine and sperm out of the body", "output": [ "What does the urethra do?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c31eb4a117a54aaa92e615aad66646ff", "input": "Passage: At divergent plate boundaries hot mantle rock rises into the space where the plates are moving apart. As the hot mantle rock rises, it goes from higher to lower pressure. This is because there is no longer the weight of all the rock above it. Lower pressure lowers the melting temperature of the rock (2 in the previous section). This is why there is volcanism at divergent plate boundaries. Lava erupts through long cracks in the ground, or fissures. Answer: fissures", "output": [ "Lava erupts through long cracks in the ground, also called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-025748aaeb964e7497cb86657b293f76", "input": "Passage: Dermal tissue covers the outside of a plant in a single layer of cells called the epidermis. It mediates most of the interactions between a plant and its environment. Answer: dermal", "output": [ "What type of tissue covers the outside of a plant?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a449f651a4eb4d5d8ade70ae748ce804", "input": "Passage: A monosaccharide is a simple sugar such as fructose or glucose. Fructose is found in fruits, whereas glucose generally results from the digestion of other carbohydrates. Glucose is used for energy by the cells of most organisms. Answer: monosaccharide", "output": [ "What is a simple sugar such as fructose or glucose?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6438c61b11d4489296916eb6e7587a56", "input": "Passage: Figure 38.4 The skeletons of humans and horses are examples of endoskeletons. (credit: Ross Murphy). Answer: endoskeletons", "output": [ "The skeletons of humans and horses are examples of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-101788ae3c37423b9cfd39400a900e17", "input": "Passage: If you’ve ever seen a kayak move down a fast-moving river, you know that remaining in the same place would be hard. The river current pulls the kayak along. Pushing the oars back against the water can move the kayak forward in the water, but that only accounts for part of the velocity. The kayak’s motion is an example of classical addition of velocities. In classical physics, velocities add as vectors. The kayak’s velocity is the vector sum of its velocity relative to the water and the water’s velocity relative to the riverbank. Answer: velocities", "output": [ "The kayak’s motion in the water is an example of classical addition of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6fd58ed107cc41d49c7e36abbaf85af8", "input": "Passage: To express the uncertainty in a measurement, we can calculate percent uncertainty . Percent uncertainty is the ratio of the uncertainty to the measured value, multiplied by one-hundred. For instance, the percent uncertainty associated with the measurement of (52.9 ± 0.5 mL), would be. Answer: percent uncertainty", "output": [ "What is the ratio of the uncertainty to the measured value, multiplied by one-hundred called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-10384fa511c74fa793ccad66caee5595", "input": "Passage: The Cytoplasm The cytoplasm comprises the contents of a cell between the plasma membrane and the nuclear envelope (a structure to be discussed shortly). It is made up of organelles suspended in the gel-like cytosol, the cytoskeleton, and various chemicals (Figure 3.7). Even though the cytoplasm consists of 70 to 80 percent water, it has a semi-solid consistency, which comes from the proteins within it. However, proteins are not the only organic molecules found in the cytoplasm. Glucose and other simple sugars, polysaccharides, amino acids, nucleic acids, fatty acids, and derivatives of glycerol are found there too. Ions of sodium, potassium, calcium, and many other elements are also dissolved in the cytoplasm. Many metabolic reactions, including protein synthesis, take place in the cytoplasm. Answer: cytoplasm", "output": [ "What comprises the contents of a cell between the plasma membrane and the nuclear envelope?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b51cf81b314c406bb120d629e949917a", "input": "Passage: Many people think that any idea that is completely accepted in science is a law. But that is not true. In science, a law is something that always applies under the same conditions. A law explains a fairly simple phenomenon. A theory is much more complex: it tells you why something happens. A law only tells you that it happens. For example, if you hold something above the ground and let go, it will fall. This phenomenon is recognized by the law of gravity ( Figure below ). Some people say that evolution is \"just a theory. \" But for a complex explanation like evolution, theory is the right word. Answer: scientific law", "output": [ "In science, what do you call something that always applies under the same conditions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-69773a8af69642bfba313984cb98c520", "input": "Passage: Meteoroids are smaller than asteroids, ranging from the size of boulders to the size of sand grains. When meteoroids enter Earth’s atmosphere, they vaporize, creating a trail of glowing gas called a meteor. If any of the meteoroid reaches Earth, the remaining object is called a meteorite. Answer: meteorite", "output": [ "When a meteoroid reaches earth, what is the remaining object called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9f82adaabe244705b6820d697d255616", "input": "Passage: Salamanders can breathe with the help of gills, lungs, or their skin surface. Answer: liver", "output": [ "What organ breaks down excess amino acids and toxins in the blood?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d4eb1e9f02cf40b8abf5d5559c50bb68", "input": "Passage: Sulfate minerals contain sulfur atoms bonded to oxygen atoms. Like halides, they can form in places where salt water evaporates. Many minerals belong in the sulfate group, but there are only a few common sulfate minerals. Gypsum is a common sulfate mineral that contains calcium, sulfate, and water. Gypsum is found in various forms. For example, it can be pink and look like it has flower petals. However, it can also grow into very large white crystals. Gypsum crystals that are 11 meters long have been found. That is about as long as a school bus! Gypsum also forms at the Mammoth Hot Springs in Yellowstone National Park, shown in Figure below . Answer: oxygen and sulfur", "output": [ "What two types of atoms bond to form sulfate minerals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1a7913da946047abbd91347c34263f28", "input": "Passage: Saturated fatty acids have only single bonds between carbon atoms. As a result, the carbon atoms are bonded to as many hydrogen atoms as possible. In other words, the carbon atoms are saturated with hydrogens. Saturated fatty acids are found in fats. Answer: saturated", "output": [ "Carbon atoms are bonded to as many hydrogen atoms as possible in what type of fatty acids?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b88a3813d0274548a15c322b3f23b722", "input": "Passage: Materials that are good conductors of thermal energy are called thermal conductors. Metals are very good thermal conductors. Answer: thermal conductors", "output": [ "Materials that are good conductors of thermal energy are called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6a733a5cfb0a4b74b93c5b0e52d0b196", "input": "Passage: Constriction and dilation allow the circulatory system to change the amount of blood flowing to different organs. For example, during a fight-or-flight response, dilation and constriction of blood vessels allow more blood to flow to skeletal muscles and less to flow to digestive organs. Dilation of blood vessels in the skin allows more blood to flow to the body surface so the body can lose heat. Constriction of these blood vessels has the opposite effect and helps conserve body heat. Answer: organs", "output": [ "Constriction and dilation allow the circulatory system to change the amount of blood flowing to which body parts?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0ce47261c1264e05abddd8b86b89a30c", "input": "Passage: Renewable resources can be replaced by natural processes as quickly as they are used. Answer: natural processes", "output": [ "What can renewable resources can be replaced by?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4c33aa724ee24b80a38a9b96fad346cd", "input": "Passage: External forces are forces that act on the system from outside. In our previous example, external forces include the force of gravity acting on both cars (because the other part of the force pair, the pull of gravity the Earth experiences coming from the cars, is not included in the system) and the forces of friction between the tires and the road. Answer: external", "output": [ "What do we call forces that act on the system from outside?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5bdfe60cf96c4101be8a8d3b109c9f1a", "input": "Passage: The space shuttle—and any other rocket-based system—uses chemical reactions to propel itself into space and maneuver itself when it gets into orbit. The rockets that lift the orbiter are of two different types. The three main engines are powered by reacting liquid hydrogen with liquid oxygen to generate water. Then there are the two solid rocket boosters, which use a solid fuel mixture that contains mainly ammonium perchlorate and powdered aluminum. The chemical reaction between these substances produces aluminum oxide, water, nitrogen gas, and hydrogen chloride. Although the solid rocket boosters each have a significantly lower mass than the liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen tanks, they provide over 80% of the lift needed to put the shuttle into orbit—all because of chemical reactions. Answer: chemical reactions", "output": [ "What do rocket-based systems use to propel itself into space?" ] }, { "id": "task594-17e208d4e6234afa9177e278510a438b", "input": "Passage: Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. The three states of matter are solid, liquid, and gas. A physical change involves the conversion of a substance from one state of matter to another, without changing its chemical composition. Most matter consists of mixtures of pure substances, which can behomogeneous (uniform in composition) or heterogeneous (different regions possess different compositions and properties). Pure substances can be either chemical compounds or elements. Compounds can be broken down into elements by chemical reactions, but elements cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means. The properties of substances can be classified as either physical or chemical. Scientists can observe physical properties without changing the composition of the substance, whereas chemical propertiesdescribe the tendency of a substance to undergo chemical changes (chemical reactions) that change its chemical composition. Physical properties can be intensive or extensive. Intensive properties are the same for all samples; do not depend on sample size; and include, for example, color, physical state, and melting and boiling points. Extensive properties depend on the amount of material and include mass and volume. The ratio of two extensive properties, mass and volume, is an important intensive property called density. Answer: matter", "output": [ "What term describes anything that occupies space and has mass, and is generally divided into three states?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ff9d20f1f186435685ff359f3e83c3c1", "input": "Passage: Mollusks reproduce sexually. Most species have separate male and female sexes. Gametes are released into the mantle cavity. Fertilization may be internal or external, depending on the species. Fertilized eggs develop into larvae. There may be one or more larval stages. Each one is different from the adult stage. Mollusks have a unique larval form called a trochophore . It is a tiny organism with cilia for swimming. Answer: trochophore", "output": [ "What is the unique larval form of mollusks called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5cd07e12968342da8a3c25329d4bcf03", "input": "Passage: Blood pressures are expressed in millimeters of mercury. What would be the blood pressure in atmospheres if a patient’s systolic blood pressure is 120 mmHg and the diastolic blood pressure is 82 mmHg? (In medicine, such a blood pressure would be reported as “120/82,” spoken as “one hundred twenty over eighty-two. Answer: systolic and diastolic", "output": [ "What two values does a blood pressure reading include?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bbc184b4149f47239fbfe280324d9167", "input": "Passage: ♦ Many industrial processes for preparing compounds use “continuous-flow reactors,” which are chemical reaction vessels in which the reactants are mixed and allowed to react as they flow along a tube. The products are removed at a certain distance from the starting point, when the reaction is nearly complete. The key operating parameters in a continuous-flow reactor are temperature, reactor volume, and reactant flow rate. As an industrial chemist, you think you have successfully modified a particular process to produce a higher product yield by substituting one reactant for another. The viscosity of the new reactant is, however, greater than that of the initial reactant. Answer: reactants", "output": [ "Continuous-flow reactors are chemical reaction vessels in which the what are mixed and allowed to react as they flow along a tube?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e2116f946fe74682b033428acbf7a96d", "input": "Passage: Jet streams are fast-moving air currents high in the troposphere. They are also the result of unequal heating of the atmosphere. Jet streams circle the planet, mainly from west to east. The strongest jet streams are the polar jets. The northern polar jet is shown in Figure below . Answer: jet streams", "output": [ "What is the term for the fast-moving air currents high in the troposphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7f68712384864c928eb1e9abb2395539", "input": "Passage: According to the cell theory , all living things are made up of cells, which is the structural unit of living organisms, and living cells always come from other living cells. In fact, each living thing begins life as a single cell. Some living things, such as bacteria, remain single-celled. Other living things, including plants and animals, grow and develop into many cells. Your own body is made up of an amazing 100 trillion cells! But even you—like all other living things—began life as a single cell. Answer: trillions of cells", "output": [ "What is your body made up of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7fc085fa8cf047199390669a156cb5f3", "input": "Passage: The atomic number of an element is the number of protons in the nucleus of each atom of that element. An atom can be classified as a particular element based solely on its atomic number. For example, any atom with an atomic number of 8 (its nucleus contains 8 protons) is an oxygen atom, and any atom with a different number of protons would be a different element. The periodic table ( Figure below ) displays all of the known elements and is arranged in order of increasing atomic number. In this table, an element’s atomic number is indicated above the elemental symbol. Hydrogen, at the upper left of the table, has an atomic number of 1. Every hydrogen atom has one proton in its nucleus. Next on the table is helium, whose atoms have two protons in the nucleus. Lithium atoms have three protons, beryllium atoms have four, and so on. Since atoms are neutral, the number of electrons in an atom is equal to the number of protons. Therefore, hydrogen atoms all have one electron occupying the space outside of the nucleus. Answer: atomic number", "output": [ "An atom can be classified as a particular element based solely on its what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-338cd882501c4f0d8908830137d25a1a", "input": "Passage: Potential energy is the energy stored in an object because of its position or shape. It includes gravitational potential energy and elastic potential energy. Gravitational potential energy depends on an object’s weight and height above the ground. Answer: potential", "output": [ "What type of energy is stored in an object because of its position or shape?" ] }, { "id": "task594-18c315b37b2f4334b9747b4bd521279f", "input": "Passage: Objects in motion that return to the same position after a fixed period of time are said to be in harmonic motion. Objects in harmonic motion have the ability to transfer some of their energy over large distances. They do so by creating waves in a medium. Imagine pushing up and down on the surface of a bathtub filled with water. Water acts as the medium that carries energy from your hand to the edges of the bathtub. Waves transfer energy over a distance without direct contact of the initial source. In this sense waves are phenomena not objects. Answer: harmonic", "output": [ "Objects in motion that return to the same position after a fixed period of time are said to be in what type of motion?" ] }, { "id": "task594-28eb198d21024562ae7eb67d6d167dc3", "input": "Passage: Acid rain is rain that has a pH less than 5 ( Figure below ). Acidity is measured on the pH scale . Lower numbers are more acidic, and higher numbers are less acidic (also called more alkaline ). An acid has a pH of less than 7. The pH of normal rain is 5.6. It’s slightly acidic because carbon dioxide in the air dissolves in rain. This forms carbonic acid, a weak acid. Answer: acid rain", "output": [ "What is the term for rain consisting of water with a ph below 5?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6562cadfaeb6499693d396e7c449f7c8", "input": "Passage: Shield volcanoes commonly form above hotspots in the oceans. Answer: volcano", "output": [ "The shield type of what phenomenon commonly forms above hotspots in the oceans?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0a74bb6d42e3409890c96bbd16718f20", "input": "Passage: Like glucose, the fatty acids released in the digestion of triglycerides and other lipids are broken down in a series of sequential reactions accompanied by the gradual release of usable energy. Some of these reactions are oxidative and require nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD). The enzymes that participate in fatty acid catabolism are located in the mitochondria, along with the enzymes of the citric acid cycle, the electron transport chain, and oxidative phosphorylation. This localization of enzymes in the mitochondria is of the utmost importance because it facilitates efficient utilization of energy stored in fatty acids and other molecules. Fatty acid oxidation is initiated on the outer mitochondrial membrane. There the fatty acids, which like carbohydrates are relatively inert, must first be activated by conversion to an energy-rich fatty acid derivative of coenzyme A called fatty acyl-coenzyme A (CoA). The activation is catalyzed by acyl-CoA synthetase. For each molecule of fatty acid activated, one molecule of coenzyme A and one molecule of adenosine triphosphate Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: mitochondria", "output": [ "The enzymes that participate in fatty acid catabolism are located in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1d05e85a84e0476f9414fec31f1ec1fe", "input": "Passage: The placenta takes over the synthesis and secretion of progesterone throughout pregnancy as the corpus luteum degenerates. Like estrogen, progesterone suppresses FSH and LH. It also inhibits uterine contractions, protecting the fetus from preterm birth. This hormone decreases in late gestation, allowing uterine contractions to intensify and eventually progress to true labor. The placenta also produces hCG. In addition to promoting survival of the corpus luteum, hCG stimulates the male fetal gonads to secrete testosterone, which is essential for the development of the male reproductive system. The anterior pituitary enlarges and ramps up its hormone production during pregnancy, raising the levels of thyrotropin, prolactin, and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). Thyrotropin, in conjunction with placental hormones, increases the production of thyroid hormone, which raises the maternal metabolic rate. This can markedly augment a pregnant woman’s appetite and cause hot flashes. Prolactin stimulates enlargement of the mammary glands in preparation for milk production. ACTH stimulates maternal cortisol secretion, which contributes to fetal protein synthesis. In addition to the pituitary hormones, increased parathyroid levels mobilize calcium from maternal bones for fetal use. Answer: placenta", "output": [ "What takes over the synthesis and secretion of progesterone throughout pregnancy as the corpus luteum degenerates?" ] }, { "id": "task594-405724ffd4c54b61a8c3f7095448b612", "input": "Passage: The DNA of a chromosome is encoded with genetic instructions for making proteins. These instructions are organized into units called genes . Most genes contain the instructions for a single protein. There may be hundreds or even thousands of genes on a single chromosome. Answer: genes", "output": [ "What are the organized instructions within dna for making proteins called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3e253fcdd49c4aca832540ce3a58006b", "input": "Passage: Both endocytosis and exocytosis are active transport processes. Answer: exocytosis", "output": [ "Both endocytosis and ______ are active transport processes." ] }, { "id": "task594-e8b5b00cbb194b1ea01b978281c3a6ae", "input": "Passage: Tellurium is a silvery white, brittle metalloid. It is toxic and may cause birth defects. Tellurium can conduct electricity when exposed to light, so it is used to make solar panels. It has several other uses as well. For example, it makes steel and copper easier to work with and lends color to ceramics. Answer: silvery white", "output": [ "What color is the brittle metalloid tallurium?" ] }, { "id": "task594-efdb45f31b584695af1b6daec11b4e4a", "input": "Passage: Plasma is a state of matter that lacks a fixed volume and a fixed shape and consists of charged particles called ions. Because it consists of charged particles, plasma can conduct electricity and respond to a magnetic field. Answer: ions", "output": [ "Which state of matter lacks a fixed volume, fixed shape, and consists of charged particles?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bf93c1112ad84560920a40aba0c49054", "input": "Passage: 6.2 The Cell Cycle The cell cycle is an orderly sequence of events. Cells on the path to cell division proceed through a series of precisely timed and carefully regulated stages. In eukaryotes, the cell cycle consists of a long preparatory period, called interphase. Interphase is divided into G1, S, and G2 phases. Mitosis consists of five stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Mitosis is usually accompanied by cytokinesis, during which the cytoplasmic components of the daughter cells are separated either by an actin ring (animal cells) or by cell plate formation (plant cells). Each step of the cell cycle is monitored by internal controls called checkpoints. There are three major checkpoints in the cell cycle: one near the end of G1, a second at the G2–M transition, and the third during metaphase. Answer: mitosis", "output": [ "What consists of these five stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c491910da8e94cd2b33622fcf732e803", "input": "Passage: Although spiders and insects are both arthropods, a spider is not an insect. One key difference is that insects have six legs, while spiders have eight legs. Answer: two", "output": [ "How many more legs do spiders have compared to insects?" ] }, { "id": "task594-15860c1c714f40008b1d74f43d18a5a4", "input": "Passage: A: The energy is stored in the bonds of the products as chemical energy. In an endothermic reaction, the products have more stored chemical energy than the reactants. This is represented by the graph on the left in the Figure below . In an exothermic reaction, the opposite is true. The products have less stored chemical energy than the reactants. You can see this in the graph on the right in the Figure below . Answer: chemical energy", "output": [ "Endothermic and exothermic reactions differ in whether the products or reactants store more of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fb22c5b4f48b48fea9e55c0d37e3fe2c", "input": "Passage: Many biochemical processes occur through sequences of reactions called pathways. The total energy released by many of these pathways is much more than the energy a cell could handle if it were all released in a single step. For example, the combustion of glucose in a single step would release enough energy to kill a cell. By using a series of smaller steps that release less energy per reaction, however, the cell can extract the maximum energy from glucose without being destroyed. Referring to Equation 5.30, calculate how many grams of glucose would need to be metabolized to raise the temperature of a liver cell from an average body 3. Answer: pathways", "output": [ "Some biochemical processes happen via sequences of reactions which are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-351c5a2d4a854fdea86c9b2c68279b7d", "input": "Passage: Major reservoirs of carbon include sedimentary rocks, fossil fuels, and the ocean. Sediments from dead organisms may form carbon-containing sedimentary rocks. Alternatively, the sediments may form carbon-rich fossil fuels, which include oil, natural gas, and coal. Carbon can be stored in these reservoirs for millions of years. However, if fossil fuels are extracted and burned, the stored carbon enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. Natural processes, such as volcanic eruptions, can also release underground carbon from rocks into the atmosphere. Answer: carbon dioxide", "output": [ "What is released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels are burned?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5b049eb91ab34a36b40a1cc279cc96d9", "input": "Passage: Metallic bonds are forces of attraction between positive metal ions and the valence electrons that are constantly moving around them (see the Figure below ). The valence electrons include their own and those of other, nearby ions of the same metal. The valence electrons of metals move freely in this way because metals have relatively low electronegativity, or attraction to electrons. The positive metal ions form a lattice-like structure held together by all the metallic bonds. For an animated version of metallic bonding, go to this URL:. Answer: metallic bonds", "output": [ "What kind of bonds are forces of attraction between positive metal ions and the valence electrons that are constantly moving around them?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7ed79cbc88be4fb7b52fa71c7ea19031", "input": "Passage: A carcinogen is anything that can cause cancer. Cancer is a disease in which cells divide out of control. Most carcinogens cause cancer by producing mutations in DNA. Answer: carcinogen", "output": [ "What is the term for anything that can cause cancer?" ] }, { "id": "task594-393efad4b2e641e0a7636c6f6ff18581", "input": "Passage: The thyroid gland is regulated by a negative feedback loop. The loop includes the hypothalamus and pituitary gland in addition to the thyroid. Answer: negative feedback loop", "output": [ "What regulates the thyroid gland in a body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7069d989f58a4830948621ee2a18d856", "input": "Passage: One type of radioactivity is alpha emission. What is an alpha particle? What happens to an alpha particle after it is emitted from an unstable nucleus?. Answer: radioactivity", "output": [ "Alpha emission is a type of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f3b56c31a59a488aaf070455a670d151", "input": "Passage: Mammals generate heat mainly by maintaining a high rate of metabolism. Compared with the cells of other animals, the cells of mammals have more mitochondria. Mitochondria are the cell organelles that generate energy. Mammals may also produce little bursts of heat by shivering. Shivering occurs when many muscles all contract slightly at the same time. The muscle contractions generate a small amount of heat. Answer: maintaining high metabolism", "output": [ "How do mammals generate heat?" ] }, { "id": "task594-506fe8b1755c429c9f1cdd0d0b91bf1a", "input": "Passage: Other lakes are crater lakes or rift lakes ( Figure below ). Crater lakes form when volcanic eruptions create craters that fill with water. Rift lakes form when movements of tectonic plates create low places that fill with water. Answer: crater lakes", "output": [ "What kind of lakes form when volcanic eruptions create holes that fill with water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a7f61bdb9b7c47d9b5d498ff42ac4cbf", "input": "Passage: Subphylum Myriapoda includes arthropods with legs that may vary in number from 10 to 750. This subphylum includes 13,000 species; the most commonly found examples are millipedes and centipedes. All myriapods are terrestrial animals and prefer a humid environment (Figure 15.21). Answer: subphylum myriapoda", "output": [ "Millipedes and centipedes are the most commonly found examples of what group of arthropods?" ] }, { "id": "task594-48c86ac5dd384c3692b4b5b890392d8d", "input": "Passage: To obtain the tabulated results for this decomposition, the concentration of hydrogen peroxide was measured every 6 hours over the course of a day at a constant temperature of 40 °C. Reaction rates were computed for each time interval by dividing the change in concentration by the corresponding time increment, as shown here for the first 6-hour period: −Δ[H 2 O 2] −(0.500 mol/L − 1.000 mol/L) = = 0.0833 mol L −1 h −1 Δt (6.00 h − 0.00 h) Notice that the reaction rates vary with time, decreasing as the reaction proceeds. Results for the last 6-hour period yield a reaction rate of: −Δ[H 2 O 2] −(0.0625 mol/L − 0.125 mol/L) = = 0.0104 mol L −1 h −1 Δt (24.00 h − 18.00 h) This behavior indicates the reaction continually slows with time. Using the concentrations at the beginning and end of a time period over which the reaction rate is changing results in the calculation of an average rate for the reaction over this time interval. At any specific time, the rate at which a reaction is proceeding is known as its instantaneous rate. The instantaneous rate of a reaction at “time zero,” when the reaction commences, is its initial rate. Consider the analogy of a car slowing down as it approaches a stop sign. The vehicle’s initial rate—analogous to the beginning of a chemical reaction—would be the speedometer reading at the moment the driver begins pressing the brakes (t0). A few moments later, the instantaneous rate at a specific moment—call it t1—would be somewhat slower, as indicated by the speedometer reading at that point in time. As time passes, the instantaneous rate will continue to fall until it reaches zero, when the car (or reaction) stops. Unlike instantaneous speed, the car’s average speed is not indicated by the speedometer; but it can be calculated as the ratio of the distance traveled to the time required to bring the vehicle to a complete stop (Δt). Like the decelerating car, the average rate of a chemical reaction will fall somewhere between its initial and final rates. The instantaneous rate of a reaction may be determined one of two ways. If experimental conditions permit the measurement of concentration changes over very short time intervals, then average rates computed as described earlier provide reasonably good approximations of instantaneous rates. Alternatively, a graphical procedure may be used that, in effect, yields the results that would be obtained if short time interval measurements were possible. If we plot the concentration of hydrogen peroxide against time, the instantaneous rate of decomposition of H2O2 at any time t is given by the slope of a straight line that is tangent to the curve at that time (Figure 12.3). We can use calculus to evaluating the slopes of such tangent lines, but the procedure for doing so is beyond the scope of this chapter. Answer: instantaneous rate", "output": [ "At any specific time, the rate at which a reaction is proceeding is known as its what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8a6fe12279b444249e49738641bd492e", "input": "Passage: Like amphibians, reptiles are ectotherms with a slow metabolic rate. Their metabolism doesn’t generate enough energy to keep their body temperature stable. Instead, reptiles regulate their body temperature through their behavior. For example, the crocodile in Figure below is soaking up heat from the environment by basking in the sun. Because of their ectothermy, reptiles can get by with as little as one tenth the food needed by endotherms such as mammals. Some species of reptiles can go several weeks between meals. Answer: metabolism", "output": [ "A reptile's what doesn't generate enough energy to keep their body temperature stable?" ] }, { "id": "task594-23a5e3d4cf6049c99f0fa93680c813af", "input": "Passage: Figure above also shows how the size of waves is measured. The highest point of a wave is the crest. The lowest point is the trough. The vertical distance between a crest and a trough is the height of the wave. Wave height is also called amplitude. The horizontal distance between two crests is the wavelength. Both amplitude and wavelength are measures of wave size. Answer: crest", "output": [ "The highest point of a wave is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-81b3264b114d490098475c285776f584", "input": "Passage: Linked genes are genes that are close together on the same chromosome. Linked genes are inherited together. Answer: linked genes", "output": [ "What are genes that are close together on the same chromosome called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7e0b46ca45324dd98b8547af8a879a17", "input": "Passage: Unsafe water supplies have drastic effects on human health. Waterborne diseases are diseases due to microscopic pathogens in fresh water. These diseases can be caused by protozoa, viruses, bacteria, and intestinal parasites. In many parts of the world there are no water treatment plants. If sewage or animal manure gets into a river, then people downstream will get sick when they drink the water. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), diarrheal disease is responsible for the deaths of 1.8 million people every year. It was estimated that 88% of the cases of diarrheal disease are caused by unsafe water supplies. Answer: water supply contamination", "output": [ "What type of contamination causes almost 90% of diarrheal disease worldwide?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8de35fd711354949be1fa2f2ea951c4f", "input": "Passage: Many animal behaviors occur in a regular cycle. Two types of cyclic behaviors are circadian rhythms and migration. Answer: cyclic", "output": [ "Circadian rhythms and migration are examples of what kind of behaviors in animals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9c49dacb725642ed99aef6e38ba4a10b", "input": "Passage: Diseases of the endocrine system are relatively common. An endocrine disease usually involves the secretion of too much or not enough hormone. When too much hormone is secreted, it is called hypersecretion. When not enough hormone is secreted, it is called hyposecretion. Answer: hormone", "output": [ "An endocrine disease usually involves the secretion of too much or not enough of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9d757729d3a84e7d9c5d0ecbb11ea78b", "input": "Passage: Human overpopulation, which is crowding out other species. It also makes all the other causes of extinction worse. Answer: human overpopulation", "output": [ "What phenomenon is crowding out other species and making all the other causes of extinction worse?" ] }, { "id": "task594-904714e0ca0a475dbddcec2e35bb02a1", "input": "Passage: As indicated in http://catalog. flatworldknowledge. com/bookhub/reader/2547 - gob-ch10_s04, weak acids are relatively common, even in the foods we eat. But we occasionally come across a strong acid or base, such as stomach acid, that has a strongly acidic pH of 1–2. By definition, strong acids and bases can produce a relatively large amount of hydrogen or hydroxide ions and, as a consequence, have a marked chemical activity. In addition, very small amounts of strong acids and bases can change the pH of a solution very quickly. If 1 mL of stomach acid [which we will approximate as 0.05 M HCl(aq)] is added to the bloodstream, and if no correcting mechanism is present, the pH of the blood would go from about 7.4 to about 4.9—a pH that is not conducive to continued living. Fortunately, the body has a mechanism for minimizing such dramatic pH changes. The mechanism involves a buffer, a solution that resists dramatic changes in pH. Buffers do so by being composed of certain pairs of solutes: either a weak acid plus a salt derived from that weak acid or a weak base plus a salt of that weak base. For example, a buffer can be composed of dissolved acetic acid (HC2H3O2, a weak acid) and sodium acetate (NaC2H3O2, a salt derived from that acid). Another example of a buffer is a solution containing ammonia (NH3, a weak base) and ammonium chloride (NH4Cl, a salt derived from that base). Let us use an acetic acid–sodium acetate buffer to demonstrate how buffers work. If a strong base—a source of OH−(aq) ions—is added to the buffer solution, those hydroxide ions will react with the acetic acid in an acid-base reaction: HC2H3O2(aq) + OH−(aq) → H2O(ℓ) + C2H3O2−(aq) Rather than changing the pH dramatically by making the solution basic, the added hydroxide ions react to make water, and the pH does not change much. Answer: ph", "output": [ "Acids are associated with a low number on which scale?" ] }, { "id": "task594-16148128e15a41bbb614790187033d25", "input": "Passage: Zeros that show only where the decimal point falls are not significant. For example, the number 470,000 has just two significant figures (4 and 7). The zeros just show that the 4 represents hundreds of thousands and the 7 represents tens of thousands. Therefore, these zeros are not significant. Answer: not significant", "output": [ "Are zeroes that show only where the decimal point fall significant or not significant?" ] }, { "id": "task594-29d3b5befd39454e98393edff2131d8d", "input": "Passage: The Figure above shows how the electromagnetic spectrum displays a wide variation in wavelength and frequency. Radio waves have wavelengths of as long as hundreds of meters, while the wavelength of gamma rays are on the order of 10 -12 m. The corresponding frequencies range from 10 6 to 10 21 Hz. Visible light can be split into colors with the use of a prism ( Figure below ), yielding the visible spectrum of light. Red light has the longest wavelength and lowest frequency, while violet light has the shortest wavelength and highest frequency. Visible light wavelength ranges from about 400 – 700 nm with frequencies in the range of 10 14 Hz. Answer: prism", "output": [ "Visible light can be split into colors with the use of a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e341ea1cb4eb4292a717b9cff3e36d2b", "input": "Passage: Refracting and reflecting telescopes are optical telescopes that use lenses to gather light. Answer: light", "output": [ "Refracting and reflecting telescopes are optical telescopes that use lenses to gather what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7eb9169915764f0db5899cbe9bb82f6d", "input": "Passage: Gabbro is a dark dense rock that can be found in oceanic crust. Answer: oceanic crust", "output": [ "Where is gabbro found?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1d2070ea36ff4d06b47f2293fc107d2a", "input": "Passage: An insect’s abdomen contains most of the internal organs. Like other arthropods, insects have a complete digestive system. They also have an open circulatory system and central nervous system. Like other terrestrial arthropods, they have trachea for breathing air and Malphigian tubules for excretion. Answer: the abdomen", "output": [ "Where are more of an insect's internal organs kept?" ] }, { "id": "task594-01b7a4223ed9457493d65ac418de63d6", "input": "Passage: Protists use cilia, pseudopods, or flagella to move. Answer: protists", "output": [ "What organisms use cilia, pseudopods, or flagella to move?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a4c43a33ae86423798b77e0e781ed6f1", "input": "Passage: An alkaline battery is a variation on the zinc-carbon dry cell. The alkaline battery has no carbon rod and uses a paste of zinc metal and potassium hydroxide instead of a solid metal anode. The cathode half-reaction is the same, but the anode half-reaction is different. Answer: electrolytes", "output": [ "Deficiency of what is symptomized by nausea, fatigue and dizziness, and can be triggered by excessive sweating?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cdfc36f6f68b4262b7f6a6f52a198a86", "input": "Passage: Crossing charges. One method for obtaining subscripts in the empirical formula is by crossing charges. When crossing charges, you will sometimes find it necessary to reduce the subscripts to their simplest ratio to write the empirical formula. Consider, for example, the compound formed by Mg2+ and O2−. Using the absolute values of the charges on the ions as subscripts gives the formula Mg2O2:. Answer: subscripts", "output": [ "Crossing charges is one method for obtaining what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-89ba8d4a2dda4763a6547f854210e4e2", "input": "Passage: and Z, the atomic number, is the number of protons. The protons and neutrons that make up the nucleus of an atom are callednucleons, and an atom with a particular number of protons and neutrons is called anuclide. Nuclides with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. Isotopes can also be represented by an alternative notation that uses the name of the element followed by the mass number, such as carbon-12. The stable isotopes of oxygen, for example, can be represented in any of the following ways:. Answer: nucleons", "output": [ "What are protons and neutrons that make up the nucleus of an atom called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4acdf4b4efc94dbdb8de0d063d921509", "input": "Passage: Structure of a Typical Leaf Each leaf typically has a leaf blade called the lamina, which is also the widest part of the leaf. Some leaves are attached to the plant stem by a petiole. Leaves that do not have a petiole and are directly attached to the plant stem are called sessile leaves. Small green appendages usually found at the base of the petiole are known as stipules. Most leaves have a midrib, which travels the length of the leaf and branches to each side to produce veins of vascular tissue. The edge of the leaf is called the margin. Figure 30.21 shows the structure of a typical eudicot leaf. Answer: sessile leaves", "output": [ "Some leaves are attached to the plant stem by a petiole. leaves that do not have a petiole and are directly attached to the plant stem are called this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6afe49f2dc9f415ab0202054eacc0bca", "input": "Passage: All of the inner planets are orbited by man-made satellites. Jupiter and Saturn have man-made satellites too. We can see what the planets look like from the photos they take. The satellites also carry instruments that collect a lot of important data. This is better than taking a field trip to such hostile places. You can learn a lot while sitting your own, very comfortable planet!. Answer: satellites", "output": [ "What man-made structures orbit all of the inner planets as well as jupiter and saturn?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a85b78270783492cbe7034bf1df72363", "input": "Passage: The two ovaries are small, egg-shaped organs that lie on either side of the uterus. They produce eggs and secrete estrogen. Each egg is located inside a structure called a follicle . Cells in the follicle protect the egg and help it mature. Answer: ovaries", "output": [ "The small, egg-shaped organs that lie on either side of the uterus are called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-93d89d73553845cc83faa98a5c39c4ba", "input": "Passage: Reverse transcription also occurs with retrotransposons and during telomere synthesis in eukaryotes. Retrotransposons are self-replicating segments of eukaryotic genomes that use reverse transcriptase to move from one position in the genome to another via a RNA intermediate. A telomere is a region of repetitive noncoding nucleotide sequences at each end of a chromosome. These sequences protect the end of the chromosome from deterioration or from fusion with neighboring chromosomes. Each time DNA is replicated, small segments of DNA from the ends of the chromosome is lost. Telomerase is a reverse transcriptase that uses an RNA intermediate to elongate the 3' end of DNA strands in the telomere regions after each replication cycle. Answer: telomere", "output": [ "What is a region of repetitive noncoding nucleotide sequences at each end of a chromosome?" ] }, { "id": "task594-24ea147edea6400793466df0f934d9ed", "input": "Passage: The process by which an organism develops from a single-celled zygote to a multi-cellular organism is complex and well regulated. The regulation occurs through signaling between cells and tissues and responses in the form of differential gene expression. Answer: differential gene expression", "output": [ "The process by which an organism develops from a single-celled zygote to a multi-cellular organism is complex and well regulated. the regulation occurs through signaling between cells and tissues and responses in the form of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4a24dd1612374672a4bc48ec8adae2ae", "input": "Passage: There is a lot of volcanic activity at divergent plate boundaries in the oceans. As the plates pull away from each other, they create deep fissures. Molten lava erupts through these cracks. The East Pacific Rise is a divergent plate boundary in the Pacific Ocean ( Figure below ). The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a divergent plate boundary in the Atlantic Ocean. Answer: atlantic ocean", "output": [ "In what ocean is the mid-atlantic ridge located?" ] }, { "id": "task594-457e04a6e3514a788b7b59958957a573", "input": "Passage: Parts of the Digestive System The vertebrate digestive system is designed to facilitate the transformation of food matter into the nutrient components that sustain organisms. Oral Cavity The oral cavity, or mouth, is the point of entry of food into the digestive system, illustrated in Figure 34.9. The food consumed is broken into smaller particles by mastication, the chewing action of the teeth. All mammals have teeth and can chew their food. The extensive chemical process of digestion begins in the mouth. As food is being chewed, saliva, produced by the salivary glands, mixes with the food. Saliva is a watery substance produced in the mouths of many animals. There are three major glands that secrete saliva—the parotid, the submandibular, and the sublingual. Saliva contains mucus that moistens food and buffers the pH of the food. Saliva also contains immunoglobulins and lysozymes, which have antibacterial action to reduce tooth decay by inhibiting growth of some bacteria. Saliva also contains an enzyme called salivary amylase that begins the. Answer: digestive", "output": [ "What system is designed to facilitate the transformation of food matter into the nutrient components that sustain organisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-12cf6ac76df14300813b8a5b70f54030", "input": "Passage: Figure 5.20 In phagocytosis, the cell membrane surrounds the particle and engulfs it. (credit: Mariana Ruiz Villareal). Answer: phagocytosis", "output": [ "What is the process of a cell membrane surrounding a particle and engulfing it calles?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0d4868b3d59941c79dd5934481da1c03", "input": "Passage: There are about 6,200 known species of living amphibians. They are classified into three orders: frogs and toads, salamanders and newts, and caecilians. Answer: amphibians", "output": [ "Frogs and toads, salamanders and newts, and caecilians are the three orders of what group of animals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-36165d19da244715ad763d09a9962875", "input": "Passage: The cornea is the transparent outer covering of the eye. It protects the eye and also acts as a convex lens, helping to focus light that enters the eye. Answer: cornea", "output": [ "What is the transparent outer covering of the eye?" ] }, { "id": "task594-71e185a70b344809acafeaf09d04dfc4", "input": "Passage: The corona is the halo around the Sun. Answer: the sun", "output": [ "The corona surrounds which major object in our solar system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-419a1f49a6394bf1bc521fec181a89ee", "input": "Passage: Figure 3.11 Insects have a hard outer exoskeleton made of chitin, a type of polysaccharide. (credit: Louise Docker). Answer: chitin", "output": [ "What is an insect's hard outer exoskeleton made out of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-30e64934f655415c9466fdc92330a30d", "input": "Passage: Class Bivalvia (“two shells”) includes clams, oysters, mussels, scallops, and geoducks. Members of this class are found in marine as well as freshwater habitats. As the name suggests, bivalves are enclosed in a pair of shells (valves are commonly called “shells”) that are hinged at the dorsal end by shell ligaments as well as shell teeth (Figure 28.22). The overall morphology is laterally flattened, and the head region is poorly developed. Eyespots and statocysts may be absent in some species. Since these animals are suspension feeders, a radula is absent in this class of mollusks. Respiration is facilitated by a pair of ctenidia, whereas excretion and osmoregulation are brought about by a pair of nephridia. Bivalves often possess a large mantle cavity. In some species, the posterior edges of the mantle may fuse to form two siphons that serve to take in and exude water. Answer: geoducks", "output": [ "Class bivalvia (“two shells”) includes clams, oysters, mussels, scallops, and these?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e29ba7f82bb14e85b69c6c61e28c1ba6", "input": "Passage: Disposing of industrial waste is one way that human actions pollute the land. This became clear more than 30 years ago in Love Canal, a neighborhood in Niagara Falls, New York. Love Canal may sound lovely, but it is not. Love Canal was and is a disaster. Love Canal been called one of the worst environmental disasters of all time. Answer: industrial waste dumping", "output": [ "Love canal was an infamous example of what type of pollution?" ] }, { "id": "task594-71a84f2cd582451297554f8ccda47785", "input": "Passage: So far we have focused on traits due to one gene or several genes. But what about many genes? 100s or 1000s of genes? What would happen if an entire chromosome were missing or duplicated? What if a human had only 45 chromosomes? Or 47? This real possibility is usually due to mistakes during meiosis; the chromosomes do not fully separate from each other during sperm or egg formation. Specifically, nondisjunction is the failure of replicated chromosomes to separate during anaphase II. If a zygote forms from a gamete lacking a chromosome, a viable embryo cannot be produced. Most human abnormal chromosome numbers result in the death of the developing embryo, often before a woman even realizes she is pregnant. Occasionally, a zygote with an extra chromosome can become a viable embryo and develop. Answer: meiosis", "output": [ "If a human only has 45 chromosomes it is most likely due to a mistake during what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6f1026f80f054adf999a85f3dc08c5a6", "input": "Passage: 27.2 Features Used to Classify Animals Organisms in the animal kingdom are classified based on their body morphology and development. True animals are divided into those with radial versus bilateral symmetry. Generally, the simpler and often non-motile animals display radial symmetry. Animals with radial symmetry are also generally characterized by the development of two embryological germ layers, the endoderm and ectoderm, whereas animals with bilateral symmetry are generally characterized by the development of a third embryological germ layer, the mesoderm. Animals with three germ layers, called triploblasts, are further characterized by the presence or absence of an internal body cavity called a coelom. The presence of a coelom affords many advantages, and animals with a coelom may be termed true coelomates or pseudocoelomates, depending on which tissue gives rise to the coelom. Coelomates are further divided into one of two groups called protostomes and deuterostomes, based on a number of developmental characteristics, including differences in zygote cleavage and method of coelom formation. Answer: symmetry", "output": [ "True animals are divided into those with radial versus bilateral styles of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d683557105d44f6e94fb44d78f587151", "input": "Passage: If you’ve ever visited an ocean shore, then you know that ocean water is always moving. Waves ripple through the water, as shown in Figure below . The water slowly rises and falls because of tides. You may see signs warning of currents that flow close to shore. What causes all these ocean motions? Different types of motions have different causes. Answer: tides", "output": [ "What is the term for when the water of the ocean slowly rises and falls?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3ee7ca9c661d4e17be353eff950de539", "input": "Passage: A solid is a form of matter that has a definite shape and volume. The shape of a solid does not change if it is transferred from one container to another. The particles of a solid are packed tightly together in fixed positions, usually in an orderly arrangement. Solids are almost completely incompressible, meaning that solids cannot be squeezed into a smaller volume. When a solid is heated or cooled, it expands or contracts only slightly. Answer: solid", "output": [ "What is a form of matter that has a definite shape and volume?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bebaaa230a2b44ac87d678cffa2f8942", "input": "Passage: Minerals that are not just a single element are made of chemical compounds. For example, the mineral quartz is made of the compound silicon dioxide, or SiO 2 . This compound has one atom of the element silicon for every two atoms of the element oxygen. Answer: element", "output": [ "Minerals that are not compounds consist of a single what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3b9aa20f9a7f46b487172a30141b39ba", "input": "Passage: Look at the rock layers pictured below ( Figure below ); they show a feature called Hutton’s unconformity. The unconformity was discovered by James Hutton in the 1700s. Hutton saw that the lower rock layers are very old. The upper layers are much younger. There are no layers in between the ancient and recent layers. Hutton thought that the intermediate rock layers eroded away before the more recent rock layers were deposited. Answer: they eroded away", "output": [ "As per hutton's unconformity, what happened to the intermediate layers of rock?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4510484a8a7c442fb5fc7b0bfa47076e", "input": "Passage: Rising and sinking air can influence the precipitation of a region. Answer: precipitation", "output": [ "What does rising and sinking air influence in a region?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3f92a09bcf914e05b100dce25532b6a5", "input": "Passage: The population is an important level of organization in ecology. It is also the unit of microevolution. Answer: population", "output": [ "What is an important level of organization in ecology and the unit of microevolution?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6f0e9bab1ae34267976cde93c23c4f9d", "input": "Passage: Below the topsoil is the “B” horizon. This is also called the subsoil . Soluble minerals and clays accumulate in the subsoil. Because it has less organic material, this layer is lighter brown in color than topsoil. It also holds more water due to the presence of iron and clay. There is less organic material in this layer. Answer: subsoil", "output": [ "Soluble minerals and clays accumulate in what soil layer, allowing it to hold more water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2bc845bbc03b4986ab52ece9fe687a90", "input": "Passage: Magnesium carbonate, aluminum hydroxide, and sodium bicarbonate are commonly used as antacids. Give the empirical formulas and determine the molar masses of these compounds. Based on their formulas, suggest another compound that might be an effective antacid. ♦ Nickel(II) acetate, lead(II) phosphate, zinc nitrate, and beryllium oxide have all been reported to induce cancers in experimental animals. Answer: antacids", "output": [ "What are magnesium carbonate, aluminum hydroxide, and sodium bicarbonate commonly used as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e6504caa26684cba98c5e35a8128439b", "input": "Passage: The Appendicular Skeleton The appendicular skeleton includes all bones of the upper and lower limbs, plus the bones that attach each limb to the axial skeleton. There are 126 bones in the appendicular skeleton of an adult. The bones of the appendicular skeleton are covered in a separate chapter. Answer: axial skeleton", "output": [ "The appendicular skeleton includes all bones of the upper and lower limbs, plus the bones that attach each limb to the what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cc6bec173384479bb446060cb4224a4f", "input": "Passage: Alpha, beta, and gamma emissions have different abilities to penetrate matter. The relatively large alpha particle is easily stopped by matter (although it may impart a significant amount of energy to the matter it contacts). Beta particles penetrate slightly into matter, perhaps a few centimeters at most. Gamma rays can penetrate deeply into matter and can impart a large amount of energy into the surrounding. Answer: radiation", "output": [ "Alpha, beta, and gamma emissions are associated with what kind of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8dac323be98d41e09f85af84e8954995", "input": "Passage: Physical activity is an important part of balanced eating. It helps you use up any extra Calories in the foods you eat. You should try to get at least an hour of exercise just about every day (see Figure below ). Exercise has many health benefits in addition to balancing the energy in food. For example, it strengthens the bones and muscles and may improve your mood. Answer: hour", "output": [ "How much exercise should a person ideally get during a single day?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e04397c602814c3998b08dfe987d6e79", "input": "Passage: This sperm is ready to penetrate the membrane of this egg. Notice the difference in size of the sperm and egg. Why is the egg so much larger? The egg contributes all the cytoplasm and organelles to the zygote. The sperm only contributes one set of chromosomes. Answer: sperm", "output": [ "Which part of the reproductive process only contributes one set of chromosomes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d3d7af4065564a9182e0aed3a2fe20a0", "input": "Passage: You consist of a great many cells, but like all other organisms, you started life as a single cell. How did you develop from a single cell into an organism with trillions of cells? The answer is cell division. After cells grow to their maximum size, they divide into two new cells. These new cells are small at first, but they grow quickly and eventually divide and produce more new cells. This process keeps repeating in a continuous cycle. Answer: cell division", "output": [ "What process allows an individual to develop from a single cell into an organism with trillions of cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-72ff5b8ce0a7428ca4597df51d92099d", "input": "Passage: Vertebrate Digestive Systems Vertebrates have evolved more complex digestive systems to adapt to their dietary needs. Some animals have a single stomach, while others have multi-chambered stomachs. Birds have developed a digestive system adapted to eating unmasticated food. Monogastric: Single-chambered Stomach As the word monogastric suggests, this type of digestive system consists of one (“mono”) stomach chamber (“gastric”). Humans and many animals have a monogastric digestive system as illustrated in Figure 34.6ab. The process of digestion begins with the mouth and the intake of food. The teeth play an important role in masticating (chewing) or physically breaking down food into smaller particles. The enzymes present in saliva also begin to chemically break down food. The esophagus is a long tube that connects the mouth to the stomach. Using peristalsis, or wave-like smooth muscle contractions, the muscles of the esophagus push the food towards the stomach. In order to speed up the actions of enzymes in the stomach, the stomach is an extremely acidic environment, with a pH between 1.5 and 2.5. The gastric juices, which include enzymes in the stomach, act on the food particles and continue the process of digestion. Further breakdown of food takes place in the small intestine where enzymes produced by the liver, the small intestine, and the pancreas continue the process of digestion. The nutrients are absorbed into the blood stream across the epithelial cells lining the walls of the small intestines. The waste material travels on to the large intestine where water is absorbed and the drier waste material is compacted into feces; it is stored until it is excreted through the rectum. Answer: stomach", "output": [ "Vertebrates have evolved more complex digestive systems, with some species having multi-chambered types of what organ?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7b0a779afe434ff38693b7d7c0b052f5", "input": "Passage: As you can see in Figure above , a transformer consists of two wire coils wrapped around an iron core. When alternating primary current passes through coil P, it magnetizes the iron core. Because the current is alternating, the magnetic field of the iron core keeps reversing. This changing magnetic field induces alternating current in coil S, which is part of another circuit. In Figure above , coil P and coil S have the same number of turns of wire. In this case, the voltages of the primary and secondary currents are the same. However, when the two coils have different numbers of turns, the voltage of the secondary current is different than the voltage of the primary current. Both cases are illustrated in Figure below . Answer: magnetizes it", "output": [ "When alternating primary current passes through coil p, it does what to the iron core?" ] }, { "id": "task594-613f3b588a4d44d19eb978183154c941", "input": "Passage: Introduction Breathing is an involuntary event. How often a breath is taken and how much air is inhaled or exhaled are tightly regulated by the respiratory center in the brain. Humans, when they aren’t exerting themselves, breathe approximately 15 times per minute on average. Canines, like the dog in Figure 39.1, have a respiratory rate of about 15–30 breaths per minute. With every inhalation, air fills the lungs, and with every exhalation, air rushes back out. That air is doing more than just inflating and deflating the lungs in the chest cavity. The air contains oxygen that crosses the lung tissue, enters the bloodstream, and travels to organs and tissues. Oxygen (O2) enters the cells where it is used for metabolic reactions that produce ATP, a high-energy compound. At the same time, these reactions release carbon dioxide (CO2) as a by-product. CO2 is toxic and must be eliminated. Carbon dioxide exits the cells, enters the bloodstream, travels back to the lungs, and is expired out of the body during exhalation. Answer: carbon dioxide", "output": [ "What gas is expired out of the body during exhalation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-68fdbff7c94d42deb4975e7b931d931f", "input": "Passage: The epidermis is the outermost layer of the skin. It forms the waterproof, protective wrap over the body's surface. Although the top layer of epidermis is only about as thick as a sheet of paper, it is made up of 25 to 30 layers of cells. The epidermis also contains cells that produce melanin. Melanin is the brownish pigment that gives skin and hair their color. Melanin-producing cells are found in the bottom layer of the epidermis. The epidermis does not have any blood vessels. The lower part of the epidermis receives blood by diffusion from blood vessels of the dermis. Answer: epidermis", "output": [ "What is the outermost layer of the skin?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3c5a92ca836a4a008755a217c2851c29", "input": "Passage: Insulin The primary function of insulin is to facilitate the uptake of glucose into body cells. Red blood cells, as well as cells of the brain, liver, kidneys, and the lining of the small intestine, do not have insulin receptors on their cell membranes and do not require insulin for glucose uptake. Although all other body cells do require insulin if they are to take glucose from the bloodstream, skeletal muscle cells and adipose cells are the primary targets of insulin. The presence of food in the intestine triggers the release of gastrointestinal tract hormones such as glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (previously known as gastric inhibitory peptide). This is in turn the initial trigger for insulin production and secretion by the beta cells of the pancreas. Once nutrient absorption occurs, the resulting surge in blood glucose levels further stimulates insulin secretion. Precisely how insulin facilitates glucose uptake is not entirely clear. However, insulin appears to activate a tyrosine kinase receptor, triggering the phosphorylation of many substrates within the cell. These multiple biochemical reactions converge to support the movement of intracellular vesicles containing facilitative glucose transporters to the cell membrane. In the absence of insulin, these transport proteins are normally recycled slowly between the cell membrane and cell interior. Insulin triggers the rapid movement of a pool of glucose transporter vesicles to the cell membrane, where they fuse and expose the glucose transporters to the extracellular fluid. The transporters then move glucose by facilitated diffusion into the cell interior. Answer: glucose", "output": [ "The primary function of insulin is to facilitate the uptake of what into body cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-74c5344be1084eb8bd0cb6e96b969c5c", "input": "Passage: Hydrogen Bonds Ionic and covalent bonds are strong bonds that require considerable energy to break. However, not all bonds between elements are ionic or covalent bonds. Weaker bonds can also form. These are attractions that occur between positive and negative charges that do not require much energy to break. Two weak bonds that occur frequently are hydrogen bonds and van der Waals interactions. These bonds give rise to the unique properties of water and the unique structures of DNA and proteins. When polar covalent bonds containing a hydrogen atom form, the hydrogen atom in that bond has a slightly positive charge. This is because the shared electron is pulled more strongly toward the other element and away from the hydrogen nucleus. Because the hydrogen atom is slightly positive (δ+), it will be attracted to neighboring negative partial charges (δ–). When this happens, a weak interaction occurs between the δ+ charge of the hydrogen atom of one molecule and the δ– charge of the other molecule. This interaction is called a hydrogen bond. This type of bond is common; for example, the liquid nature of water is caused by the hydrogen bonds between water molecules (Figure 2.7). Hydrogen bonds give water the unique properties that sustain life. If it were not for hydrogen bonding, water would be a gas rather than a liquid at room temperature. Answer: energy", "output": [ "Breaking of weak bonds, which tend to form between positive and negative charges, does not require much what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1bcd361ee0da4212ae11fe3f69ec58c7", "input": "Passage: Work is done only if a force is exerted in the direction of motion. If the motion is perpendicular to the force, no work has been done. If the force is at an angle to the motion, then the component of the force in the direction of the motion is used to determine the work done. Answer: motion", "output": [ "Work is done only if a force is exerted in the direction of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7dde554200da4511bd93c06967fb6d46", "input": "Passage: Ants and termites grow fungi in underground “fungus gardens” that they create. When the ants or termites have eaten a big meal of wood or leaves, they also eat some fungi from their gardens. The fungi help them digest the wood or leaves. The fungi secrete certain enzymes that the ants or termites cannot produce on their own. Answer: fungi", "output": [ "What do ants and termites eat to help them digest wood and leaves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ff651560b87f4880885396861548bf03", "input": "Passage: Protists are eukaryotes , which means their cells have a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Most, but not all, protists are single-celled. Other than these features, they have very little in common. You can think about protists as all eukaryotic organisms that are neither animals, nor plants, nor fungi. Answer: protists", "output": [ "What is another term for all eukaryotic organisms that are neither animals, nor plants, nor fungi?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dd638869232b4818a9dd2e0b7e4e8579", "input": "Passage: The Role of Blood in the Body Blood, like the human blood illustrated in Figure 40.5 is important for regulation of the body’s systems and homeostasis. Blood helps maintain homeostasis by stabilizing pH, temperature, osmotic pressure, and by eliminating excess heat. Blood supports growth by distributing nutrients and hormones, and by removing waste. Blood plays a protective role by transporting clotting factors and platelets to prevent blood loss and transporting the disease-fighting agents or white blood cells to sites of infection. Answer: excess heat", "output": [ "Blood helps maintain homeostasis by stabilizing ph, temperature, osmotic pressure, and by eliminating this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e06ef4fe9b4842edb04d3a7520528a7b", "input": "Passage: neutron : An uncharged particle with a mass nearly equal to that of the proton. Neutrons can be found in the nucleus of the atom. Answer: a neutron", "output": [ "What is the name of an uncharged particle whose weight is nearly equal to that of a proton?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8e5d448cc3d741389f75970b43c553b7", "input": "Passage: Nonvascular plants are low-growing, reproduce with spores, and need a moist habitat. Answer: spores", "output": [ "What do nonvascular plants reproduce with?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3eb329984890430c84742264f96d2c4b", "input": "Passage: 29.4 Reptiles The amniotes are distinguished from amphibians by the presence of a terrestrially adapted egg protected by amniotic membranes. The amniotes include reptiles, birds, and mammals. The early amniotes diverged into two main lines soon after the first amniotes arose. The initial split was into synapsids (mammals) and sauropsids. Sauropsids can be further divided into anapsids (turtles) and diapsids (birds and reptiles). Reptiles are tetrapods either having four limbs or descending from such. Limbless reptiles (snakes) are classified as tetrapods, as they are descended from four-limbed organisms. One of the key adaptations that permitted reptiles to live on land was the development of scaly skin containing the protein keratin, which prevented water loss from the skin. Reptilia includes four living clades: Crocodilia (crocodiles and alligators), Sphenodontia (tuataras), Squamata (lizards and snakes), and Testudines (turtles). Answer: amniotic membranes", "output": [ "The amniotes are distinguished from amphibians by the presence of a terrestrially adapted egg protected by what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-18160b064a0b420c8d76e3ea0c2caa73", "input": "Passage: Loud sounds can cause hearing loss by damaging hair cells in the inner ear. The louder the sounds are, the less exposure is needed to cause hearing loss. Answer: hair cells", "output": [ "What is damaged in the inner ear by loud sounds that cause hearing loss?" ] }, { "id": "task594-601a7fc14b78496a997e2a526a8b5ac9", "input": "Passage: Probability is the chance that a certain event will occur. For example, the probability of a head turning up on any given coin toss is 50 percent. Answer: probability", "output": [ "What is it called when the chance that a certain event will occur?" ] }, { "id": "task594-69c771c93ecb4e1eba641e3a253c4244", "input": "Passage: When we conserve resources, we also cut down on the trash we produce. Americans throw out 340 million tons of trash each year. We throw out 2.5 million plastic bottles alone—every hour! Most of what we throw out ends up in landfills ( Figure below ). In a landfill, all those plastic bottles take hundreds of years to break down. What are the problems caused by producing so much trash? Natural resources must be used to produce the materials. Land must be given over to dump the materials. If the materials are toxic, they may cause pollution. Answer: less trash", "output": [ "What is another environmental benefit of conserving resources?" ] }, { "id": "task594-274cfd5d49d64558b8379076dfdd05a5", "input": "Passage: The basic unit of matter is an atom . At the center of an atom is its nucleus . Protons are positively charged particles in the nucleus. Also in the nucleus are neutrons with no electrical charge. Orbiting the nucleus are tiny electrons. Electrons are negatively charged. An atom with the same number of protons and electrons is electrically neutral. If the atom has more or less electrons to protons it is called an ion . An ion will have positive charge if it has more protons than electrons. It will have negative charge if it has more electrons than protons. Answer: atoms", "output": [ "What is the basic unit of matter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1f918e1cdd174e1f83654375f123f985", "input": "Passage: You generally can’t see, smell, taste, hear, or feel radiation. Fortunately, there are devices such as Geiger counters that can detect radiation. A Geiger counter, like the one pictured in the Figure below , contains atoms of a gas that is ionized if it encounters radiation. When this happens, the gas atoms change to ions that can carry an electric current. The current causes the Geiger counter to click. The faster the clicks occur, the higher the level of radiation. You can see a video about the Geiger counter and how it was invented at the URL below. Answer: radiation", "output": [ "What does the geiger counter detect?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ea730363a26141cf84cd707e5ba4e020", "input": "Passage: Most prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells. They have a cell wall outside their plasma membrane. Prokaryotic DNA consists of a single loop. Some prokaryotes also have small, circular pieces of DNA called plasmids. Answer: cell wall", "output": [ "Prokaryotic cells have what structure outside their plasma membrane?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b3da9fcd8f594403b32f3fc5b7a38a0e", "input": "Passage: Currents also flow deep below the surface of the ocean. Deep currents are caused by differences in density at the top and bottom. Density is defined as the amount of mass per unit of volume. More dense water takes up less space than less dense water. It has the same mass but less volume. Water that is more dense sinks. Less dense water rises. What can make water more dense?. Answer: density", "output": [ "Deep ocean currents are caused by differences in what property at the top and bottom?" ] }, { "id": "task594-acb73c27f44f4a3ea95d3526d1ff1bf8", "input": "Passage: In other materials, there are regions where the north and south poles of atoms are all lined up in the same direction. These regions are called magnetic domains . Generally, the magnetic domains point in different directions, so the material is still not magnetic. However, the material can be magnetized (made into a magnet) by placing it in a magnetic field. When this happens, all the magnetic domains line up, and the material becomes a magnet. You can see this in the Figure below . Materials that can be magnitized are called ferromagnetic materials . They include iron, cobalt, and nickel. Answer: magnetic domains", "output": [ "The regions of a material where the north and south poles of atoms are aligned are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a4ca23f2afaf4ebd884e073739d91e97", "input": "Passage: Living organisms are comprised of organic compounds, molecules built around the element carbon. Answer: carbon", "output": [ "Living organisms are comprised of organic compounds, which are molecules built around what element?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cd596c9aae6f4e0dbc40e9587205bffb", "input": "Passage: Light with wavelengths shorter than visible light is called ultraviolet light . The term ultraviolet means “above violet. ” Ultraviolet light is the range of light waves that have shorter wavelengths and higher frequencies than violet light in the visible range of light. With higher frequencies than visible light, ultraviolet light has more energy. It can be used to kill bacteria in food and to sterilize surgical instruments. The human skin also makes vitamin D when it is exposed to ultraviolet light. Vitamin D, in turn, is needed for strong bones and teeth. You can learn more about ultraviolet light and its discovery at this URL: http://www. youtube. com/watch?v=QW5zeVy8aE0. Answer: ultraviolet light", "output": [ "What is light with wavelengths shorter than visible light called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-de340d35405e4d559a07b548af677bfb", "input": "Passage: Around 1850, a German doctor named Rudolf Virchow was observing living cells under a microscope. As he was watching, one of the cells happened to divide. Figure below shows a cell dividing, like the cell observed by Virchow. This was an “aha” moment for Virchow. He realized that living cells produce new cells by dividing. This was evidence that cells arise from other cells. Answer: cell division", "output": [ "German doctor rudolf virchow first discovered what process when studying living cells under a microscope?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8a66928dc3fa48069d529706211a708c", "input": "Passage: Figure 2.13 Oil and water do not mix. As this macro image of oil and water shows, oil does not dissolve in water but forms droplets instead. This is due to it being a nonpolar compound. (credit: Gautam Dogra). Answer: forms droplets", "output": [ "What does oil do when mixed with water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d04f1858739d4dbc9c7fb41baa9c2810", "input": "Passage: The molecular mass is the sum of the masses of the atoms in a molecule. Answer: molecular mass", "output": [ "What is the sum of the massess of the atoms in a molecule?" ] }, { "id": "task594-018805729da742cca14d0d2981fb4166", "input": "Passage: The amniotic egg is an important adaptation in fully terrestrial vertebrates. It first evolved in reptiles. The shells of reptile eggs are either hard or leathery. Answer: amniotic", "output": [ "What type of eggs do fully terrestrial vertebrates carry?" ] }, { "id": "task594-95ef4416b2434f8d97fef7a9979e2b39", "input": "Passage: DNA and the associated proteins, as well as accumulating enough energy reserves to complete the task of replicating each chromosome in the nucleus. S Phase Throughout interphase, nuclear DNA remains in a semi-condensed chromatin configuration. In the S phase (synthesis phase), DNA replication results in the formation of two identical copies of each chromosome—sister chromatids—that are firmly attached at the centromere region. At this stage, each chromosome is made of two sister chromatids and is a duplicated chromosome. The centrosome is duplicated during the S phase. The two centrosomes will give rise to the mitotic spindle, the apparatus that orchestrates the movement of chromosomes during mitosis. The centrosome consists of a pair of rod-like centrioles at right angles to each other. Centrioles help organize cell division. Centrioles are not present in the centrosomes of many eukaryotic species, such as plants and most fungi. G2 Phase In the G2 phase, or second gap, the cell replenishes its energy stores and synthesizes the proteins necessary for chromosome manipulation. Some cell organelles are duplicated, and the cytoskeleton is dismantled to provide resources for the mitotic spindle. There may be additional cell growth during G2. The final preparations for the mitotic phase must be completed before the cell is able to enter the first stage of mitosis. Answer: mitosis", "output": [ "G2 and s are phases in what process that is important in cell division?" ] }, { "id": "task594-828321e6ee014f44a501a6ca8fb467c3", "input": "Passage: When water moves into a cell by osmosis, osmotic pressure may build up inside the cell. If a cell has a cell wall, the wall helps maintain the cell’s water balance. Osmotic pressure is the main cause of support in many plants. When a plant cell is in a hypotonic environment, the osmotic entry of water raises the turgor pressure exerted against the cell wall until the pressure prevents more water from coming into the cell. At this point the plant cell is turgid ( Figure below ). The effects of osmotic pressures on plant cells are shown in Figure above . Answer: osmotic pressure", "output": [ "What type of pressure may build up inside the cell when water moves into a cell by osmosis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dcd93beb8ac5456589138f3c6497f67e", "input": "Passage: Dogs pant to lose excess body heat. Answer: excess body heat", "output": [ "Panting allows dogs to get rid of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9faee0f0808a4400be562071fa46ed24", "input": "Passage: The skin consists of two distinct layers, an outer layer called the epidermis and an inner layer called the dermis. The epidermis is constantly being renewed as dead cells on the surface are shed. This layer contains melanin-producing melanocytes. The dermis contains blood vessels, nerve endings, hair follicles, and sebaceous and sweat glands. Answer: epidermis", "output": [ "Shedding of dead cells ensures constant renewal of what outer layer of the skin?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2246846e10d04d3eb95884be9f250de3", "input": "Passage: Describe hurricane formation and the damage they cause. Answer: bacteria", "output": [ "Yogurt is made with milk fermented with what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ea4ce667950e4aa58e4f21f7b846b320", "input": "Passage: Many organisms form spores for reproduction. Some prokaryotes form spores for survival. Called endospores , they form inside prokaryotic cells when they are under stress. The stress could be UV radiation, high temperatures, or harsh chemicals. Endospores enclose the DNA and help it survive under conditions that may kill the cell. Endospores are commonly found in soil and water. They may survive for long periods of time. Answer: endospores", "output": [ "Some prokaryotes form spores for survival called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3c3260207bed4308948775e9dc9084da", "input": "Passage: Deposition as a change of state often occurs in nature. For example, when warm moist air comes into contact with very cold surfaces—such as the ground or objects on the ground—ice crystals are deposited on them. These ice crystals are commonly called frost. Look at the dead leaf and blades of grass in the Figure below . They are covered with frost. If you look closely, you can see the individual crystals of ice. You can watch a demonstration of frost forming on the side of a very cold can at the URL below. (Click on the mulitmedia choice “Ice on a Can. ”). The ice in the can has been cooled to a very low temperature by adding salt to it. If you want to do the demonstration yourself, follow the procedure at the URL. http://www. middleschoolchemistry. com/lessonplans/chapter2/lesson4. Answer: frost", "output": [ "What are the ice crystals that form on the ground called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-87de19f887854d21b5018088fd1d7ebd", "input": "Passage: Joules and calories are the units of energy and heat. Answer: energy and heat", "output": [ "Joules and calories are the units of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-293ee89d06504623a944e48e98d7960b", "input": "Passage: Lactic acid fermentation converts the 3-carbon pyruvate to the 3-carbon lactic acid (C 3 H 6 O 3 ) (see Figure below ) and regenerates NAD + in the process, allowing glycolysis to continue to make ATP in low-oxygen conditions. Since there is a limited supply of NAD + available in any given cell, this electron acceptor must be regenerated to allow ATP production to continue. To achieve this, NADH donates its extra electrons to the pyruvate molecules, regenerating NAD + . Lactic acid is formed by the reduction of pyruvate. Answer: water", "output": [ "What natural destructive element cuts away at rock forming river valleys?" ] }, { "id": "task594-145f042965cb4aa495d54c27fa2e79f8", "input": "Passage: The trigeminal pathway carries somatosensory information from the face, head, mouth, and nasal cavity. As with the previously discussed nerve tracts, the sensory pathways of the trigeminal pathway each involve three successive neurons. First, axons from the trigeminal ganglion enter the brain stem at the level of the pons. These axons project to one of three locations. The spinal trigeminal nucleus of the medulla receives information similar to that carried by spinothalamic tract, such as pain and temperature sensations. Other axons go to either the chief sensory nucleus in the pons or the mesencephalic nuclei in the midbrain. These nuclei receive information like that carried by the dorsal column system, such as touch, pressure, vibration, and proprioception. Axons from the second neuron decussate and ascend to the thalamus along the trigeminothalamic tract. In the thalamus, each axon synapses with the third neuron in its respective pathway. Axons from the third neuron then project from the thalamus to the primary somatosensory cortex of the cerebrum. The sensory pathway for gustation travels along the facial and glossopharyngeal cranial nerves, which synapse with neurons of the solitary nucleus in the brain stem. Axons from the solitary nucleus then project to the ventral posterior nucleus of the thalamus. Finally, axons from the ventral posterior nucleus project to the gustatory cortex of the cerebral cortex, where taste is processed and consciously perceived. The sensory pathway for audition travels along the vestibulocochlear nerve, which synapses with neurons in the cochlear nuclei of the superior medulla. Within the brain stem, input from either ear is combined to extract location information from the auditory stimuli. Whereas the initial auditory stimuli received at the cochlea strictly represent the frequency—or pitch—of the stimuli, the locations of sounds can be determined by comparing information arriving at both ears. Answer: trigeminal pathway", "output": [ "Which pathway carries somatosensory information from the face, head, mouth, and nasal cavity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8bcf2b17612945b68eb5f484e5c76731", "input": "Passage: If a molecule can pass freely through a cell membrane, it will cross the membrane by diffusion ( Figure below ). The inside of the plasma membrane is hydrophobic, so certain molecules cannot easily pass through the membrane. Recall the semipermeable nature of the lipid bilayer. Molecules that cannot easily pass through the bilayer include ions and small hydrophilic molecules, such as glucose, and macromolecules, including proteins and RNA. Examples of molecules that can easily diffuse across the plasma membrane include carbon dioxide and oxygen gas. These molecules diffuse freely in and out of the cell, along their concentration gradient. Though water is a polar molecule, it can also diffuse through the plasma membrane. The diffusion of water through the cell membrane is of such importance to the cell that it is given a special name, osmosis . Answer: osmosis", "output": [ "What is the special name given to the diffusion of water through the cell membrane?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1eee885db6d14851a34afd86317bba14", "input": "Passage: Many thermometers measure temperature with a liquid that expands when it gets warmer and contracts when it gets cooler. Look at the common household thermometer pictured in the Figure below . The red liquid rises or falls in the glass tube as the temperature changes. Temperature is read off the scale at the height of the liquid in the tube. To learn more about measuring temperature, watch the animation “Measuring Temperature” at this URL: http://www. sciencehelpdesk. com/unit/science2/3. Answer: expands or contracts", "output": [ "How does the liquid in a thermometer respond to heat or cold?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6da2da1db2ee4104bb23c8d9a664dac3", "input": "Passage: Amphibians breathe with gills as larvae and with lungs as adults. They have a three-chambered heart and relatively complex nervous system. Answer: amphibians", "output": [ "What type of animals breathe with gills as larvae and with lungs as adults?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fc551b7f5b6647f1923df32327593b8a", "input": "Passage: 19.2 Population Growth and Regulation Populations with unlimited resources grow exponentially—with an accelerating growth rate. When resources become limiting, populations follow a logistic growth curve in which population size will level off at the carrying capacity. Populations are regulated by a variety of density-dependent and density-independent factors. Life-history characteristics, such as age at first reproduction or numbers of offspring, are characteristics that evolve in populations just as anatomy or behavior can evolve over time. The model of r- and K-selection suggests that characters, and possibly suites of characters, may evolve adaptations to population stability near the carrying capacity (K-selection) or rapid population growth and collapse (r-selection). Species will exhibit adaptations somewhere on a continuum between these two extremes. Answer: carrying capacity", "output": [ "When resources become limiting, populations follow a logistic growth curve in which the size will level off at a point called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1f79811e9c984296b2fe416eed826db6", "input": "Passage: The field of science has gotten so big that it is common to separate it into more specific fields. First, there is mathematics, the language of science. All scientific fields use mathematics to express themselves—some more than others. Physics and astronomy are scientific fields concerned with the fundamental interactions between matter and energy. Chemistry, as defined previously, is the study of the interactions of matter with other matter and with energy. Biology is the study of living organisms, while geology is the study of the earth. Other sciences can be named as well. Understand that these fields are not always completely separate; the boundaries between scientific fields are not always readily apparent. Therefore, a scientist may be labeled a biochemist if he or she studies the chemistry of biological organisms. Finally, understand that science can be either qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative implies a description of the quality of an object. For example, physical properties are generally qualitative descriptions: sulfur is yellow, your math book is heavy, or that statue is pretty. A quantitative description represents the specific amount of something; it means knowing how much of something is present, usually by counting or measuring it. As such, some quantitative descriptions would include 25 students in a class, 650 pages in a book, or a velocity of 66 miles per hour. Quantitative expressions are very important in science; they are also very important in chemistry. Answer: mathematics", "output": [ "What field of study is called the language of science?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ea65399c380444839bf8126a9c3fe834", "input": "Passage: 23.6 Back Emf It has been noted that motors and generators are very similar. Generators convert mechanical energy into electrical energy, whereas motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. Furthermore, motors and generators have the same construction. When the coil of a motor is turned, magnetic flux changes, and an emf (consistent with Faraday’s law of induction) is induced. The motor thus acts as a generator whenever its coil rotates. This will happen whether the shaft is turned by an external input, like a belt drive, or by the action of the motor itself. That is, when a motor is doing work and its shaft is turning, an emf is generated. Lenz’s law tells us the emf opposes any change, so that the input emf that powers the motor will be opposed by the motor’s self-generated emf, called the back emf of the motor. (See Figure 23.25. Answer: rotates", "output": [ "The motor thus acts as a generator whenever its coil does what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e1ae890ae95746dd9e70d0fc61e84862", "input": "Passage: Collisions between hydrogen atoms demonstrate one form of nuclear fusion. Answer: nuclear fusion", "output": [ "Collisions between hydrogen atoms demonstrate one form of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-11151efd6fbb470abbc227b7dcebdbd2", "input": "Passage: The lungs of mammals are unique in having alveoli . These are tiny, sac-like structures. Each alveolus is surrounded by a network of very small blood vessels (see Figure below ). Because there are millions of alveoli in each lung, they greatly increase the surface area for gas exchange between the lungs and bloodstream. Human lungs, for example, contain about 300 million alveoli. They give the lungs a total surface area for gas exchange of up to 90 square meters (968 square feet). That’s about as much surface area as one side of a volleyball court!. Answer: alveoli", "output": [ "The lungs of mammals are unique in having what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d457e751a0d146e197d7be147bd489be", "input": "Passage: Do you know what these greenish, blob-like shapes are? Would it surprise you to learn that they are animals? They don’t look anything like the animals you are probably familiar with—animals such as dogs and deer, fish and frogs. But the greenish blobs are animals nonetheless. They belong to a phylum called Cnidaria, but you may know them as jellyfish. They are very simple animals and not fish at all. Answer: cnidaria", "output": [ "Jellyfish belong to which phylum?" ] }, { "id": "task594-598bf39701f4402b815ba91dd259daac", "input": "Passage: Plastids are organelles in plant cells that may have various jobs. The main types of plastids are chloroplasts, chromoplasts, and leucoplasts. Answer: plant cells", "output": [ "Chloroplasts, chromoplasts, and leucoplasts are all plastids, organelles found in what kind of cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-58a95c2b7308461da43072f2e1551812", "input": "Passage: Coal, oil and natural gas are all fossil fuels formed from the remains of once living organisms. Answer: fossil fuels", "output": [ "Coal, oil and natural gas are types of what formed from the remains of once living organisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a1204748bc414b8cacc677b8b751b6e2", "input": "Passage: The intertidal zone is the narrow strip along the coastline that is covered by water at high tide and exposed to air at low tide (see Figure below ). There are plenty of nutrients and sunlight in the intertidal zone. However, the water is constantly moving in and out, and the temperature keeps changing. These conditions require adaptations in the organisms that live there, such as the barnacles in Figure below . Answer: intertidal zone", "output": [ "What zone is the narrow strip along the coastline that is covered by water at high tide and exposed to air at low tide?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4af582c1441e4bfd9984c125649dbd74", "input": "Passage: Inorganic chemical compounds can be broadly classified into two groups: ionic compounds and molecular compounds. The structure of all ionic compounds is an extended three-dimensional array of alternating positive and negative ions. Since ionic compounds do not take the form of individual molecules, they are represented by empirical formulas. Now we will begin to examine the formulas and nomenclature of molecular compounds. Answer: molecular compounds", "output": [ "Inorganic chemical compounds can be broadly classified into two groups: ionic compounds and which other group?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6c6c7a1b7b1f430098429e7627a08802", "input": "Passage: Every plant and animal depends on its traits to survive. Survival may include getting food, building homes, and attracting mates. Traits that allow a plant, animal, or other organism to survive and reproduce in its environment are called adaptations . Answer: adaptations", "output": [ "What do you call the traits that allow a plant, animal, or other organism to survive and reproduce in its environment?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ad6031c46d07458f81a4e13b0453c41b", "input": "Passage: Pollination by Insects Bees are perhaps the most important pollinator of many garden plants and most commercial fruit trees (Figure 32.12). The most common species of bees are bumblebees and honeybees. Since bees cannot see the color red, bee-pollinated flowers usually have shades of blue, yellow, or other colors. Bees collect energy-rich pollen or nectar for their survival and energy. Answer: pollination", "output": [ "What important function do bees perform on garden plants and many commercial fruit trees?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9b7729a3743d4d1690bd0811966deeaa", "input": "Passage: Composition of Body Fluids The compositions of the two components of the ECF—plasma and IF—are more similar to each other than either is to the ICF (Figure 26.5). Blood plasma has high concentrations of sodium, chloride, bicarbonate, and protein. The IF has high concentrations of sodium, chloride, and bicarbonate, but a relatively lower concentration of protein. In contrast, the ICF has elevated amounts of potassium, phosphate, magnesium, and protein. Overall, the ICF contains high concentrations of potassium and phosphate ( HPO 24 − ), whereas both plasma and the ECF contain high concentrations of sodium and chloride. Answer: plasma and if", "output": [ "What are the two components of the ecf?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7df9a4f6142f4efda80caf63d8b51209", "input": "Passage: Humans have walked on only two planetary bodies: Earth and the Moon. The footprints the men left behind are the first signs of life ever on the Moon. Scientists learned a great deal about the Moon from the Apollo missions. The samples that were brought back have been studied in laboratories. We know an incredible amount about the Moon because of these samples. Having these rocks radically changed our thinking about the Moon. Answer: earth and the moon", "output": [ "Which two planetary bodies have humans walked on?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6b93555f9b5143df864337b3893c7188", "input": "Passage: Figure 24.13 The lifecycle of an ascomycete is characterized by the production of asci during the sexual phase. The haploid phase is the predominant phase of the life cycle. Answer: asci", "output": [ "The lifecycle of an ascomycete is characterized by the production of what during the sexual phase?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ed36d8671aea40dbb3d7e3e824276cb6", "input": "Passage: The Biological Carbon Cycle Living organisms are connected in many ways, even between ecosystems. A good example of this connection is the exchange of carbon between heterotrophs and autotrophs within and between ecosystems by way of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is the basic building block that autotrophs use to build multi-carbon, high-energy compounds, such as glucose. The energy harnessed from the Sun is used by these organisms to form the covalent bonds that link carbon atoms together. These chemical bonds store this energy for later use in the process of respiration. Most terrestrial autotrophs obtain their carbon dioxide directly from the atmosphere, while marine autotrophs acquire it in the dissolved form (carbonic acid, HCO3–). However the carbon dioxide is acquired, a byproduct of fixing carbon in organic compounds is oxygen. Photosynthetic organisms are responsible for maintaining approximately 21 percent of the oxygen content of the atmosphere that we observe today. The partners in biological carbon exchange are the heterotrophs (especially the primary consumers, largely herbivores). Heterotrophs acquire the high-energy carbon compounds from the autotrophs by consuming them and breaking them down by respiration to obtain cellular energy, such as ATP. The most efficient type of respiration, aerobic respiration, requires oxygen obtained from the atmosphere or dissolved in water. Thus, there is a constant exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the autotrophs (which need the carbon) and the heterotrophs (which need the oxygen). Autotrophs also respire and consume the organic molecules they form: using oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide. They release more oxygen gas as a waste product of photosynthesis than they use for their own respiration; therefore, there is excess available for the respiration of other aerobic organisms. Gas exchange through the atmosphere and water is one way that the carbon cycle connects all living organisms on Earth. The Biogeochemical Carbon Cycle The movement of carbon through land, water, and air is complex, and, in many cases, it occurs much more slowly geologically than the movement between living organisms. Carbon is stored for long periods in what are known as carbon reservoirs, which include the atmosphere, bodies of liquid water (mostly oceans), ocean sediment, soil, rocks (including fossil fuels), and Earth’s interior. Answer: carbon dioxide", "output": [ "What do marine autotrophs acquire in carbonic acid, its dissolved form?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8c570b344ed849679f69b5a47c612041", "input": "Passage: The total heat absorbed as the ice at -30°C is heated to steam at 140°C is 113.4 kJ. The largest absorption of heat comes during the vaporization of the liquid water. Answer: liquid water", "output": [ "The largest absorption of heat comes during the vaporization of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-029043e72fa74626ac1ec2e03dd6cce3", "input": "Passage: But ice ages also occurred many times in the past. An ice age is a period when temperatures are cooler than normal. This causes glaciers to spread to lower latitudes. Scientists think that ice ages occurred at least six times over the last billion years alone. How do scientists learn about Earth’s past climates?. Answer: ice age", "output": [ "What is the term for a period when temperatures are cooler than normal causing glaciers to spread to lower latitudes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8da1462ad56347458af66e76718a7391", "input": "Passage: Short-term Stress Response When presented with a stressful situation, the body responds by calling for the release of hormones that provide a burst of energy. The hormones epinephrine (also known as adrenaline) and norepinephrine (also known as noradrenaline) are released by the adrenal medulla. How do these hormones provide a burst of energy? Epinephrine and norepinephrine increase blood glucose levels by stimulating the liver and skeletal muscles to break down glycogen and by stimulating glucose release by liver cells. Additionally, these hormones increase oxygen availability to cells by increasing the heart rate and dilating the bronchioles. The hormones also prioritize body function by increasing blood supply to essential organs such as the heart, brain, and skeletal muscles, while restricting blood flow to organs not in immediate need, such as the skin, digestive system, and kidneys. Epinephrine and norepinephrine are collectively called catecholamines. Answer: adrenal medulla", "output": [ "The hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine are released by what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8df8f9cd8c994644bf5ac3e06fe49ec9", "input": "Passage: In addition, endocrine signaling is typically less specific than neural signaling. The same hormone may play a role in a variety of different physiological processes depending on the target cells involved. For example, the hormone oxytocin promotes uterine contractions in women in labor. It is also important in breastfeeding, and may be involved in the sexual response and in feelings of emotional attachment in both males and females. In general, the nervous system involves quick responses to rapid changes in the external environment, and the endocrine system is usually slower acting—taking care of the internal environment of the body, maintaining homeostasis, and controlling reproduction (Table 17.1). So how does the fight-or-flight response that was mentioned earlier happen so quickly if hormones are usually slower acting? It is because the two systems are connected. It is the fast action of the nervous system in response to the danger in the environment that stimulates the adrenal glands to secrete their hormones. As a result, the nervous system can cause rapid endocrine responses to keep up with sudden changes in both the external and internal environments when necessary. Answer: nervous system", "output": [ "Which system is capable of responding quickly to changing situations?" ] }, { "id": "task594-26cf693e87344288b480e1970568524e", "input": "Passage: The first and longest phase of mitosis is prophase . During prophase, chromatin condenses into chromosomes, and the nuclear envelope, or membrane, breaks down. In animal cells, the centrioles near the nucleus begin to separate and move to opposite poles (sides) of the cell. As the centrioles move, a spindle starts to form between them. The spindle, shown in Figure below , consists of fibers made of microtubules. Answer: prophase", "output": [ "What is the first phase of mitosis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-039ce91df578461e81518fae932f5415", "input": "Passage: The mRNA is divided into three-base segments called codons. A codon is the segment of nucleotides that codes for an amino acid, or for a start or stop signal. There are 64 codons. Answer: 64", "output": [ "What is the total number of codons?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bb8e9689af0043f08a029bd3cad5ab89", "input": "Passage: Symbiosis is a close relationship between two species in which at least one species benefits. Answer: symbiosis", "output": [ "What is a close relationship between two species in which at least one species benefits?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8fedc5c5b7eb43f0b8db60b4976eff19", "input": "Passage: Renal plasma flow equals the blood flow per minute times the hematocrit. If a person has a hematocrit of 45, then the renal plasma flow is 55 percent. 1050*0.55 = 578 mL plasma/min. Answer: hematocrit", "output": [ "Renal plasma flow equals the blood flow per minute times the what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8b379c7278804c8d80ec7ac8c366b391", "input": "Passage: An alkyl group is a group of atoms that results when one hydrogen atom is removed from an alkane. The group is named by replacing the -ane suffix of the parent hydrocarbon with -yl. For example, the CH3 group derived from methane (CH4) results from subtracting one hydrogen atom and is called a methyl group. The alkyl groups we will use most frequently are listed in Table 12.4 \"Common Alkyl Groups\". Alkyl groups are not independent molecules; they are parts of molecules that we consider as a unit to name compounds systematically. Table 12.4 Common Alkyl Groups. Answer: alkyl group", "output": [ "A group of atoms that results when one hydrogen atom is removed from an alkane is referred to as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d40c50af69d647e6a8b87e99a3b47724", "input": "Passage: Carbonate minerals are often found where seas once covered the land. Some carbonate minerals are very common. Calcite contains calcium, carbon, and oxygen. Have you ever been in a limestone cave or seen a marble tile? Calcite is in both limestone and marble. Azurite and malachite are also carbonate minerals. They contain copper instead of calcium. They are not as common as calcite. Malachite and azurite are used in jewelry; as you can see, they are very colorful ( Figure below ). Answer: carbonate", "output": [ "What type of minerals are often found where seas once covered the land?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6f97ad7208ac49dfb84b203c39ece6be", "input": "Passage: Composite cones are steep sided, cone shaped volcanoes that produce explosive eruptions. Answer: volcanoes", "output": [ "Composite cones are steep-sided, cone-shaped types of what, which produce explosive eruptions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8567ed17da34495882ecc28682be91be", "input": "Passage: For example, remember that for the height gene in pea plants there are two possible factors. These factors are alleles. There is a dominant allele for tallness (T) and a recessive allele for shortness (t) . Answer: alleles", "output": [ "What factors determine the effect of a gene?" ] }, { "id": "task594-645ef6b931e34283bcddc2d3e3ff1e44", "input": "Passage: The continental shelf is the ocean floor nearest the edges of continents. It has a a gentle slope. The water over the continental shelf is shallow. Answer: continental shelf", "output": [ "What do you call the gently sloped ocean floor nearest the edges of continents?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6c12e741196c4723bb6080005ac525a7", "input": "Passage: Unlike corals, jellyfish spend most of their lives as medusae. They live virtually everywhere in the ocean. They are typically carnivores. They prey on zooplankton, other invertebrates, and the eggs and larvae of fish. Answer: medusae", "output": [ "Unlike corals, jellyfish spend most of their lives as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f0b91958dc1647d2bafa9f613dd5453c", "input": "Passage: A fully developed placenta, like the one in Figure below , is made up of a large mass of blood vessels from both mother and fetus. The maternal and fetal vessels are close together but separated by tiny spaces. This allows the mother’s and fetus’s blood to exchange substances across their capillary walls without the blood actually mixing. Answer: blood vessels", "output": [ "A fully developed placenta is made up of a large mass of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-00d186236fa44005abb2ac53a3e4ce28", "input": "Passage: The system is isolated from other masses. This allows us to neglect any small effects due to outside masses. The conditions are satisfied, to good approximation, by Earth’s satellites (including the Moon), by objects orbiting the Sun, and by the satellites of other planets. Historically, planets were studied first, and there is a classical set of three laws, called Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, that describe the orbits of all bodies satisfying the two previous conditions (not just planets in our solar system). These descriptive laws are named for the German astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571–1630), who devised them after careful study (over some 20 years) of a large amount of meticulously recorded observations of planetary motion done by Tycho Brahe (1546–1601). Such careful collection and detailed recording of methods and data are hallmarks of good science. Data constitute the evidence from which new interpretations and meanings can be constructed. Answer: planets", "output": [ "Kepler's laws relate to the motion of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-16113129347645b288f1032742987332", "input": "Passage: Weathering changes solid rock into pieces. These pieces are called sediments. Sediments are described in the chapter Earth's Materials and Crust . Sediments are different sizes of rock particles. Boulders are sediments; so is gravel. At the other end, silt and clay are also sediments. Weathering may also cause the minerals at the Earth’s surface to change form. The new minerals that form are stable at the Earth’s surface. There are two types of weathering, mechanical and chemical. These are discussed in the next two concepts. Answer: weathering", "output": [ "Over time, what changes solid rock into pieces?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0131e1dd5007450e834511df63afcf02", "input": "Passage: Sperm are male gametes, or reproductive cells. Sperm form when certain cells in the male reproductive system divide by meiosis to form haploid cells. Being haploid means they have half the number of chromosomes of other cells in the body. An adult male may produce millions of sperm each day!. Answer: reproductive", "output": [ "What type of cells are gametes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b0d5f6847a8843afb494794f37b5bb94", "input": "Passage: Chemistry in Everyday Life Transition Metal Catalysts One of the most important applications of transition metals is as industrial catalysts. As you recall from the chapter on kinetics, a catalyst increases the rate of reaction by lowering the activation energy and is regenerated in the catalytic cycle. Over 90% of all manufactured products are made with the aid of one or more catalysts. The ability to bind ligands and change oxidation states makes transition metal catalysts well suited for catalytic applications. Vanadium oxide is used to produce 230,000,000 tons of sulfuric acid worldwide each year, which in turn is used to make everything from fertilizers to cans for food. Plastics are made with the aid of transition metal catalysts, along with detergents, fertilizers, paints, and more (see Figure 19.26). Very complicated pharmaceuticals are manufactured with catalysts that are selective, reacting with one specific bond out of a large number of possibilities. Catalysts allow processes to be more economical and more environmentally friendly. Developing new catalysts and better understanding of existing systems are important areas of current research. Answer: reaction slows", "output": [ "What happens if a catalyst runs out?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2992ae56029b4b5793e4dc1f56bcfab5", "input": "Passage: Hazardous waste is material that is toxic, chemically active, corrosive, or flammable. Answer: flammable", "output": [ "Hazardous waste is material that is toxic, chemically active, corrosive, or what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1163dc129abb4501814451cd0226885e", "input": "Passage: Electrons in the outermost energy level of an atom are called valence electrons. They determine many of the properties of an atom, including how reactive it is. Answer: valence electrons", "output": [ "What do you call the electrons in the outermost energy level of an atom?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cfd654b6c5264268aa576fc1a6ff23fb", "input": "Passage: There is no reason to think that the alignment of the stars has anything to do with events that happen on Earth. The constellations are patterns made from stars in the sky. The patterns do not reflect any characteristics of the stars themselves. When scientific tests are done to provide evidence in support of astrological ideas, the tests fail. When a scientific idea fails, it is abandoned or modified. Astrologers do not change or abandon their ideas when they fail. So astrology is not science. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "In what process is energy from the sun converted to stored chemical energy in an organism?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9aafaaabd83c444097b932e95bb72a8a", "input": "Passage: The eye of a person with myopia is longer than normal. As a result, images are focused in front of the retina ( top left ). A concave lens is used to correct myopia to help focus images on the retina ( top right ). Farsightedness, or hyperopia, occurs when objects are focused in back of the retina ( bottom left ). It is corrected with a convex lens ( bottom right ). Answer: eye", "output": [ "What part of a person with myopia is longer than normal?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e02ecf73d73f411381cde710b9e0ed71", "input": "Passage: Telescopes that use lenses to bend light are called refracting telescopes , or refractors ( Figure below ). The earliest telescopes were all refractors. Many amateur astronomers still use refractors today. Refractors are good for viewing details within our solar system. Craters on the surface of Earth’s Moon or the rings around Saturn are two such details. Answer: refracting telescopes", "output": [ "What are telescopes that use lenses to bend light called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4845573940ea4b97b04c1b1610501f4e", "input": "Passage: Mirrors are made from highly reflective metal that is applied to a curved or flat piece of glass. Converging mirrors can be used to focus light – headlights, telescopes, satellite TV receivers, and solar cookers all rely on this principle. Answer: mirrors", "output": [ "What are made from highly reflective metal that is applied to a curved or flat piece of glass?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a880e26a86914fd48150de1535059e71", "input": "Passage: Coelacanths are ancient fish with just two living species. They are at risk of extinction because of their very small numbers. Answer: coelacanths", "output": [ "Which ancient fish has just two living species and is at risk of extinction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-29679ccf88174e619c91f49d5c7cb3a0", "input": "Passage: The electronegativity of an atom determines how strongly it attracts electrons to itself. Answer: electronegativity", "output": [ "What determines how strongly an atom attracts electrons to itself?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f8103b2f40e8406993313a38ffbe9d37", "input": "Passage: Genetics is the study of inheritance. Inheritance is the passing of traits from parents to offspring. How are these traits \"passed\"? Through DNA, which is the genetic material of all organisms. This concept will focus on genetics, inheritance, and DNA. Answer: dna", "output": [ "The passing of traits from parents to offspring is done through what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2baa6a6a0caa481f8c1f65004ece5f01", "input": "Passage: Fatty Acids. Saturated fatty acids have straight chains, like the three fatty acids shown on the left. Unsaturated fatty acids have bent chains, like all the other fatty acids in the figure. Answer: unsaturated fatty acids", "output": [ "What type of fatty acids have bent chains?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b998ccc028f7414c964a3af3dc470bef", "input": "Passage: Cardiac muscle is found only in the walls of the heart. When cardiac muscle contracts, the heart beats and pumps blood. Cardiac muscle contains a great many mitochondria, which produce ATP for energy. This helps the heart resist fatigue. Contractions of cardiac muscle are involuntary like those of smooth muscle. Answer: cardiac muscle", "output": [ "What muscle is found only in the walls of the heart?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a95c13c89dbc47a8aa5e8c2d03c3a0b1", "input": "Passage: Warmer, lighter air is more buoyant than the cooler air above it. So the warm air rises. The cooler air is denser than the air beneath it. So it sinks down. This is convection: warm air rises, and cool air sinks. Warm fluids can undergo convection as well. This is described in the chapter Plate Tectonics . Answer: convection", "output": [ "What process is at work when warm air or water rises, and cool air or water sinks?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3ed8dcb0046f42f38d4c5e3f72776e87", "input": "Passage: Translation is the RNA → protein part of the central dogma. It occurs at a ribosome. During translation, a protein is synthesized using the codons in mRNA as a guide. All three types of RNA play a role in translation. Answer: protein is synthesized", "output": [ "What exactly happens during rna translation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-28ae964506dd42deb8369a25955d2aa4", "input": "Passage: Leaves may vary in size, shape, and their arrangement on stems. Nonflowering vascular plants have three basic types of leaves: microphylls (“tiny leaves”), fronds , and needles . Figure below describes each type. Answer: three", "output": [ "Nonflowering vascular plants have how many basic types of leaves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-057ce028ac24402890b6d937d3f05a01", "input": "Passage: A genetic disorder that is caused by a mutation can be inherited. Therefore, people with a genetic disorder in their family may be concerned about having children with the disorder. Professionals known as genetic counselors can help them understand the risks of their children being affected. If they decide to have children, they may be advised to have prenatal (“before birth”) testing to see if the fetus has any genetic abnormalities. One method of prenatal testing is amniocentesis . In this procedure, a few fetal cells are extracted from the fluid surrounding the fetus, and the fetal chromosomes are examined. Answer: prenatal testing", "output": [ "What measure is resorted to by people who wish to screen out genetic abnormalities in the fetus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ee1d0108c19f43618566e28576504bd6", "input": "Passage: No physical object can travel faster than the speed of light in a vacuum. (Maximum speed is finite). Answer: their environment changes", "output": [ "Genetic variation helps ensure that some organisms will survive if what happens?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c14633c1463142499c1ffd33a97b5606", "input": "Passage: The properties of liquids are intermediate between those of gases and solids but are more similar to solids. In contrast to intramolecular forces, such as the covalent bonds that hold atoms together in molecules and polyatomic ions, intermolecular forces hold molecules together in a liquid or solid. Intermolecular forces are generally much weaker than covalent bonds. For example, it requires 927 kJ to overcome the intramolecular forces and break both O–H bonds in 1 mol of water, but it takes only about 41 kJ to overcome the intermolecular attractions and convert 1 mol of liquid water to water vapor at 100°C. (Despite this seemingly low value, the intermolecular forces in liquid water are among the strongest such forces known!) Given the large difference in the strengths of intra- and intermolecular forces, changes between the solid, liquid, and gaseous states almost invariably occur for molecular substances without breaking covalent bonds. Answer: solids", "output": [ "The properties of liquids are intermediate between those of gases and solids but are more similar to?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b634ed0fc99e434380dc5dd094165bb0", "input": "Passage: saliva. Although there may be a tendency to think that mechanical digestion is limited to the first steps of the digestive process, it occurs after the food leaves the mouth, as well. The mechanical churning of food in the stomach serves to further break it apart and expose more of its surface area to digestive juices, creating an acidic “soup” called chyme. Segmentation, which occurs mainly in the small intestine, consists of localized contractions of circular muscle of the muscularis layer of the alimentary canal. These contractions isolate small sections of the intestine, moving their contents back and forth while continuously subdividing, breaking up, and mixing the contents. By moving food back and forth in the intestinal lumen, segmentation mixes food with digestive juices and facilitates absorption. In chemical digestion, starting in the mouth, digestive secretions break down complex food molecules into their chemical building blocks (for example, proteins into separate amino acids). These secretions vary in composition, but typically contain water, various enzymes, acids, and salts. The process is completed in the small intestine. Food that has been broken down is of no value to the body unless it enters the bloodstream and its nutrients are put to work. This occurs through the process of absorption, which takes place primarily within the small intestine. There, most nutrients are absorbed from the lumen of the alimentary canal into the bloodstream through the epithelial cells that make up the mucosa. Lipids are absorbed into lacteals and are transported via the lymphatic vessels to the bloodstream (the subclavian veins near the heart). The details of these processes will be discussed later. In defecation, the final step in digestion, undigested materials are removed from the body as feces. Answer: stomach", "output": [ "Mechanical churning of food in what organ serves to further break it apart and expose more of its surface area to digestive juices, creating an acidic “soup” called chyme?" ] }, { "id": "task594-276a108848ce472681aa9b0b5ff881e3", "input": "Passage: Flame Cells of Planaria and Nephridia of Worms As multi-cellular systems evolved to have organ systems that divided the metabolic needs of the body, individual organs evolved to perform the excretory function. Planaria are flatworms that live in fresh water. Their excretory system consists of two tubules connected to a highly branched duct system. The cells in the tubules are called flame cells (or protonephridia) because they have a cluster of cilia that looks like a flickering flame when viewed under the microscope, as illustrated in Figure 41.10a. The cilia propel waste matter down the tubules and out of the body through excretory pores that open on the body surface; cilia also draw water from the interstitial fluid, allowing for filtration. Any valuable metabolites are recovered by reabsorption. Flame cells are found in flatworms, including parasitic tapeworms and free-living planaria. They also maintain the organism’s osmotic balance. Answer: reabsorption", "output": [ "How are valuable metabolites recovered?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6e069aa94d7945258f1298c37460b87b", "input": "Passage: Seawater has lots of salts in it. This increases its density (mass per volume) over fresh water. Temperature and pressure also affect density. Answer: density", "output": [ "Salt in seawater causes it to have greater what, which is also affected by temperature and pressure?" ] }, { "id": "task594-280a8b37aae94619970d716ddf54f7b2", "input": "Passage: Composition of Blood You have probably had blood drawn from a superficial vein in your arm, which was then sent to a lab for analysis. Some of the most common blood tests—for instance, those measuring lipid or glucose levels in plasma—determine which substances are present within blood and in what quantities. Other blood tests check for the composition of the blood itself, including the quantities and types of formed elements. One such test, called a hematocrit, measures the percentage of RBCs, clinically known as erythrocytes, in a blood sample. It is performed by spinning the blood sample in a specialized centrifuge, a process that causes the heavier elements suspended within the blood sample to separate from the lightweight, liquid plasma (Figure 18.2). Because the heaviest elements in blood are the erythrocytes, these settle at the very bottom of the hematocrit tube. Located above the erythrocytes is a pale, thin layer composed of the remaining formed elements of blood. These are the WBCs, clinically known as leukocytes, and the platelets, cell fragments also called thrombocytes. This layer is referred to as the buffy coat because of its color; it normally constitutes less than 1 percent of a blood sample. Above the buffy coat is the blood plasma, normally a pale, strawcolored fluid, which constitutes the remainder of the sample. The volume of erythrocytes after centrifugation is also commonly referred to as packed cell volume (PCV). In normal blood, about 45 percent of a sample is erythrocytes. The hematocrit of any one sample can vary significantly, however, about 36–50 percent, according to gender and other factors. Normal hematocrit values for females range from 37 to 47, with a mean value of 41; for males, hematocrit ranges from 42 to 52, with a mean of 47. The percentage of other formed elements, the WBCs and platelets, is extremely small so it is not normally considered with the hematocrit. So the mean plasma percentage is the percent of blood that is not erythrocytes: for females, it is approximately 59 (or 100 minus 41), and for males, it is approximately 53 (or 100 minus 47). Answer: red blood cells", "output": [ "Normal blood is comprised of nearly half erythrocytes, which is another word for what cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-10a369d39c6d47789c5f65a33c70318c", "input": "Passage: Water and carbon dioxide molecules are reactants in the process of photosynthesis. Does this mean they are “food” for plants, algae, and blue-green bacteria? Use the definition of “food” to answer this question. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "Water and carbon dioxide molecules are reactants in what plant process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-08c997afbbf54551b3ce4bd0e6e31aa8", "input": "Passage: Organs are organized into organ systems such as the skeletal and muscular systems. Answer: organ system", "output": [ "Skeletal and muscular are examples of what type of system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fca55b78ab064f10b198a0f7a6b3b4e5", "input": "Passage: Condensation reactions are the chemical processes by which large organic compounds are synthesized from their monomeric units. Hydrolysis reactions are the reverse process. During condensation reactions, water is produced from the two molecules being bonded together; an H from one monomer is joined to an -OH from another molecule, producing H 2 O. Answer: water", "output": [ "What is produced during a condensation reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-786f4c22c5284f1cb29f990bc5f0bf3f", "input": "Passage: Climate is the average weather of a place over many years. It includes average temperatures. It also includes average precipitation. The timing of precipitation is part of climate as well. What determines the climate of a place? Latitude is the main factor. A nearby ocean or mountain range can also play a role. Answer: climate", "output": [ "What term is used to describe the average weather of a place over many years?" ] }, { "id": "task594-87c25205f2b54c26a993dcdcca805e67", "input": "Passage: Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, has been in use since ancient times. The Bronze Age saw the increased use of metals rather than stone for weapons, tools, and decorative objects. Brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, is widely used in musical instruments like the trumpet and trombone. Answer: bronze", "output": [ "What is an alloy of copper and tin?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9a80015c348c431d89d27525f96762a3", "input": "Passage: The scientific method is a set of steps that help us to answer questions. When we use logical steps and control the number of things that can be changed, we get better answers. As we test our ideas, we may come up with more questions. The basic sequence of steps followed in the scientific method is illustrated in Figure below . Answer: scientific method", "output": [ "In science, what can be described as a set of steps that help us to answer questions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ab43971cfd2844daab3c4eca02e8844e", "input": "Passage: Gluconeogenesis Gluconeogenesis is the synthesis of new glucose molecules from pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, or the amino acids alanine or glutamine. This process takes place primarily in the liver during periods of low glucose, that is, under conditions of fasting, starvation, and low carbohydrate diets. So, the question can be raised as to why the body would create something it has just spent a fair amount of effort to break down? Certain key organs, including the brain, can use only glucose as an energy source; therefore, it is essential that the body maintain a minimum blood glucose concentration. When the blood glucose concentration falls below that certain point, new glucose is synthesized by the liver to raise the blood concentration to normal. Gluconeogenesis is not simply the reverse of glycolysis. There are some important differences (Figure 24.10). Pyruvate is a common starting material for gluconeogenesis. First, the pyruvate is converted into oxaloacetate. Oxaloacetate then serves as a substrate for the enzyme phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK), which transforms oxaloacetate into phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP). From this step, gluconeogenesis is nearly the reverse of glycolysis. PEP is converted back into 2-phosphoglycerate, which is converted into 3-phosphoglycerate. Then, 3-phosphoglycerate is converted into 1,3 bisphosphoglycerate and then into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. Two molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate then combine to form fructose-1-6-bisphosphate, which is converted into fructose 6-phosphate and then into glucose-6-phosphate. Finally, a series of reactions generates glucose itself. In gluconeogenesis (as compared to glycolysis), the enzyme hexokinase is replaced by glucose-6-phosphatase, and the enzyme phosphofructokinase-1 is replaced by fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase. This helps the cell to regulate glycolysis and gluconeogenesis independently of each other. As will be discussed as part of lipolysis, fats can be broken down into glycerol, which can be phosphorylated to form dihydroxyacetone phosphate or DHAP. DHAP can either enter the glycolytic pathway or be used by the liver as a substrate for gluconeogenesis. Answer: liver", "output": [ "In which organ of the body does gluconeogenesis primarily take place?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2d87913b1d3747ce9bd5f54b2097f1ce", "input": "Passage: Aquatic biomes in the ocean are called marine biomes. Organisms that live in marine biomes must be adapted to the salt in the water. For example, many have organs for excreting excess salt. Marine biomes include the oceans, coral reefs, and estuaries ( Figure below ). The oceans are the largest of all the ecosystems. They can be divided into four separate zones based on the amount of sunlight. Ocean zones are also divided based on their depth and their distance from land. Each zone has a great diversity of species. Within a coral reef , the dominant organisms are corals. Corals consist partially of algae, which provide nutrients via photosynthesis. Corals also extend tentacles to obtain plankton from the water. Coral reefs include several species of microorganisms, invertebrates, fishes, sea urchins, octopuses, and sea stars. Estuaries are areas where freshwater streams or rivers merge with the ocean. Answer: marine biomes", "output": [ "Aquatic biomes in the ocean are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5ce28667f4954d0cb61cffc396d21b2c", "input": "Passage: mitochondria, myoglobin, and capillary networks in SO fibers. Endurance athletes have a high level of SO fibers relative to the other fiber types. Resistance exercise causes hypertrophy. Power-producing muscles have a higher number of FG fibers than of slow fibers. Strenuous exercise causes muscle cell damage that requires time to heal. Some athletes use performanceenhancing substances to enhance muscle performance. Muscle atrophy due to age is called sarcopenia and occurs as muscle fibers die and are replaced by connective and adipose tissue. Answer: sarcopenia", "output": [ "Muscle atrophy due to age is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8e43e48888364ff29753f57d140f1234", "input": "Passage: Phylum Nemertea The Nemertea are colloquially known as ribbon worms. Most species of phylum Nemertea are marine, predominantly benthic or bottom dwellers, with an estimated 900 species known. However, nemertini have been recorded in freshwater and terrestrial habitats as well. Most nemerteans are carnivores, feeding on worms, clams, and crustaceans. Some species are scavengers, and some nemertini species, like Malacobdella grossa, have also evolved commensalistic relationships with some mollusks. Some species have devastated commercial fishing of clams and crabs. Nemerteans have almost no predators and two species are sold as fish bait. Morphology Ribbon worms vary in size from 1 cm to several meters. They show bilateral symmetry and remarkable contractile properties. Because of their contractility, they can change their morphological presentation in response to environmental cues. Animals in phylum Nemertea show a flattened morphology, that is, they are flat from front to back, like a flattened tube. Nemertea are soft and unsegmented animals (Figure 28.18). Answer: nemertea", "output": [ "The colloquial term \"ribbon worm\" refers to the mostly marine species of what phylum?" ] }, { "id": "task594-671286e50630478baf888bfdfcadc39a", "input": "Passage: Evolution focuses on past life forms and how they turned into present life forms. The history of life on Earth demonstrates how the first cells formed, turned into simple life forms, and then became more complex plants and animals. The studies of Charles Darwin have reshaped and influenced all aspects of biology. The vast amounts of evidence of evolution demonstrates the importance of the theory of evolution by natural selection. But has this process stopped? Of course not. Evolution does continue today. Answer: natural selection", "output": [ "What theory of evolution is charles darwin most known for?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cf1c8ec756c44eba9b983969ace37c0a", "input": "Passage: Sperm are male gametes , or reproductive cells. When a male gamete meets a female gamete, they can form a new organism. Sperm form when certain cells in the male reproductive system divide by meiosis , resulting in cells with half the amount of DNA as a regular \"body\" cell. More precisely, sperm cells are haploid sex cells, having one set of chromosomes. Regular body cells are diploid, having two set of chromosomes. As there are 46 chromosomes in a diploid human cell, how many are in a human sperm cell?. Answer: 46 chromosomes", "output": [ "How many chromosomes are in a diploid human cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a9bb0989b96a4866bf38a81e10360b37", "input": "Passage: Figure 38.27 The joints of the carpal bones in the wrist are examples of planar joints. (credit: modification of work by Brian C. Goss). Answer: planar joints", "output": [ "The joints of the carpal bones in the wrist are examples of what type of joints?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0b3a00cf8a524a02b5dcd4c7d68abbd8", "input": "Passage: Scientists use the scientific method to answer questions. The scientific method is a series of steps. These steps help scientists (or even just people!) investigate a question. Answer: scientific method", "output": [ "What method do scientists use to answer questions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1961f0b01b4a46079b4fc9f037f2471b", "input": "Passage: When current flows in just one direction, it is called direct current (DC) . The diagram below shows how direct current flows through a simple circuit. An example of direct current is the current that flows through a battery-powered flashlight. In addition to batteries, solar cells and fuel cells can also provide direct current. Answer: direct current", "output": [ "What kind of current flows in just one direction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7d319e32512a4675a58f68b4cae46ba2", "input": "Passage: Organisms are organized in the microscopic level from atoms up to cells. The matter is structured in an ordered way. Atoms are arranged into molecules, then into macromolecules, which make up organelles, which work together to form cells. Beyond this, cells are organized in higher levels to form entire multicellular organisms, as shown in Figure below . Cells together form tissues, which make up organs, which are part of organ systems, which work together to form an entire organism. Of course, beyond this, organisms form populations which make up parts of an ecosystem. All of Earth's ecosystems together form the diverse environment that is Earth. Answer: tissues", "output": [ "What bodily substance is formed from cells, and in turn helps make up organs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fe01dfe88d4e4b8d94df3b630bc2d067", "input": "Passage: Deductive reasoning means making a specific statement based on a general principle. Answer: deductive", "output": [ "Making a specific statement based on a general principle is the definition of what type of reasoning?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3e67b3d73fb04683bb6d08b0bdf02b31", "input": "Passage: With fracking, fluids are pumped through a borehole. The fluids create fractures in the rock that contains the natural gas. Chemicals in the fluid prevent the fractures from closing. The natural gas can then be pumped to the surface. Answer: fracking", "output": [ "In what energy industry process are fluids pumped through a borehole, creating fractures in the rock that contains the natural gas?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7255b434919147b1a86860da306b6e03", "input": "Passage: Humid continental climates are found between 40° and 60° north latitude. The northeastern U. S. has this type of climate. Summers are warm to hot, and winters are cold. Precipitation is moderate, and it falls year round. Deciduous trees grow in this climate ( Figure below ). They lose their leaves in the fall and grow new ones in the spring. Answer: deciduous", "output": [ "What do you call trees that lose their leaves in the fall and grow new ones in the spring?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ccf92ae6d28c4678b43e2f83e3fa3f9f", "input": "Passage: Plants are multicellular eukaryotes with cell walls made of cellulose. Plant cells also have chloroplasts. In addition, plants have specialized reproductive organs. These are structures that produce reproductive cells. Male reproductive organs produce sperm, and female reproductive organs produce eggs. Male and female reproductive organs may be on the same or different plants. Answer: plant cells", "output": [ "What type of cells have chloroplasts?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7e7137eff1ee4e0c8e2f288d5b487680", "input": "Passage: Movement at Synovial Joints The wide range of movement allowed by synovial joints produces different types of movements. The movement of synovial joints can be classified as one of four different types: gliding, angular, rotational, or special movement. Gliding Movement Gliding movements occur as relatively flat bone surfaces move past each other. Gliding movements produce very little rotation or angular movement of the bones. The joints of the carpal and tarsal bones are examples of joints that produce gliding movements. Angular Movement Angular movements are produced when the angle between the bones of a joint changes. There are several different types of angular movements, including flexion, extension, hyperextension, abduction, adduction, and circumduction. Flexion, or bending, occurs when the angle between the bones decreases. Moving the forearm upward at the elbow or moving the wrist to move the hand toward the forearm are examples of flexion. Extension is the opposite of flexion in that the angle between the bones of a joint increases. Straightening a limb after flexion is an example of extension. Extension past the regular anatomical position is referred to as hyperextension. This includes moving the neck back to look upward, or bending the wrist so that the hand moves away from the forearm. Abduction occurs when a bone moves away from the midline of the body. Examples of abduction are moving the arms or legs laterally to lift them straight out to the side. Adduction is the movement of a bone toward the midline of the body. Movement of the limbs inward after abduction is an example of adduction. Circumduction is the movement of a limb in a circular motion, as in moving the arm in a circular motion. Answer: synovial", "output": [ "What kind of joints are capable of a wide range of movements, classified as gliding, angular, rotational, or special?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c44d070e564d4f3ca9de13ff980a6528", "input": "Passage: The second main component of plasma membranes are the variety of proteins. A membrane protein is a protein molecule that is attached to, or associated with the membrane of a cell or an organelle. Membrane proteins can be put into two groups based on how the protein is associated with the membrane: (1) integral membrane proteins and (2) peripheral membrane proteins. Answer: membrane protein", "output": [ "What type of protein is a protein molecule that is attached to, or associated with the membrane of a cell or an organelle?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e3444487baa8404fbee7703ad20f9fc7", "input": "Passage: One thing is true of both regular and diffuse reflection. The angle at which the reflected rays leave the surface is equal to the angle at which the incident rays strike the surface. This is known as the law of reflection . The law is illustrated in the Figure below and also in this animation: http://www. physicsclassroom. com/mmedia/optics/lr. cfm. Answer: reflection", "output": [ "Which law describes the angle at which the reflected rays leave the surface is equal to the angle at which the incident rays strike the surface?" ] }, { "id": "task594-17d09d7b37f449d5865cf428d3de41c9", "input": "Passage: Tuberculosis (TB) is a common and often deadly disease caused by a genus of bacterium called Mycobacterium . Tuberculosis most commonly attacks the lungs but can also affect other parts of the body. TB is a chronic disease, but most people who become infected do not develop the full disease. Symptoms include a cough, which usually contains mucus and coughing up blood. Answer: mycobacterium", "output": [ "What type of bacteria causes the disease called tuberculosis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e37984e46dc949ad8946a3908b81660a", "input": "Passage: In normal faults , the hanging wall drops down relative to the footwall. Normal faults are caused by tension that pulls the crust apart. This causes the hanging wall to slide down. Normal faults can build huge mountain ranges in regions experiencing tension ( Figure below ). Answer: ground tissue", "output": [ "What makes up most of the inside of a plant?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ae39acbee0204d4d91c04dea07eb80c9", "input": "Passage: Yes, in some ways. Ocean waves travel at the interface between the sea surface and the atmosphere. They have all the features that all waves have. Some seismic waves also travel at an interface. Which ones?. Answer: ocean waves", "output": [ "What travels at the interface between the sea surface and the atmosphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-65d1cfad54a24cea8aa2b2f6b9bb5c7b", "input": "Passage: Chemotrophic organisms break down either organic or inorganic molecules to supply energy for the cell. Some chemotrophic organisms can also use their organic energy-supplying molecules as a carbon supply, which would make them chemoheterotrophs. Answer: chemotrophic organisms", "output": [ "Which organisms break down either organic or inorganic molecules to supply energy for the cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7aa50b960b374ed98536e25b039596b8", "input": "Passage: Passive transport occurs when a substance passes through the cell membrane without needing any energy to pass through. This happens when a substance moves from an area where it is more concentrated to an area where it is less concentrated. Concentration is the number of particles of a substance in a given volume. Let's say you dissolve a teaspoon of salt in a cup of water. Then you dissolve two teaspoons of salt in another cup of water. The second solution will have a higher concentration of salt. Answer: passive transport", "output": [ "When substances pass through the cell membrane without needing any energy what is it called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-31c37765416a4768a0d64a7969fbfff9", "input": "Passage: The lymphatic system is a network of vessels and tissues that carry a clear fluid called lymph. The lymphatic system ( Figure below ) spreads all around the body and filters and cleans the lymph of any debris, abnormal cells, or pathogens. Lymph vessels are tube-shaped, just like blood vessels, with about 500-600 lymph nodes (in an adult) attached. The lymphatic system works with the cardiovascular system to return body fluids to the blood. The lymphatic system and the cardiovascular system are often called the body’s two \"circulatory systems. \". Answer: lymphatic system", "output": [ "What is the network of vessels and tissues that carry a clear fluid called lymph called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-651212316cd4426f86f30ba79b1ba2f2", "input": "Passage: Making Connections: Absolute Zero What is absolute zero? Absolute zero is the temperature at which all molecular motion has ceased. The concept of absolute zero arises from the behavior of gases. Figure 13.9 shows how the pressure of gases at a constant volume decreases as temperature decreases. Various scientists have noted that the pressures of gases extrapolate to zero at the same temperature, –273.15ºC . This extrapolation implies that there is a lowest temperature. This temperature is called absolute zero. Today we know that most gases first liquefy and then freeze, and it is not actually possible to reach absolute zero. The numerical value of absolute zero temperature is –273.15ºC or 0 K. Answer: absolute zero", "output": [ "The temperature at which all molecular motion has ceased is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0d0ffa14f5d8492d80863edde03a62d7", "input": "Passage: Look at the wheelbarrow in the Figure below . It is used to carry heavy objects. It consists of two simple machines: a lever and a wheel and axle. Effort is applied to the lever by picking up the handles of the wheelbarrow. The lever, in turn, applies upward force to the load. The force is increased by the lever, making the load easier to lift. Effort is applied to the wheel of the wheelbarrow by pushing it over the ground. The rolling wheel turns the axle and increases the force, making it easier to push the load. Answer: lever", "output": [ "What simple machine works with a wheel and axle in a wheelbarrow?" ] }, { "id": "task594-004621ba3eac4bb7a1bdc594f5780539", "input": "Passage: Once you start eating, saliva wets the food, which makes it easier to break up and swallow. Digestive enzymes, including the enzyme amylase, start breaking down starches into sugars. Your tongue helps mix the food with the saliva and enzymes. Answer: amylase", "output": [ "Digestive enzymes, including which enzyme, start breaking down starches into sugars?" ] }, { "id": "task594-68e587fdbbd54bde8a75cd2080de3fbd", "input": "Passage: Carbon is the main element in organic compounds. Carbon can form stable bonds with many elements, including itself. Answer: carbon", "output": [ "What is the main element in organic compounds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-53bbfb4416ab4086bcc46fd88354616d", "input": "Passage: Hormonal Regulation of Metabolism Catabolic and anabolic hormones in the body help regulate metabolic processes. Catabolic hormones stimulate the breakdown of molecules and the production of energy. These include cortisol, glucagon, adrenaline/epinephrine, and cytokines. All of these hormones are mobilized at specific times to meet the needs of the body. Anabolic hormones are required for the synthesis of molecules and include growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor, insulin, testosterone, and estrogen. Table 24.1 summarizes the function of each of the catabolic hormones and Table 24.2 summarizes the functions of the anabolic hormones. Answer: metabolic processes", "output": [ "Catabolic and anabolic hormones in the body help regulate these?" ] }, { "id": "task594-67cf60e8210c4ab9bf0541e3ea0eef20", "input": "Passage: Whales and bats have the trait of echolocation. This is the ability to locate objects in the dark by bouncing sound waves off them. The most recent common ancestor of whales and bats did not have this trait. Apply lesson concepts to explain how the trait evolved in whales and bats. Answer: echolocation", "output": [ "What term is defined as the ability to locate objects in the dark by bouncing sound waves off them." ] }, { "id": "task594-0d10139e118a4cf4beed4382704b9ddf", "input": "Passage: In sexual reproduction, two gametes unite to produce an offspring. Which two gametes is a matter of chance. The union of gametes occurs randomly. Answer: gametes", "output": [ "In sexual reproduction, two of what unite to produce an offspring?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3ff0073d717e48cd85238bb5ab44476b", "input": "Passage: 25.10 The Urinary System and Homeostasis The effects of failure of parts of the urinary system may range from inconvenient (incontinence) to fatal (loss of filtration and many others). The kidneys catalyze the final reaction in the synthesis of active vitamin D that in turn helps regulate Ca++. The kidney hormone EPO stimulates erythrocyte development and promotes adequate O2 transport. The kidneys help regulate blood pressure through Na+ and water retention and loss. The kidneys work with the adrenal cortex, lungs, and liver in the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system to regulate blood pressure. They regulate osmolarity of the blood by regulating both solutes and water. Three electrolytes are more closely regulated than others: Na+, Ca++, and K+. The kidneys share pH regulation with the lungs and plasma buffers, so that proteins can preserve their three-dimensional conformation and thus their function. Answer: kidneys", "output": [ "What paired organs help regulate blood pressure through sodium ion and water retention and loss?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9b113b15aa404af2a4191149c23d8677", "input": "Passage: Soda fizzes when carbon dioxide comes out of solution. Which do you think will fizz more, warm soda or cold soda?. Answer: carbon dioxide", "output": [ "Soda fizzes when what common gas comes out of solution?" ] }, { "id": "task594-47ecd24b3089486dbcc2457e3d981e49", "input": "Passage: The branch of biology that studies animal behavior is called ethology . Ethologists usually study how animals behave in their natural environment, rather than in a lab. They generally try to answer four basic questions about the behaviors they observe:. Answer: ethology", "output": [ "What branch of biology studies animal behavior?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f243cebde2144a16b69430791ad0346f", "input": "Passage: Fossils may form in other ways. With complete preservation, the organism doesn't change much. As pictured below ( Figure below ), tree sap may cover an organism and then turn into amber . The original organism is preserved so that scientists might be able to study its DNA. Organisms can also be completely preserved in tar or ice. Answer: fossils", "output": [ "Tree sap enclosing an organism in amber or an organism preserved in tar or ice are actually examples of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9708db40ae024c24ae93a55114057226", "input": "Passage: Physiological Processes of Echinoderms Echinoderms have a unique system for gas exchange, nutrient circulation, and locomotion called the water vascular system. The system consists of a central ring canal and radial canals extending along each arm. Water circulates through these structures allowing for gas, nutrient, and waste exchange. A structure on top of the body, called the madreporite, regulates the amount of water in the water vascular system. “Tube feet,” which protrude through openings in the endoskeleton, may be expanded or contracted using the hydrostatic pressure in the system. The system allows for slow movement, but a great deal of power, as witnessed when the tube feet latch on to opposite halves of a bivalve mollusk, like a clam, and slowly, but surely pull the shells apart, exposing the flesh within. Answer: waste exchange", "output": [ "Echinoderms have a unique system for gas exchange, nutrient circulation, and locomotion called the water vascular system. the system consists of a central ring canal and radial canals extending along each arm. water circulates through these structures allowing for gas, nutrient, and this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6cfa23750e494aba9467a151715a0f06", "input": "Passage: Radon is also radioactive and can easily be inhaled into the lungs. Over time, this internal radon exposure can lead to the development of lung cancer. The incidence of lung cancer in smokers exposed to radon is much higher than that in non-smokers exposed to radon since smoking has already produced some lung damage, and the radon simply makes the damage worse. Radon exposure is highest in homes lacking good air circulation to move the gas out of the residence. There are a number of inexpensive approaches to decreasing your exposure to radon. A good start is to test your living area for radon with a radon test kit. Answer: radon", "output": [ "Smoking increases the risk of cancer from what radioactive gas that can also be detected with a test kit for your home?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4808d3e398c943c3940585703c3df2b1", "input": "Passage: Figure below shows the role of the atmosphere in the water cycle. Water vapor rises from Earth’s surface into the atmosphere. As it rises, it cools. The water vapor may then condense into water droplets and form clouds. If enough water droplets collect in clouds they may fall as rain. This how freshwater gets from the atmosphere back to Earth's surface. Answer: clouds", "output": [ "What does water vapor in the atmosphere cool and condense into?" ] }, { "id": "task594-faf30f1ce8ee43fd86884e6ade9f4596", "input": "Passage: Muscle fibers are made mostly of protein. Answer: muscle fibers", "output": [ "What type of fibers are made mostly of protein in living things?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0d3995ad84d34d679e97a6baa298d3c8", "input": "Passage: Outdoor air pollution is made of chemical particles. When smoke or other pollutants enter the air, the particles found in the pollution mix with the air. Air is polluted when it contains many large toxic particles. Outdoor air pollution changes the natural characteristics of the atmosphere. Primary pollutants are added directly to the atmosphere. Fires add primary pollutants to the air. Particles released from the fire directly enter the air and cause pollution ( Figure below ). Burning of fossil fuels such as oil and coal is a major source of primary pollutants ( Figure below ). Answer: fossil fuels", "output": [ "A major source of primary pollutants is the burning of oil and coal, which are types of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d784a06a53e64e80bdcba37a964897a3", "input": "Passage: Skeletal muscle is made up of voluntary muscles, usually attached to the skeleton. Skeletal muscles move the body. They can also contract involuntarily by reflexes. For example, you can choose to move your arm, but your arm would move automatically if you were to burn your finger on a stove top. This voluntary contraction begins with a thought process. A signal from your brain tells your muscles to contract or relax. Quickly contract and relax the muscles in your fingers a few times. Think about how quickly these signals must travel throughout your body to make this happen. Answer: reflexes", "output": [ "What normal bodily occurrence can cause skeletal muscles to involuntarily contract?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8442039e45f04a84924eea145fd704bd", "input": "Passage: A lake is an example of a freshwater biome. Water in a lake generally forms three different zones based on water depth and distance from shore. Answer: freshwater biome", "output": [ "A lake is an example of what type of biome?" ] }, { "id": "task594-20e3e68fe853476db2482c4973e2cd88", "input": "Passage: The motor division of the PNS carries nerve impulses from the central nervous system to muscles and glands throughout the body. The nerve impulses stimulate muscles to contract and glands to secrete hormones. The motor division of the peripheral nervous system is further divided into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. Answer: peripheral nervous system", "output": [ "Which system is divided into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4367f5bdd3fa4d92a5f5cf1afb9f09ce", "input": "Passage: Normally, electric charge is transferred when electrons leave the outer orbits of the atoms of one body (leaving it positively charged) and move to the surface of another body (causing the new surface to gain a negative net charge). In a plasma all electrons are stripped from the atoms, leaving positively charged ions and free electrons. Answer: matter in a sample", "output": [ "What do extensive properties depend on the amount of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f4b46864cef14291bc811555765b873b", "input": "Passage: Figure 14.25 This image depicts the structure of a perfect and complete flower. Perfect flowers carry both male and female floral organs. (credit: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villareal). Answer: perfect flowers", "output": [ "Which kind of flowers carry both male and female floral organs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5b114a44d36446e2ad06c1b7bf113af8", "input": "Passage: Nearly all biological proteins are constructed from a set of just 20 common amino acids. The names, abbreviations, and other information for each of these amino acids are presented in the Table below . Answer: biological proteins", "output": [ "Nearly all of what are constructed from a set of just 20 common amino acids?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b2f780dd4d7d4fac9e77acc282354f1a", "input": "Passage: Ulcers are sores in the lining of the stomach or duodenum that are usually caused by bacterial infections. They may also be caused by the acidic environment of the stomach. Stomach acids may damage the lining of the stomach. Symptoms typically include abdominal pain and bleeding. You can see how stomach ulcers develop at this link: http://www. youtube. com/watch?v=4bXZRgJ-1fk . Answer: ulcers", "output": [ "What are sores in the lining of the stomach or duodenum that are usually caused by bacterial infections or acidity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2d19222dcf2746709acc594fc237e8ad", "input": "Passage: Wave amplitude of a transverse wave is the difference in height between a crest and the resting position. Wave amplitude of a longitudinal wave is the distance between particles of the medium where it is compressed by the wave. Answer: a crest", "output": [ "Wave amplitude of a transverse wave is the difference in height between what and the resting position?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2c014512a1084dfaa3361d454e07eacd", "input": "Passage: Water is essential to life because biochemical reactions take place in water. Most people can survive only a few days without water. Answer: water", "output": [ "Most people can survive only a few days without what essential substance?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0ea4d4f9d5e041f6a0a6c4ce52bf680b", "input": "Passage: Evolution that occurs over a short period of time is known as microevolution . It might take place in just a couple of generations. This scale of evolution occurs at the level of the population. The Grants observed evolution at this scale in populations of Darwin’s finches. Beak size in finch populations changed in just two years because of a serious drought. Answer: microevolution", "output": [ "Evolution that occurs over a short period of time is known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-940279950a014cbb9c6f8173be30dd39", "input": "Passage: The other idea is that evolution occurs by natural selection. Natural selection is the process in which living things with beneficial traits produce more offspring than others do. This results in changes in the traits of living things over time. Answer: natural selection", "output": [ "What is the term for the process in which living things with beneficial traits produce more offspring than others do?" ] }, { "id": "task594-15b4f6e2c1e2417eb4d3f9f89ff0aa48", "input": "Passage: Atomic radii have been measured for elements. The units for atomic radii are picometers, equal to 10 -12 meters. As an example, the internuclear distance between the two hydrogen atoms in an H 2 molecule is measured to be 74 pm. Therefore, the atomic radius of a hydrogen atom is . Answer: picometers", "output": [ "What unit are atomic radii typically measured in?" ] }, { "id": "task594-82322e6831d348938c05261802a6453f", "input": "Passage: Most UTIs are not serious, but some infections can lead to serious problems. Long lasting kidney infections can cause permanent damage, including kidney scars, poor kidney function, high blood pressure, and other problems. Some sudden kidney infections can be life threatening, especially if the bacteria enter the bloodstream, a condition called septicemia. Answer: septicemia", "output": [ "When bacteria enter the bloodstream, the result is what condition?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5624d7c6e1c44c8699fd6d3b1d596c0d", "input": "Passage: An atomic bomb explodes and generates a huge mushroom cloud. The tremendous energy released when the bomb explodes is incredibly destructive. Where does all the energy come from? The answer is the nucleus of the atom. Answer: nucleus of atom", "output": [ "Where does the energy from an atomic bomb come from?" ] }, { "id": "task594-755e5410ae5e49d89c6e922a60c41c45", "input": "Passage: Light As with auditory stimuli, light travels in waves. The compression waves that compose sound must travel in a medium—a gas, a liquid, or a solid. In contrast, light is composed of electromagnetic waves and needs no medium; light can travel in a vacuum (Figure 36.16). The behavior of light can be discussed in terms of the behavior of waves and also in terms of the behavior of the fundamental unit of light—a packet of electromagnetic radiation called a photon. A glance at the electromagnetic spectrum shows that visible light for humans is just a small slice of the entire spectrum, which includes radiation that we cannot see as light because it is below the frequency of visible red light and above the frequency of visible violet light. Certain variables are important when discussing perception of light. Wavelength (which varies inversely with frequency) manifests itself as hue. Light at the red end of the visible spectrum has longer wavelengths (and is lower frequency), while light at the violet end has shorter wavelengths (and is higher frequency). The wavelength of light is expressed in nanometers (nm); one nanometer is one billionth of a meter. Humans perceive light that ranges between approximately 380 nm and 740 nm. Some other animals, though, can detect wavelengths outside of the human range. For example, bees see near-ultraviolet light in order to locate nectar guides on flowers, and some non-avian reptiles sense infrared light (heat that prey gives off). Answer: nanometers (nm)", "output": [ "What is the wavelength of light expressed in?" ] }, { "id": "task594-19fdc77677f2499898ce0f2a525abc80", "input": "Passage: Population size is the number of individuals in a population. Population density is the average number of individuals per unit of area or volume. The pattern of spacing of individuals in a population may be affected by characteristics of a species or its environment. Answer: population density", "output": [ "What is the average number of individuals per unit of area or volume called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3b9dffdba48e4af8a339faa4b23fbb7b", "input": "Passage: Wind power, a renewable resource, shown here in a modern wind energy farm. The wind is used to turn turbines that generate electricity. Answer: renewable", "output": [ "Is wind power renewable or non renewable?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c8b5ce5e9c354b3fae1f51b89ebe995c", "input": "Passage: The direction of prevailing winds determines which type of air mass usually moves over an area. For example, a west wind might bring warm moist air from over an ocean. An east wind might bring cold dry air from over a mountain range. Which wind prevails has a big effect on the climate. What if the prevailing winds are westerlies? The westerlies blow from nearer the Equator to farther from the Equator. How would they affect the climate?. Answer: air mass", "output": [ "The direction of prevailing winds determines the type of what that usually moves over an area?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3d286414b1a14b87819dddcee6c2a2e5", "input": "Passage: At equilibrium, the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction. Answer: at equilibrium", "output": [ "When is the rate of the forward reaction equal to the rate of the reverse reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b95dd1f224344d4890bc810f5152995a", "input": "Passage: Muscle tissue is made up of bands of cells that contract and allow movement. Answer: muscle tissue", "output": [ "What is made up of bands of cells that contract for movement?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2623bad869684729be586043b39f961e", "input": "Passage: a reductant or an oxidant; it is also a Lewis base. The other reactant (Cl2) is an oxidant, so we expect a redox reaction to occur in which the carbon of CO is further oxidized. Because Cl2 is a two-electron oxidant and the carbon atom of CO can be oxidized by two electrons to the +4 oxidation state, the product is phosgene (Cl2C=O). Unlike Cl2, BF3 is not a good oxidant, even though it contains boron in its highest oxidation state (+3). Nor can BF3 behave like a reductant. Like any other species with only six valence electrons, however, it is certainly a Lewis acid. Hence an acid–base reaction is the most likely alternative, especially because we know that CO can use the lone pair of electrons on carbon to act as a Lewis base. The most probable reaction is therefore the formation of a Lewis acid–base adduct. Typically, both reactants behave like reductants. Unless one of them can also behave like an oxidant, no reaction will occur. We know that Sr is an active metal because it lies far to the left in the periodic table and that it is more electropositive than carbon. Carbon is a nonmetal with a significantly higher electronegativity; it is therefore more likely to accept electrons in a redox reaction. We conclude, therefore, that Sr will be oxidized, and C will be reduced. Carbon forms ionic carbides with active metals, so the reaction will produce a species formally containing either C4− or C22−. Those that contain C4− usually involve small, highly charged metal ions, so Sr2+ will produce the acetylide (SrC2) instead. Exercise. Answer: redox reaction", "output": [ "Carbon is a nonmetal with a significantly higher electronegativity; it is therefore more likely to accept electrons in what kind of reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-34ef5c4424c844ecafe759164c07c022", "input": "Passage: motor nucleus), and their target (sensory nucleus or skeletal muscle). They are listed here with a brief explanation of each nerve (Figure 13.23). The olfactory nerve and optic nerve are responsible for the sense of smell and vision, respectively. The oculomotor nerve is responsible for eye movements by controlling four of the extraocular muscles. It is also responsible for lifting the upper eyelid when the eyes point up, and for pupillary constriction. The trochlear nerve and the abducens nerve are both responsible for eye movement, but do so by controlling different extraocular muscles. The trigeminal nerve is responsible for cutaneous sensations of the face and controlling the muscles of mastication. The facial nerve is responsible for the muscles involved in facial expressions, as well as part of the sense of taste and the production of saliva. The vestibulocochlear nerve is responsible for the senses of hearing and balance. The glossopharyngeal nerve is responsible for controlling muscles in the oral cavity and upper throat, as well as part of the sense of taste and the production of saliva. The vagus nerve is responsible for contributing to homeostatic control of the organs of the thoracic and upper abdominal cavities. The spinal accessory nerve is responsible for controlling the muscles of the neck, along with cervical spinal nerves. The hypoglossal nerve is responsible for controlling the muscles of the lower throat and tongue. Answer: balance", "output": [ "The vestibulocochlear nerve is responsible for the senses of hearing and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-53ff4d00d02647ff8bf10f6f30439c04", "input": "Passage: Osteoblasts make new bone cells and secrete collagen that mineralizes to become bone matrix. They are responsible for bone growth and the uptake of minerals from the blood. Answer: collagen", "output": [ "What do osteoblasts secrete that mineralizes to become bone matrix?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5214763394ef4e66928ca3b316076de5", "input": "Passage: The mouth also begins the process of mechanical digestion . Sharp teeth in the front of the mouth cut or tear food when you bite into it (see Figure below ). Broad teeth in the back of the mouth grind food when you chew. Food is easier to chew because it is moistened by saliva from the salivary glands. The tongue helps mix the food with saliva and also helps you swallow. After you swallow, the chewed food passes into the pharynx. Answer: mouth", "output": [ "Where does mechanical digestion begin?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fa05ffb83f394f4888218457d42b6aac", "input": "Passage: Of all vertebrates, mammals have the biggest and most complex brain for their body size (see Figure below ). The front part of the brain, called the cerebrum , is especially large in mammals. This part of the brain controls functions such as memory and learning. Answer: cerebrum", "output": [ "In a mammal the front part of the brain is called the what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e019160fd8fe48ce9ba3b61748b63144", "input": "Passage: Hydrocarbons may form straight chains, branched chains, or rings. Ring-shaped hydrocarbons are called cyclic hydrocarbons. Answer: cyclic hydrocarbons", "output": [ "What are ring-shaped hydrocarbons called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e01bd7b69b2944d9a3b19d6e61a296d5", "input": "Passage: The Earth is tilted on its axis ( Figure above ). This means that as the Earth rotates, one hemisphere has longer days with shorter nights. At the same time the other hemisphere has shorter days and longer nights. For example, in the Northern hemisphere summer begins on June 21. On this date, the North Pole is pointed directly toward the Sun. This is the longest day and shortest night of the year in the Northern Hemisphere. The South Pole is pointed away from the Sun. This means that the Southern Hemisphere experiences its longest night and shortest day ( Figure below ). Answer: axis", "output": [ "The earth is tilted on its what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-243c8e6c649248eeb856d5f0e3c64a7b", "input": "Passage: Analytical chemistry is the study of the composition of matter. It focuses on separating, identifying, and quantifying chemicals in samples of matter. An analytical chemist may use complex instruments to analyze an unknown material in order to determine its various components. Answer: analytical", "output": [ "What type of chemistry is the study of the composition of matter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-46fa896b5342439ba27c28115d0c1511", "input": "Passage: The cell wall is located outside the cell membrane. It consists mainly of cellulose and may also contain lignin, which makes it more rigid. The cell wall shapes, supports, and protects the cell. It prevents the cell from absorbing too much water and bursting. It also keeps large, damaging molecules out of the cell. Answer: outside cell membrane", "output": [ "Where is the cell wall located?" ] }, { "id": "task594-52c643eb43e4497f9d4cb23178206d58", "input": "Passage: Obesity With obesity at high rates in the United States, there is a public health focus on reducing obesity and associated health risks, which include diabetes, colon and breast cancer, and cardiovascular disease. How does the food consumed contribute to obesity? Fatty foods are calorie-dense, meaning that they have more calories per unit mass than carbohydrates or proteins. One gram of carbohydrates has four calories, one gram of protein has four calories, and one gram of fat has nine calories. Animals tend to seek lipid-rich food for their higher energy content. Greater amounts of food energy taken in than the body’s requirements will result in storage of the excess in fat deposits. Excess carbohydrate is used by the liver to synthesize glycogen. When glycogen stores are full, additional glucose is converted into fatty acids. These fatty acids are stored in adipose tissue cells—the fat cells in the mammalian body whose primary role is to store fat for later use. The rate of obesity among children is rapidly rising in the United States. To combat childhood obesity and ensure that children get a healthy start in life, in 2010 First Lady Michelle Obama launched the Let’s Move! campaign. The goal of this campaign is to educate parents and caregivers on providing healthy nutrition and encouraging active lifestyles in future generations. This program aims to involve the entire community, including parents, teachers, and healthcare providers to ensure that children have access to healthy foods—more fruits, vegetables, and whole grains—and consume fewer calories from processed foods. Another goal is to ensure that children get physical activity. With the increase in television viewing and stationary pursuits such as video games, sedentary lifestyles have become the norm. Visit www. letsmove. gov to learn more. Answer: to synthesize glycogen", "output": [ "For what purpose does liver use the excess carbohydrate?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e31e3b6b73f84b518666a459bd6956d9", "input": "Passage: The force that a magnet exerts on certain materials, including other magnets, is called magnetic force . The force is exerted over a distance and includes forces of attraction and repulsion. North and south poles of two magnets attract each other, while two north poles or two south poles repel each other. A magnet can exert force over a distance because the magnet is surrounded by a magnetic field . In the Figure below , you can see the magnetic field surrounding a bar magnet. Tiny bits of iron, called iron filings, were placed under a sheet of glass. When the magnet was placed on the glass, it attracted the iron filings. The pattern of the iron filings shows the lines of force that make up the magnetic field of the magnet. The concentration of iron filings near the poles indicates that these areas exert the strongest force. You can also see how the magnetic field affects the compasses placed above the magnet. To see an animated magnetic field of a bar magnet, go to this URL: http://micro. magnet. fsu. edu/electromag/java/magneticlines/. Answer: magnetic force", "output": [ "The force that a magnet exerts on certain materials is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8a816a82983a433d852c49b9348dba32", "input": "Passage: Earthworms are important deposit feeders that help form and enrich soil. Answer: soil", "output": [ "Earthworms are important deposit feeders that help form and enrich what material?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b3f3165816324af39574eeb960f92b01", "input": "Passage: Many elements have one or more isotopes that are radioactive. These isotopes are called radioisotopes. An example of a radioisotope is carbon-14. Answer: radioisotopes", "output": [ "What is an isotope that is radioactive called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5a2a20d98618445992c7a0b4b28dd5b9", "input": "Passage: Radiation is the transfer of energy by waves. Energy can travel as waves through air or empty space. The Sun's energy travels through space by radiation. After sunlight heats the planet's surface, some heat radiates back into the atmosphere. Answer: radiation", "output": [ "Through what form of energy transfer does the sun's energy travel?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bc7351bcd599487fbbabd92adbf495bf", "input": "Passage: The pupil is an opening in the front of the eye. It looks black because it doesn’t reflect any light. All the light passes through it instead. The pupil controls the amount of light that enters the eye. It automatically gets bigger or smaller to let more or less light in as needed. Answer: pupil", "output": [ "What is the opening in the front of the eye called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4f9bc6499f6f49b18f48479ff43dbcc2", "input": "Passage: In self-pollination , the egg is fertilized by the pollen of the same flower. Answer: self pollination", "output": [ "What is the process by which the egg is fertilized by the pollen of the same flower?" ] }, { "id": "task594-af796598985d48bdaed5fbac7d2679ae", "input": "Passage: Different seafloor magnetic stripes equal different ages. By using geologic dating techniques, scientists could figure out what these ages are. They found that the youngest rocks on the seafloor were at the mid-ocean ridges. The rocks get older with distance from the ridge crest. Scientists were surprised to find that the oldest seafloor is less than 180 million years old. This may seem old, but the oldest continental crust is around 4 billion years old. Answer: mid - ocean ridges", "output": [ "Geologists found that the youngest rocks on the seafloor were where?" ] }, { "id": "task594-31b6a20e650f4ba49cd203f2fc6febb9", "input": "Passage: When hit from behind in a car crash, a passenger can suffer a neck injury called whiplash . Explain in terms of inertia how this occurs, and how headrests can prevent the injury. Answer: whiplash", "output": [ "When hit from behind in a car crash, a passenger can suffer a neck injury called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9962d08ecf2b4cf598df78077b794e22", "input": "Passage: Metamorphism changes rocks by heat and pressure. These agents create an entirely new type of rock. Metamorphism changes rocks physically and/or chemically. Answer: metamorphism", "output": [ "Which process changes rocks by heat and pressure?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8d5b3094e65f4d1fa3bc7f89bb1eb9dd", "input": "Passage: When two or more pure substances are combined together, a mixture is formed. Unlike pure substances, mixtures have a variable composition. Variable composition indicates that the relative proportions of the mixtures components may vary, and they can be separated by physical methods. There are two main types of mixtures. Answer: variable composition", "output": [ "Unlike pure substances, mixtures have a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-47193e8b5784457caa8ad85177fe4efe", "input": "Passage: Bacteria reproduce through a process called binary fission . During binary fission, the chromosome copies itself, forming two genetically identical copies. Then, the cell enlarges and divides into two new daughter cells. The two daughter cells are identical to the parent cell. Binary fission can happen very rapidly. Some species of bacteria can double their population in less than ten minutes! This process makes it possible for a tremendous bacterial colony to start from a single cell. Answer: binary fission", "output": [ "Bacteria reproduce through what process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e439086ea6e44098bc4c39bb24f8db1d", "input": "Passage: A day or two after an ovary releases an egg, the egg may unite with a sperm. Sperm are deposited in the vagina during sexual intercourse. They propel themselves through the uterus and enter a fallopian tube . This is where fertilization usually takes place. Answer: fallopian tubes", "output": [ "Where does fertilization usually take place?" ] }, { "id": "task594-925ffe4695d9460aa9f2d3954472ae26", "input": "Passage: Metju12. Cold sores are caused by a herpes virus . Public Domain. Answer: herpes virus", "output": [ "Name the virus that causes cold sores." ] }, { "id": "task594-d71f78ad4e4e4b268efa3dd259188cc6", "input": "Passage: The basic crocodilian body plan ( Figure below ) is a very successful one and has changed little over time. Modern species actually look very similar to their Cretaceous ancestors of 84 million years ago. All species of crocodilians have similar body structures, including an elongated snout, powerful jaws, muscular tail, large protective scales, streamlined body, and eyes and nostrils that are positioned on top of the head. Answer: top of head", "output": [ "All species of crocodilians have similar body structures, including an elongated snout, powerful jaws, muscular tail, large protective scales, streamlined body, and eyes and nostrils that are positioned on what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6610514b5f6048b6aed4971f1775b154", "input": "Passage: Enzymes Enzymes, catalysts that occur naturally in living organisms, are almost all protein molecules with typical molecular masses of 20,000–100,000 amu. Some are homogeneous catalysts that react in aqueous solution within a cellular compartment of an organism. Others are heterogeneous catalysts embedded within the membranes that separate cells and cellular compartments from their surroundings. The reactant in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction is called a substrate. Because enzymes can increase reaction rates by enormous factors (up to 10 17 times the uncatalyzed rate) and tend to be very specific, typically producing only a single product in quantitative yield, they are the focus of active research. At the same time, enzymes are usually expensive to obtain, they often cease functioning at temperatures greater than 37°C, have limited stability in solution, and have such high specificity that they are confined to turning one particular set of reactants into one particular product. This means that separate processes using different enzymes must be developed for chemically similar reactions, which is time-consuming and expensive. Thus far, enzymes have found only limited industrial applications, although they are used as ingredients in laundry detergents, contact lens cleaners, and meat tenderizers. The enzymes in these applications tend to be proteases, which are able to cleave the amide bonds that hold amino acids together in proteins. Meat tenderizers, for example, contain a protease called papain, which is isolated from papaya juice. It cleaves some of the long, fibrous protein molecules that make inexpensive cuts of beef tough, producing a piece of meat that is more tender. Some insects, like the bombadier beetle, carry an enzyme capable of catalyzing the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to water (Figure 14.28 \"A Catalytic Defense Mechanism\"). Enzyme inhibitors cause a decrease in the reaction rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction by binding to a specific portion of an enzyme and thus slowing or preventing a reaction from occurring. Irreversible inhibitors are therefore the equivalent of poisons in heterogeneous catalysis. One of the oldest and most Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: enzymes", "output": [ "What are the catalysts that occur naturally in living organisms and are primarily protein molecules?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f18e1706840a43b08982f3ccf9d5782a", "input": "Passage: Galvanic cells have positive cell potentials, and all the reduction reactions are reversible. The reaction at the anode will be the half-reaction with the smaller or more negative standard reduction potential. Reversing the reaction at the anode (to show the oxidation) but not its standard reduction potential gives: Anode (oxidation):. Answer: galvanic cells", "output": [ "What kind of cells have positive cell potentials, and all the reduction reactions are reversible?" ] }, { "id": "task594-91befb2f4a114c2a87575ae5cf6678e5", "input": "Passage: Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist a change in its motion. All objects have inertia, whether they are stationary or moving. Inertia explains Newton’s first law of motion, which states that an object at rest will remain at rest and an object in motion will stay in motion unless it is acted on by an unbalanced force. That’s why Newton’s first law of motion is sometimes called the law of inertia. You can see an animation of inertia at this URL:. Answer: inertia", "output": [ "The tendency of an object to resist a change in its motion is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e43129600ba5482786a4edf167a68392", "input": "Passage: Almost all plants make food by photosynthesis. Only about 1 percent of the estimated 300,000 species of plants have lost the ability to photosynthesize. These other species are consumers, many of them predators. How do plants prey on other organisms? The Venus fly trap in Figure below shows one way this occurs. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "What is the process by which almost all plants make food?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0c46ecd2c5394553a4bb9d3657577ec9", "input": "Passage: Convection in the mantle drives the movement of the plates of lithosphere over the Earth’s surface. New oceanic crust forms at the ridge and pushes the older seafloor away from the ridge horizontally. Answer: mantle", "output": [ "Convection in which part of the earth drives the movement of the plates of lithosphere over the earth’s surface?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d98de1153793455190431df96b4728c7", "input": "Passage: Brewers of beer and wine use yeast to add alcohol to beverages. Traditional varieties of yeast not only make but also limit the quantity of alcohol in these beverages, because above 18% by volume, alcohol becomes toxic to the yeast itself. Wine is produced by fermentation of the natural sugars present in grapes and other kinds of fruit. Beer, whiskey, and vodka are produced by fermentation of grain starches that have been converted to sugar by the enzyme amylase, and rum is produced by fermentation of sugarcane. In each of these fermentations, sugars are converted into small amounts of ATP, using and regenerating NAD + in the process, and producing ethanol and carbon dioxide. Scientists have recently developed new strains of yeast which can tolerate up to 25% alcohol by volume. These are used primarily in the production of ethanol fuel. Answer: to make alcohol", "output": [ "Why do beer brewers add yeast to the wort?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b1a091183c1943ecb1a489c927d8236c", "input": "Passage: Modern nonvascular plants are called bryophytes. There are about 17,000 bryophyte species. They include liverworts, hornworts, and mosses. Mosses are the most numerous group of bryophytes. You can see an example of moss in Figure below . Like the moss in the figure, most bryophytes are small. They lack not only vascular tissues. They also lack true roots, leaves, seeds, and flowers. Bryophytes live in moist habitats. Without the adaptations of vascular plants, bryophytes are not very good at absorbing water. They also need water to reproduce. Answer: bryophytes", "output": [ "What is the term for plants that lack vascular tissues, roots, leaves, seeds, and flowers?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b966717d473a48c4b22202b410fc3ce1", "input": "Passage: An addition reaction is a reaction in which an atom or molecule is added to an unsaturated molecule, making a single product . An addition reaction can be thought of as adding a molecule across the double or triple bond of an alkene or alkyne. Addition reactions are useful ways to introduce a new functional group into an organic molecule. Answer: an addition reaction", "output": [ "What is a reaction in which an atom or molecule is added to an unsaturated molecule, making a single product?" ] }, { "id": "task594-67b606a73ac1447cb0604339f604f4f1", "input": "Passage: Some mutations have a positive effect on the organism in which they occur. They are called beneficial mutations. They lead to new versions of proteins that help organisms adapt to changes in their environment. Beneficial mutations are essential for evolution to occur. They increase an organism’s changes of surviving or reproducing, so they are likely to become more common over time. There are several well-known examples of beneficial mutations. Here are just two:. Answer: beneficial mutations", "output": [ "Some mutations lead to new versions of proteins that help organisms adapt to changes in their environment and are essential for evolution to occur. what are these mutations known as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eefb80bd1e08490ea881dd7ba24ef93b", "input": "Passage: Earth is just a tiny speck in the Universe. Our planet is surrounded by lots of space. Light travels across empty space. Light is the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum . Astronomers use the light and other energy that comes to us to gather information about the Universe. Answer: light", "output": [ "What is the term for the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a48f3443af824fb097d26fbf34337d69", "input": "Passage: All chemical reactions, even exothermic reactions, need activation energy to get started. Activation energy is needed to bring reactants together so they can react. Answer: activation energy", "output": [ "What do all chemical reactions need to get started?" ] }, { "id": "task594-77a13c9f9c964d80a33fcfb477f80998", "input": "Passage: Figure 2.43 Positions and velocities of a metal ball released from rest when air resistance is negligible. Velocity is seen to increase linearly with time while displacement increases with time squared. Acceleration is a constant and is equal to gravitational acceleration. Answer: acceleration", "output": [ "If a ball is released from rest when air resistance is negligible, velocity is seen to increase linearly, while what related property is a constant?" ] }, { "id": "task594-74dfd42db1fc46eb8d425e7eccd42e0b", "input": "Passage: A metal is an element that is a good conductor of heat and electricity. Metals are also malleable, which means that they can be hammered into very thin sheets without breaking, and ductile, which means that they can be drawn into wires. When a fresh surface of any metal is exposed, it will be very shiny, because it reflects light well. This property is referred to as luster. All metals are solid at room temperature except mercury (Hg), which is a liquid. The melting points of different metals vary widely. Mercury has the lowest melting point of all pure metals (−39°C), and tungsten (W) has the highest (3422°C). On the periodic table in Figure above , the metals are shaded blue and are located to the left of the bold stair-step line. About 80 percent of the elements are metals (see examples in Figure below ). Answer: mercury", "output": [ "Which metal is not a solid even at room temperature?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e7e0ba5f559d45e48b0fa771259c9cb6", "input": "Passage: Visible light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Answer: electromagnetic spectrum", "output": [ "Visible light is part of what spectrum?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b47147f9a60045dca2c2d1c0b547e19e", "input": "Passage: In Chapter 2 \"Molecules, Ions, and Chemical Formulas\" and Chapter 5 \"Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions\", you were introduced to several structural units that chemists use to classify organic compounds and predict their reactivities. Thesefunctional groups, which determine the chemical reactivity of a molecule under a given set of conditions, can consist of a single atom (such as Cl) or a group of atoms (such as CO2H). The major families of organic compounds are characterized by their functional groups. Figure 24.1 \"Major Classes of Organic Compounds\" summarizes five families introduced in earlier chapters, gives examples of compounds that contain each functional group, and lists the suffix or prefix used in the systematic nomenclature of compounds that contain each functional group. Answer: their functional groups", "output": [ "How are the major families of organic compounds characterized?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c627403eb11e41fe95deb9eb15522744", "input": "Passage: Acceleration is a measure of the change in velocity of a moving object. It measures the rate at which velocity changes. Velocity, in turn, is a measure of the speed and direction of motion, so a change in velocity may reflect a change in speed, a change in direction, or both. Both velocity and acceleration are vectors. A vector is any measurement that has both size and direction. People commonly think of acceleration as in increase in speed, but a decrease in speed is also acceleration. In this case, acceleration is negative and called deceleration. A change in direction without a change in speed is acceleration as well. Answer: acceleration", "output": [ "What is the term for the rate at which velocity changes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-aff1e24c963843c9a1c336bfc4db2c28", "input": "Passage: During a massive eruption, all of the material may be ejected from a magma changer. Without support, the mountain above the empty chamber may collapse. This produces a huge caldera . Calderas are generally round, bowl-shaped formations ( Figure below ). Answer: magma", "output": [ "Huge calderas form when the mountain above an empty chamber of what collapses?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ca748d7dd5cc4b04bd531caa43894ab0", "input": "Passage: Cutting down on the use of chemical fertilizers is one way to prevent dead zones in bodies of water. Preserving wetlands is also important. Wetlands are habitats such as swamps, marshes, and bogs where the ground is soggy or covered with water much of the year. Wetlands slow down and filter runoff before it reaches bodies of water. Wetlands also provide breeding grounds for many different species of organisms. Answer: dead zones", "output": [ "Cutting down on the use of chemical fertilizers and preserving wetlands are ways to prevent what \"unlivable\" regions in bodies of water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8b2ae6e9b1a643a3a0d4a41bd6e3b237", "input": "Passage: Aerobic exercise helps improve the cardiovascular system, while anaerobic exercise causes muscles to get bigger and stronger. Answer: anaerobic", "output": [ "Aerobic exercise helps improve the cardiovascular system, while what exercise causes muscles to get bigger and stronger?" ] }, { "id": "task594-80b628a257a04daea420d2d784b64748", "input": "Passage: Snow and ice may also undergo sublimation under certain conditions. This is most likely to happen where there is intense sunlight, very cold temperatures, and dry winds. These conditions are often found on mountain peaks. As snow sublimates, it gradually shrinks without any runoff of liquid water. At the URL below, you can watch a time-lapse video showing sublimation of snow on the highest mountain in the Andes. Answer: sublimation", "output": [ "Snow and ice may also undergo which process where there is intense sunlight, very cold temperatures, and dry winds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-29a4856235b542e1a1cef1c073b2b793", "input": "Passage: Wind energy is energy provided by the blowing wind. Wind turbines, like those in Figure above , can turn wind energy into electricity. The wind blows because of differences in heating of Earth’s atmosphere by the sun. There will never be a shortage of wind. Answer: electricy", "output": [ "What do wind turbines turn wind energy into?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b79ff967491e431d9aa541a1c4334d65", "input": "Passage: Worldwide, the most common disease caused by bacteria is tuberculosis (TB). TB is a serious disease of the lungs. Another common disease caused by bacteria is strep throat. You may have had strep throat yourself. Bacteria that cause strep throat are shown below ( Figure below ). Some types of pneumonia and many cases of illnesses from food are also caused by bacteria. Answer: bacteria", "output": [ "What type of organism causes many common diseases such as strep throat and food-borne illnesses?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ac876ba5559d4f22b30fcc2da244ab23", "input": "Passage: Earth and the other planets in the solar system make elliptical orbits around the Sun. The ellipses in this image are highly exaggerated. Answer: elliptical orbits", "output": [ "What do earth and the other planets in the solar system make around the sun?" ] }, { "id": "task594-36c411d1b32a4d58a5852566f7cecd02", "input": "Passage: There is a great deal of evidence that the Universe started with a big bang. The Big Bang theory is the most widely accepted cosmological explanation of how the Universe formed. Think about the expanding Universe, then reverse it. If we start at the present and go back into the past, the Universe gets smaller. What is the end result of a contracting Universe? A point. Answer: big bang theory", "output": [ "What do we call the most widely accepted cosmological explanation of how the universe formed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-511e4708e5264990a5eabbb7954897cc", "input": "Passage: Communities are made up of populations of different species. In biology, a population is a group of organisms of the same species that live in the same area. The population is the unit of natural selection and evolution. How large a population is and how fast it is growing are often used as measures of its health. Answer: population", "output": [ "What do you call a group of organisms of the same species that live in the same area?" ] }, { "id": "task594-97310e787ab6452f8fe0a27cdc1c62ad", "input": "Passage: An experiment generally tests how one variable is affected by another. The affected variable is called the dependent variable . In the plant experiment shown above, the dependent variable is plant growth. The variable that affects the dependent variable is called the independent variable . In the plant experiment, the independent variable could be fertilizer—some plants will get fertilizer, others will not. The scientists change the amount of the independent variable (the fertilizer) to observe the effects on the dependent variable (plant growth). An experiment needs to be run simultaneously in which no fertilizer is given to the plant. This would be known as a control experiment. In any experiment, other factors that might affect the dependent variable must be controlled. In the plant experiment, what factors do you think should be controlled? ( Hint: What other factors might affect plant growth?). Answer: dependent variable", "output": [ "In an experiment, what is the affected variable called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-daaa09930ef94d73bd19fcd6f961c61f", "input": "Passage: Minerals are divided into groups. The groups are based on their chemical composition. Answer: chemical composition", "output": [ "Minerals are grouped based on what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fcef3c791e3d445bb44ddaaf8436a72b", "input": "Passage: Nuclear power is a controversial subject in California and most other places. Nuclear power has no pollutants including no carbon emissions. However, power plants are not always safe. The long-term disposal of wastes is a problem that has not yet been solved. The future of nuclear power is murky. Find out more at: http://science. kqed. org/quest/audio/new-nuclear/. Answer: nuclear", "output": [ "What kind of power does not produce any pollutants, but produces waste that can be difficult to dispose of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-018f4fe7921f42a58f35d5f773967190", "input": "Passage: Coal is a solid hydrocarbon formed from decaying plant material over millions of years. Answer: plant", "output": [ "Coal is a solid hydrocarbon formed from what type of decaying material?" ] }, { "id": "task594-52454eb0bb574a35ac6878b045d01bf9", "input": "Passage: Chemistry in Everyday Life CERN Particle Accelerator Located near Geneva, the CERN (“Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire,” or European Council for Nuclear Research) Laboratory is the world’s premier center for the investigations of the fundamental particles that make up matter. It contains the 27-kilometer (17 mile) long, circular Large Hadron Collider (LHC), the largest particle accelerator in the world (Figure 21.13). In the LHC, particles are boosted to high energies and are then made to collide with each other or with stationary targets at nearly the speed of light. Superconducting electromagnets are used to produce a strong magnetic field that guides the particles around the ring. Specialized, purpose-built detectors observe and record the results of these collisions, which are then analyzed by CERN scientists using powerful computers. Answer: particle accelerator", "output": [ "The large hadron collider is the biggest type of what invention, which boosts particles to high energies?" ] }, { "id": "task594-759baa61fceb4cdda29053e25aaf631f", "input": "Passage: In anaphase I, the spindle fibers pull the linked chromosomes apart. The sister chromatids remain tightly bound together at the centromere. It is the chiasma connections that are broken in anaphase I as the fibers attached to the fused kinetochores pull the homologous chromosomes apart (Figure 7.5). In telophase I, the separated chromosomes arrive at opposite poles. The remainder of the typical telophase events may or may not occur depending on the species. In some organisms, the chromosomes decondense and nuclear envelopes form around the chromatids in telophase I. Cytokinesis, the physical separation of the cytoplasmic components into two daughter cells, occurs without reformation of the nuclei in other organisms. In nearly all species, cytokinesis separates the cell contents by either a cleavage furrow (in animals and some fungi), or a cell plate that will ultimately lead to formation of cell walls that separate the two daughter cells (in plants). At each pole, there is just one member of each pair of the homologous chromosomes, so only one full set of the chromosomes is present. This is why the cells are considered haploid—there is only one chromosome set, even though there are duplicate copies of the set because each homolog still consists of two sister chromatids that are still attached to each other. However, although the sister chromatids were once duplicates of the same chromosome, they are no longer identical at this stage because of crossovers. Answer: linked chromosomes", "output": [ "Spindle fibers pull what apart in anaphase i?" ] }, { "id": "task594-99bf5f8137204a608db3539bb2ed0c88", "input": "Passage: Amines are weak bases due to the presence of a lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom. This lone pair can attract the hydrogen atom from a water molecule, causing the bond between it and the oxygen atom to break. The resultant products are the conjugate acid of the amine and the hydroxide ion. Answer: electrons", "output": [ "Amines are weak bases due to the presence of a lone pair of what on the nitrogen atom?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1a6d4d5e19984bc086473dd673369c1e", "input": "Passage: Materials that have low resistance to electric current are called electric conductors . Many metals—including copper, aluminum, and steel—are good conductors of electricity. Water that has even a tiny amount of impurities in it is an electric conductor as well. Answer: electric conductors", "output": [ "Water and many metals are materials that have low resistance to electric currents and are therefore known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-59837340aca54c3c8ab66ab62ad26c32", "input": "Passage: Neural Regulation The nervous system plays a critical role in the regulation of vascular homeostasis. The primary regulatory sites include the cardiovascular centers in the brain that control both cardiac and vascular functions. In addition, more generalized neural responses from the limbic system and the autonomic nervous system are factors. Answer: nervous system", "output": [ "What system plays a critical role in the regulation of vascular homeostasis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d706d97ed1e947f0a5817068fc2b9409", "input": "Passage: The first eight phyla listed in Table above include only invertebrate animals. Invertebrates are animals that lack a vertebral column , or backbone . The last phylum in the table, the Chordata, also includes many invertebrate species. Tunicates and lancelets are both invertebrates. Altogether, invertebrates make up at least 95 percent of all animal species. The remaining animals are vertebrates. Vertebrates are animals that have a backbone. All vertebrates belong to the phylum Chordata . They include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Answer: vertebrates", "output": [ "What is the term for animals that have a backbone?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0922ef13fbfc42ceb8f1fcffaa2e05ad", "input": "Passage: The focus of an earthquake is in the ground where the ground breaks. The epicenter is the point at the surface just above the focus. Answer: the focus", "output": [ "Which part of an earthquake is in the ground where the ground breaks?" ] }, { "id": "task594-611291717abf46d887541e66860293b6", "input": "Passage: In some countries, birth rates have fallen even lower than death rates. As result, their population growth rates are negative. In other words, the populations are shrinking in size. These populations have top-heavy population pyramids, like the one for Italy shown in Figure below . This is a new stage of the demographic transition, referred to as Stage 5. You might think that a negative growth rate would be a good thing. In fact, it may cause problems. For example, growth-dependent industries decline. Supporting the large aging population is also a burden for the shrinking younger population of workers. Answer: negative growth rate", "output": [ "What results when birth rates fall even lower than death rates?" ] }, { "id": "task594-66d16bc0d0954b938e6323045f2fc36c", "input": "Passage: Nobody really has such colorful eyes! The colors were added digitally after the photo was taken. They represent all the different colors of light. Light is a form of energy that travels in waves. Light of different colors has different wavelengths. Answer: wavelengths", "output": [ "Different colors of light differ in terms of which important attribute?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4d538a359e4c46e7a01b0b0498db12f9", "input": "Passage: Human senses include sight, hearing, balance, taste, smell, and touch. Answer: senses", "output": [ "Sight, hearing, balance, taste, smell, and touch are types of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-35f429d514cd424295ecf2f9d260dc8a", "input": "Passage: Chapter 30 1 Figure 30.7 A and B. The cortex, pith, and epidermis are made of parenchyma cells. 3 Figure 30.34 B. 4 C 6 C 8 A 10 B 12 A 14 B 16 C 18 B 20 D 22 C 24 C 26 C 27 Lawn grasses and other monocots have an intercalary meristem, which is a region of meristematic tissue at the base of the leaf blade. This is beneficial to the plant because it can continue to grow even when the tip of the plant is removed by grazing or mowing. 29 Stomata allow gases to enter and exit the plant. Guard cells regulate the opening and closing of stomata. If these cells did not function correctly, a plant could not get the carbon dioxide needed for photosynthesis, nor could it release the oxygen produced by photosynthesis. 31 In woody plants, the cork cambium is the outermost lateral meristem; it produces new cells towards the interior, which enables the plant to increase in girth. The cork cambium also produces cork cells towards the exterior, which protect the plant from physical damage while reducing water loss. 33 Annual rings can also indicate the climate conditions that prevailed during each growing season. 35 A tap root system. Answer: gases", "output": [ "Regulated by guard cells, stomata allow what to enter and exit the plant?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6e98809967974b7fa3079f1788665086", "input": "Passage: Types of Receptors Receptors are protein molecules in the target cell or on its surface that bind ligand. There are two types of receptors, internal receptors and cell-surface receptors. Internal receptors Internal receptors, also known as intracellular or cytoplasmic receptors, are found in the cytoplasm of the cell and respond to hydrophobic ligand molecules that are able to travel across the plasma membrane. Once inside the cell, many of these molecules bind to proteins that act as regulators of mRNA synthesis (transcription) to mediate gene expression. Gene expression is the cellular process of transforming the information in a cell's DNA into a sequence of amino acids, which ultimately forms a protein. When the ligand binds to the internal receptor, a conformational change is triggered that exposes a DNA-binding site on the protein. The ligand-receptor complex moves into the nucleus, then binds to specific regulatory regions of the chromosomal DNA and promotes the initiation of transcription (Figure 9.4). Transcription is the process of copying the information in a cells DNA into a special form of RNA called messenger RNA (mRNA); the cell uses information in the mRNA (which moves out into the cytoplasm and associates with ribosomes) to link specific amino acids in the correct order, producing a protein. Internal receptors can directly influence gene expression without having to pass the signal on to other receptors or messengers. Answer: internal", "output": [ "What type of receptors, also known as intracellular or cytoplasmic receptors, are found in the cytoplasm of the cell and respond to hydrophobic ligand molecules that are able to travel across the plasma membrane?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9c038a0d5d1f4b228298b37be0af40d2", "input": "Passage: Caecilians The caecilian order is the amphibian order with the fewest species. Caecilians are closely related to salamanders. They have a long, worm-like body. They are the only amphibians without legs. Caecilians evolved from a four-legged ancestor but lost their legs later in their evolution. As adults, they often burrow into the soil. That’s one reason why Caecilians tend to be less well known than other amphibians. microcaecilia. Answer: caecilians", "output": [ "What are the only amphibians without legs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8d5b25d2eb834bbc9c134845dd39e93f", "input": "Passage: There is a second distinction between the types of cleavage in protostomes and deuterostomes. In addition to spiral cleavage, protostomes also undergo determinate cleavage. This means that even at this early stage, the developmental fate of each embryonic cell is already determined. A cell does not have the ability to develop into any cell type. In contrast, deuterostomes undergo indeterminate cleavage, in which cells are not yet pre-determined at this early stage to develop into specific cell types. These cells are referred to as undifferentiated cells. This characteristic of deuterostomes is reflected in the existence of familiar embryonic stem cells, which have the ability to develop into any cell type until their fate is programmed at a later developmental stage. Answer: determinate", "output": [ "In addition to spiral cleavage, protostomes also undergo which other form of cleavage?" ] }, { "id": "task594-09fadacbe9cb4bf4b82112390d38b9fd", "input": "Passage: As for methane and ammonia, the domain geometry for a molecule with four electron pairs is tetrahedral. In the water molecule, two of the electron pairs are lone pairs rather than bonding pairs. The molecular geometry of the water molecule is bent. The H-O-H bond angle is 104.5°, which is smaller than the bond angle in NH 3 (see Figure below ). Answer: tetrahedral", "output": [ "The domain geometry for a molecule with four electron pairs is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9121f498e0e44313b0f749057bf0f882", "input": "Passage: The atmospheric pressure is converted from kPa to mmHg in order to match units with the table. The sum of the pressures of the hydrogen and the water vapor is equal to the atmospheric pressure. The pressure of the hydrogen is found by subtraction. Then, the volume of the gas at STP can be calculated by using the combined gas law. Answer: atmospheric pressure", "output": [ "The sum of the pressures of the hydrogen and the water vapor is equal to what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-82d753427fb14a3d9e35db8f0010d107", "input": "Passage: Venous Drainage of the Brain Circulation to the brain is both critical and complex (see Figure 20.37). Many smaller veins of the brain stem and the superficial veins of the cerebrum lead to larger vessels referred to as intracranial sinuses. These include the superior and inferior sagittal sinuses, straight sinus, cavernous sinuses, left and right sinuses, the petrosal sinuses, and the occipital sinuses. Ultimately, sinuses will lead back to either the inferior jugular vein or vertebral vein. Most of the veins on the superior surface of the cerebrum flow into the largest of the sinuses, the superior sagittal sinus. It is located midsagittally between the meningeal and periosteal layers of the dura mater within the falx cerebri and, at first glance in images or models, can be mistaken for the subarachnoid space. Most reabsorption of cerebrospinal fluid occurs via the chorionic villi (arachnoid granulations) into the superior sagittal sinus. Blood from most of the smaller vessels originating from the inferior cerebral veins flows into the great cerebral vein and into the straight sinus. Other cerebral veins and those from the eye socket flow into the cavernous sinus, which flows into the petrosal sinus and then into the internal jugular vein. The occipital sinus, sagittal sinus, and straight sinuses all flow into the left and right transverse sinuses near the lambdoid suture. The transverse sinuses in turn flow into the sigmoid sinuses that pass through the jugular foramen and into the internal jugular vein. The internal jugular vein flows parallel to the common carotid artery and is more or less its counterpart. It empties into the brachiocephalic vein. The veins draining the cervical vertebrae and the posterior surface of the skull, including some blood from the occipital sinus, flow into the vertebral veins. These parallel the vertebral arteries and travel through the transverse foramina of the cervical vertebrae. The vertebral veins also flow into the brachiocephalic veins. Table 20.13 summarizes the major veins of the brain. Answer: superior sagittal sinus", "output": [ "What is the largest of the sinuses?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ce9e731219bd4ec69cf56cb446e39aff", "input": "Passage: Flowers and Fruits as an Evolutionary Adaptation Angiosperms produce their gametes in separate organs, which are usually housed in a flower. Both fertilization and embryo development take place inside an anatomical structure that provides a stable system of sexual reproduction largely sheltered from environmental fluctuations. Flowering plants are the most diverse phylum on Earth after insects; flowers come in a bewildering array of sizes, shapes, colors, smells, and arrangements. Most flowers have a mutualistic pollinator, with the distinctive features of flowers reflecting the nature of the pollination agent. The relationship between pollinator and flower characteristics is one of the great examples of coevolution. Following fertilization of the egg, the ovule grows into a seed. The surrounding tissues of the ovary thicken, developing into a fruit that will protect the seed and often ensure its dispersal over a wide geographic range. Not all fruits develop from an ovary; such structures are “false fruits. ” Like flowers, fruit can vary tremendously in appearance, size, smell, and taste. Tomatoes, walnut shells and avocados are all examples of fruit. As with pollen and seeds, fruits also act as agents of dispersal. Some may be carried away by the wind. Many attract animals that will eat the fruit and pass the seeds through their digestive systems, then deposit the seeds in another location. Cockleburs are covered with stiff, hooked spines that can hook into fur (or clothing) and hitch a ride on an animal for long distances. The cockleburs that clung to the velvet trousers of an enterprising Swiss hiker, George de Mestral, inspired his invention of the loop and hook fastener he named Velcro. Answer: flowers", "output": [ "Angiosperms produce their gametes in separate organs, which are usually housed in these?" ] }, { "id": "task594-16df90745c754187a3cf15a19701580e", "input": "Passage: Absorption The mechanical and digestive processes have one goal: to convert food into molecules small enough to be absorbed by the epithelial cells of the intestinal villi. The absorptive capacity of the alimentary canal is almost endless. Each day, the alimentary canal processes up to 10 liters of food, liquids, and GI secretions, yet less than one liter enters the large intestine. Almost all ingested food, 80 percent of electrolytes, and 90 percent of water are absorbed in the small intestine. Although the entire small intestine is involved in the absorption of water and lipids, most absorption of carbohydrates and proteins occurs in the jejunum. Notably, bile salts and vitamin B12 are absorbed in the terminal ileum. By the time chyme passes from the ileum into the large intestine, it is essentially indigestible food residue (mainly plant fibers like cellulose), some water, and millions of bacteria (Figure 23.32). Answer: intestinal villi", "output": [ "The mechanical and digestive processes have one goal: to convert food into molecules small enough to be absorbed by the epithelial cells of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c664f100089444219d4254f3735f1996", "input": "Passage: Electron Shells and the Bohr Model It should be stressed that there is a connection between the number of protons in an element, the atomic number that distinguishes one element from another, and the number of electrons it has. In all electrically neutral atoms, the number of electrons is the same as the number of protons. Thus, each element, at least when electrically neutral, has a characteristic number of electrons equal to its atomic number. An early model of the atom was developed in 1913 by Danish scientist Niels Bohr (1885–1962). The Bohr model shows the atom as a central nucleus containing protons and neutrons, with the electrons in circular orbitals at specific distances from the nucleus, as illustrated in Figure 2.6. These orbits form electron shells or energy levels, which are a way of visualizing the number of electrons in the outermost shells. These energy levels are designated by a number and the symbol “n. ” For example, 1n represents the first energy level located closest to the nucleus. Answer: protons", "output": [ "What is the number of electrons equal to in every electrically neutral atom?" ] }, { "id": "task594-89f898d967fc4f46aec7e81e5548deb5", "input": "Passage: Today, we known that characteristics of organisms are controlled by genes on chromosomes (see Figure below ). The position of a gene on a chromosome is called its locus . In sexually reproducing organisms, each individual has two copies of the same gene, as there are two versions of the same chromosome ( homologous chromosomes ). One copy comes from each parent. The gene for a characteristic may have different versions, but the different versions are always at the same locus. The different versions are called alleles . For example, in pea plants, there is a purple-flower allele ( B ) and a white-flower allele ( b ). Different alleles account for much of the variation in the characteristics of organisms. Answer: gene", "output": [ "Locus refers to the position of what on a chromosome, which controls the characteristics of an organism?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fb860d6029e34e91b7beb7f64d25d9ab", "input": "Passage: The heart of a resting adult pumps blood at a rate of 5.00 3 L/min. (a) Convert this to cm /s . (b) What is this rate in m 3 /s ? 3. Blood is pumped from the heart at a rate of 5.0 L/min into the aorta (of radius 1.0 cm). Determine the speed of blood through the aorta. Blood is flowing through an artery of radius 2 mm at a rate of 40 cm/s. Determine the flow rate and the volume that passes through the artery in a period of 30 s. The Huka Falls on the Waikato River is one of New Zealand’s most visited natural tourist attractions (see Figure 12.29). On average the river has a flow rate of about 300,000 L/s. At the gorge, the river narrows to 20 m wide and averages 20 m deep. (a) What is the average speed of the river in the gorge? (b) What is the average speed of the water in the river downstream of the falls when it widens to 60 m and its depth increases to an average of 40 m?. Answer: pump blood", "output": [ "What does the human heart do?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cf9ebaf11cbe48ed91d5635ba81edb1c", "input": "Passage: Hearing loss due to loud sounds can be prevented by wearing hearing protectors. They reduce the amplitude of sound waves entering the ears. Answer: hearing protectors", "output": [ "Wearing what will reduce the amplitude of sound waves entering the ears?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7925265165df4175a3c65db2a6a4de4d", "input": "Passage: Large stars burn through their supply of hydrogen very quickly. These stars “live fast and die young!” A very large star may only be on the main sequence for 10 million years. A very small star could remain on the main sequence for tens to hundreds of billions of years—far longer than the current age of our Universe. Answer: 10 million years", "output": [ "How long can a large star be on the main sequence stage?" ] }, { "id": "task594-831db31b505d4208b492bf1668f4b01a", "input": "Passage: Ozone near the ground harms human health. Ground-level ozone is a pollutant. But the ozone layer in the stratosphere protects us from harmful solar rays. That’s why people were alarmed in the 1980s to learn that there was a hole in the ozone layer. Answer: 1980s", "output": [ "When did we learn there was a hole in the ozone layer?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4e2bebdcdb204443ae6c5619873f12b9", "input": "Passage: Water on Earth is billions of years old. However, individual water molecules keep moving through the water cycle. The water cycle is a global cycle. It takes place on, above, and below Earth’s surface, as shown in Figure below . Answer: water cycle", "output": [ "What global cycle takes place on, above, and below earth’s surface?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e5d3f94bad1344ed83ec3ea2961f8c3c", "input": "Passage: Toxic heavy metals include mercury and lead. Mercury is used in some industrial processes. It is also found in fluorescent light bulbs. Lead was once widely used in gasoline, paint, and pipes. It is still found in some products. Answer: toxic heavy metals", "output": [ "Mercury and lead, which was once widely used in paint and gasoline, are examples of what type of metals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ea8bdf5ca5484e2eafcae4e3bf9dcc2f", "input": "Passage: Today, some 1,200 species of birds are threatened with extinction by human actions. Humans need to take steps to protect this precious and important natural resource. What can you do to help?. Answer: birds", "output": [ "Around 1200 species of what broad animal group are currently at risk of extinction due to human activity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f2f7f321bb264987a9bc8956d32fe6c2", "input": "Passage: Enzymes are proteins that speed up biochemical reactions in cells. Antibodies are proteins that target pathogens for destruction. Answer: enzymes", "output": [ "What are the proteins called that speed up biochemical reactions in cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b73d684fdf61449fb0e5b30c8e6e07b0", "input": "Passage: Figure 15.12 Trypanosoma brucei is the causative agent of sleeping sickness in humans. The mRNAs of this pathogen must be modified by the addition of nucleotides before protein synthesis can occur. (credit: modification of work by Torsten Ochsenreiter). Answer: trypanosoma brucei", "output": [ "What is the causative agent of sleeping sickness in humans?" ] }, { "id": "task594-252ea76836444e7da2e03c0c3c91eb7b", "input": "Passage: There are 20 common amino acids in proteins. There are 64 possible codons, more than enough to code for the 20 amino acids. The genetic code is shown in Figure below . To see how scientists cracked the genetic code, go to this link: http://www. dnalc. org/view/16494-Animation-22-DNA-words-are-three-letters-long-. html . Answer: amino acids", "output": [ "Proteins include 20 common types of what compounds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4b4c67fb42484bb88de5664c4499ad57", "input": "Passage: If an ore is deep below Earth’s surface it may be too expensive to remove all the rock above it. These deposits are taken by underground mining. Underground mines can be very deep. The deepest gold mine in South Africa is more than 3,700 m deep (that is more than 2 miles)! There are various methods of underground mining. Underground mining is more expensive than surface mining. Tunnels must be blasted into the rock so that miners and equipment can get to the ore. Underground mining is dangerous work. Fresh air and lights must be brought in to the tunnels for the miners. The miners breathe in lots of particles and dust while they are underground. The ore is drilled, blasted, or cut away from the surrounding rock and taken out of the tunnels. Sometimes there are explosions as ore is being drilled or blasted. This can lead to a mine collapse. Miners may be hurt or killed in a mining accident. Answer: underground mining", "output": [ "In what type of mining must tunnels be blasted into the rock so that miners and equipment can get to the ore?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6910bd9a702945d18ab3da42fca79ce2", "input": "Passage: Resistors in an AC Circuit Just as a reminder, consider Figure 23.47, which shows an AC voltage applied to a resistor and a graph of voltage and current versus time. The voltage and current are exactly in phase in a resistor. There is no frequency dependence to the behavior of plain resistance in a circuit:. Answer: resistor", "output": [ "The voltage and current are exactly in phase in a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6bd112c2629d44cca45c45667765e2f1", "input": "Passage: One important characteristic that determines the way in which elements behave is the total size of each atom. Free atoms are spherical in shape, so the relative sizes of the elements can be compared by looking at each atom's atomic radius , which is the distance from an atom's nucleus to the electrons in the outermost orbitals. You might expect atoms to generally grow larger as they go up in atomic number (which is equal to the total number of electrons in the neutral atom). Indeed, if you look at a single group of the periodic table, this trend holds true. Iodine is larger than bromine, which is in turn larger than chlorine and fluorine. In the case of a single group, each successive row places electrons in a higher principal energy level. Since higher energy levels are farther from the nucleus on average, this results in a larger total volume occupied by the atom. Answer: radius", "output": [ "Free atoms are spherical in shape, so the relative sizes of the elements can be compared by looking at each atom's atomic what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9cce8ade3ab74459be4dcb948b307a6a", "input": "Passage: Centrioles are organelles that are found only in animal cells. They are located near the nucleus. They help organize the DNA in the nucleus before cell division takes place. They ensure that the DNA divides correctly when the cell divides. Answer: centrioles", "output": [ "What term is used to describe organelles that are found only in animal cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a7e7a4d4188c486fa3998e3ccb529d03", "input": "Passage: Some animals change their depth by changing their density. Recall that things that are denser than their surroundings sink while those that are less dense than their surroundings float. Most fish have a swim bladder, a special sac that is filled with gases from their blood. When the fish's swim bladder is full, it is less dense than the surrounding water and the fish will rise towards the surface. Another property of water that affects lakes is the unique changes in density during phase changes. The density of most substances increases when a liquid becomes a solid. This is not so for water: Solid water is actually less dense than liquid water. It is for this reason that ice floats. Can you imagine a world where ice sank? Lakes would freeze from the bottom up, killing many fish. Frozen water in the Polar Regions would sink and change the ocean levels. The fact that ice floats is essential for the survival of many aquatic ecosystems and ultimately life on Earth. Besides the changes in density, there are other ways in which the phase changes of water have significant impacts. When water is trapped in small cracks in rocks, it will expand as it freezes and break up the rock causing weathering. The transpiration (evaporation) of water from a good-sized tree can move 1800 liters of water out of the ground in a single day. Sublimation, the phase change between solid and gas, is responsible for the formation of frost. As you can see, water has many special properties that make its role in nature unique. It is considered the \"universal solvent” because its bipolar molecule enables it to dissolve a wide variety of substances. Water is the only substance that occurs naturally in all three states; solid, liquid, and gas. Water is truly a miracle for life!. Answer: by changing their density", "output": [ "How do some animals change their depth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-afd2826ca36a456290d4eb4d9b84ec10", "input": "Passage: An experiment is a controlled scientific study of specific variables. A variable is a factor that can take on different values. For example, the speed of an object down a ramp might be one variable, and the steepness of the ramp might be another. Answer: variable", "output": [ "In a controlled scientific study, what do you call a factor that can take on different values?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2116a4983eaf4f28a8d8106bf0da5e35", "input": "Passage: Subduction of a plate leads to melting and volcanism. Answer: melting and volcanism", "output": [ "What does subduction of a plate lead to?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d7ba6dcc468e4a46878546f7c72bdaa7", "input": "Passage: We obviously can’t live without plants, but sometimes they cause us problems. Many plants are weeds. Weeds are plants that grow where people don’t want them, such as gardens and lawns. They take up space and use resources, hindering the growth of more desirable plants. People often introduce plants to new habitats where they lack natural predators and parasites. The introduced plants may spread rapidly and drive out native plants. Many plants produce pollen, which can cause allergies. Plants may also produce toxins that harm human health (see Figure below ). Answer: weeds", "output": [ "What are plants that grow where people don't want them to and can take up space and use resources which hinders growth of more desirable plants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-48de9c66dc2443cba3ee6650d1cfe422", "input": "Passage: Reptiles can be found on every continent except Antarctica. They may live in terrestrial, freshwater, or marine habitats. Most reptiles are carnivores, and large reptiles are the top predators in their ecosystems. Many species of reptiles, especially marine reptiles, are at risk of extinction. Answer: reptiles", "output": [ "What type of animal can be found on every continent except antarctica?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3071f2d4882145a0b0add62d0a602004", "input": "Passage: 20.2 Blood Flow, Blood Pressure, and Resistance Blood flow is the movement of blood through a vessel, tissue, or organ. The slowing or blocking of blood flow is called resistance. Blood pressure is the force that blood exerts upon the walls of the blood vessels or chambers of the heart. The components of blood pressure include systolic pressure, which results from ventricular contraction, and diastolic pressure, which results from ventricular relaxation. Pulse pressure is the difference between systolic and diastolic measures, and mean arterial pressure is the “average” pressure of blood in the arterial system, driving blood into the tissues. Pulse, the expansion and recoiling of an artery, reflects the heartbeat. The variables affecting blood flow and blood pressure in the systemic circulation are cardiac output, compliance, blood volume, blood viscosity, and the length and diameter of the blood vessels. In the arterial system, vasodilation and vasoconstriction of the arterioles is a significant factor in systemic blood pressure: Slight vasodilation greatly decreases resistance and increases flow, whereas slight vasoconstriction greatly increases resistance and decreases flow. In the arterial system, as resistance increases, blood pressure increases and flow decreases. In the venous system, constriction increases blood pressure as it does in arteries; the increasing pressure helps to return blood to the heart. In addition, constriction causes the vessel lumen to become more rounded, decreasing resistance and increasing blood flow. Venoconstriction, while less important than arterial vasoconstriction, works with the skeletal muscle pump, the respiratory pump, and their valves to promote venous return to the heart. Answer: pressure", "output": [ "The force that blood exerts upon the walls of the blood vessels or upon the chambers of the heart is known as blood what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-78857e95a8f44013a2d4608868691279", "input": "Passage: Mitosis occurs in four phases, called prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Answer: telophase", "output": [ "The four phases of mitosis are prophase, metaphase, anaphase and what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c3a810a39fb0450aba370f0835fb499e", "input": "Passage: for low temperatures, where the phase can change from a gas to a liquid. The term “vapor” refers to the gas phase when it exists at a temperature below the boiling temperature. Answer: boiling temperature", "output": [ "The term “vapor” refers to the gas phase when it exists at a temperature below what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-47bb59ae5bb242b984f25a951d6d22d2", "input": "Passage: Carbon sequestration captures carbon dioxide as it is emitted by a power plant before it enters the atmosphere. The carbon dioxide is then stored in another form. Carbon is sequestered naturally by forests. Trees take in carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. Artificial methods of sequestering carbon underground are being researched. This is just one of the geoengineering methods that are being researched for reducing carbon dioxide. Answer: carbon sequestration", "output": [ "What captures carbon dioxide as it is emitted by a power plant before it enters the atmosphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-12378521173a4ca09f077bd1ef59d13b", "input": "Passage: The white light in fireworks displays is produced by burning magnesium in air, which contains oxygen. What compound is formed?. Answer: magnesium in air", "output": [ "What burns to produce the white light in fireworks displays?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7b7efb94e2984c25b9813929a9f71475", "input": "Passage: Great volcanic explosions and glowing red rivers of lava are fascinating. All igneous rock comes from magma or lava. Remember that magma is molten rock that is below Earth's surface. Lava is molten rock at Earth's surface. Answer: magma or lava", "output": [ "Where does all igneous rock come from?" ] }, { "id": "task594-41c026a0866a418ca4e5ca3f14309fa9", "input": "Passage: One application of redox reactions requires that they be physically separated. Even though the two half reactions are physically separated, a spontaneous redox reaction still occurs. However, in this case, the electrons transfer through the wire connecting the two half reactions; that is, this setup becomes a source of electricity. Useful work can be extracted from the electrons as they transfer from one side to the other—for example, a light bulb can be lit, or a motor can be operated. The apparatus as a whole, which allows useful electrical work to be extracted from a redox reaction, is called a voltaic (galvanic) cell. Each individual system that contains a half reaction is called a half cell. The half cell that contains the oxidation reaction is called the anode, while the half cell that contains the reduction reaction is called the cathode. The cathode and anode collectively are the electrodes of the voltaic cell. Because electrons are coming from the anode, the anode is considered the negative electrode of the cell, while the cathode is considered the positive electrode of the cell. Finally, because electrons are moving from one half cell to the. Answer: voltaic cell", "output": [ "The cathode and anode collectively are the electrodes of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-681b9d9a498941efade9399241be0339", "input": "Passage: Lions live in social groups called prides . Adult females in the pride hunt cooperatively, which is more efficient than hunting alone. Then they share the food with the rest of the pride. For their part, adult males defend the pride’s territory from other predators. Answer: pride", "output": [ "What is a group of lions called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4d8b937542b949b9870abc122f0d0d5d", "input": "Passage: Double Fertilization After pollen is deposited on the stigma, it must germinate and grow through the style to reach the ovule. The microspores, or the pollen, contain two cells: the pollen tube cell and the generative cell. The pollen tube cell grows into a pollen tube through which the generative cell travels. The germination of the pollen tube requires water, oxygen, and certain chemical signals. As it travels through the style to reach the embryo sac, the pollen tube’s growth is supported by the tissues of the style. In the meantime, if the generative cell has not already split into two cells, it now divides to form two sperm cells. The pollen tube is guided by the chemicals secreted by the synergids present in the embryo sac, and it enters the ovule sac through the micropyle. Of the two sperm cells, one sperm fertilizes the egg cell, forming a diploid zygote; the other sperm fuses with the two polar nuclei, forming a triploid cell that develops into the endosperm. Together, these two fertilization. Answer: endosperm", "output": [ "What does the triploid cell develop into during fertilization?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5dc2d7837f2b4a368d698bb0dc0c12f7", "input": "Passage: Note Organic and biochemical equations are frequently written showing only the organic reactants and products. In this way, we focus attention on the organic starting material and product, rather than on balancing complicated equations. Ethanol is oxidized in the liver to acetaldehyde:. Answer: products", "output": [ "Organic and biochemical equations show the initial and final products of the equation, respectively known as the reactants and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e0cc42b548844fca883b3b6a7e839872", "input": "Passage: Three ways electrons can be transferred are conduction, friction, and polarization. In each case, the total charge remains the same. This is the law of conservation of charge. Answer: law of conservation of charge", "output": [ "Which law refers to the electron charge remaining the same during transfer?" ] }, { "id": "task594-15991a3d21744a42a68aec7749582d3e", "input": "Passage: Conditioned Behavior Conditioned behaviors are types of associative learning, where a stimulus becomes associated with a consequence. During operant conditioning, the behavioral response is modified by its consequences, with regards to its form, strength, or frequency. Classical Conditioning In classical conditioning, a response called the conditioned response is associated with a stimulus that it had previously not been associated with, the conditioned stimulus. The response to the original, unconditioned stimulus is called the unconditioned response. The most cited example of classical conditioning is Ivan Pavlov’s experiments with dogs (Figure 45.40). In Pavlov’s experiments, the unconditioned response was the salivation of dogs in response to the unconditioned stimulus of seeing or smelling their food. The conditioning stimulus that researchers associated with the unconditioned response was the ringing of a bell. During conditioning, every time the animal was given food, the bell was rung. This was repeated during several trials. After some time, the dog learned to associate the ringing of the bell with food and to respond by salivating. After the conditioning period was finished, the dog would respond by salivating when the bell was rung, even when the unconditioned stimulus, the food, was absent. Thus, the ringing of the bell became the conditioned stimulus and the salivation became the conditioned response. Although it is thought by some scientists that the unconditioned and conditioned responses are identical, even Pavlov discovered that the saliva in the conditioned dogs had characteristic differences when compared to the unconditioned dog. Answer: conditioned stimulus", "output": [ "In classical conditioning, a response called the conditioned response is associated with what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-10082e60b3c7440e97d88a71a8feef72", "input": "Passage: Regardless of what gravity is — a force between masses or the result of curves in space and time — the effects of gravity on motion are well known. You already know that gravity causes objects to fall down to the ground. Gravity affects the motion of objects in other ways as well. Answer: gravity", "output": [ "What is the force that causes objects to fall down to the ground?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d835674870dc44f9af0d851f6e1dff35", "input": "Passage: Most mature plant cells have a central vacuole that occupies more than 30% of the cell's volume. The central vacuole can occupy as much as 90% of the volume of certain cells. The central vacuole is surrounded by a membrane called the tonoplast . The central vacuole has many functions. Aside from storage, the main role of the vacuole is to maintain turgor pressure against the cell wall. Proteins found in the tonoplast control the flow of water into and out of the vacuole. The central vacuole also stores the pigments that color flowers. Answer: storage", "output": [ "What function does a vacuole do for a cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-17d578cdbe2c4da5a43905394bd1296f", "input": "Passage: Unlike energy, matter doesn’t need to be constantly added to ecosystems. Instead, matter is recycled through ecosystems. Water and elements such as carbon and nitrogen that living things need are used over and over again. Answer: matter", "output": [ "Unlike energy, what doesn’t need to be constantly added to ecosystems because it is recycled through ecosystems?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f0e08a0cb5d64ca09f92dec3953cff56", "input": "Passage: The use of electric current to encode information is called electronics. Electronic signals may be digital or analog signals. Both types of signals encode information by changing the voltage of an electric current, but they do so in different ways. Answer: electronics", "output": [ "What do we call use of electric current to encode information?" ] }, { "id": "task594-89a7e48b01df4b6d96b445aead709eca", "input": "Passage: The digestive system of birds is unique, with a gizzard that contains swallowed stones for grinding food. Birds do not have teeth. What do you think the stones do? They help them digest their food. Defining characteristics of modern birds also include:. Answer: swallowed stones", "output": [ "What does the gizzard in birds contain that allows them to grind food?" ] }, { "id": "task594-79c9456fc7944c9d8b26d975f51ff6f9", "input": "Passage: Some insects use siphoning, as if sucking through a straw, like moths and butterflies. This long mouth-tube that they use to suck up the nectar of the flower is called a proboscis . Some moths, however, have no mouthparts at all. Some insects obtain food by sponging , like the housefly. Sponging means that the mouthpart can absorb liquid food and send it to the esophagus. The housefly is able to eat solid food by releasing saliva and dabbing it over the food. As the saliva dissolves the food, the sponging mouthpart absorbs the liquid food. Answer: proboscis", "output": [ "The long mouth-tube that some insects use to suck up the nectar of the flower is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-615d89bd2e4f478199c44570379182fc", "input": "Passage: Plant Life Spans The length of time from the beginning of development to the death of a plant is called its life span. The life cycle, on the other hand, is the sequence of stages a plant goes through from seed germination to seed production of the mature plant. Some plants, such as annuals, only need a few weeks to grow, produce seeds and die. Other plants, such as the bristlecone pine, live for thousands of years. Some bristlecone pines have a documented age of 4,500 years Figure 32.29. Even as some parts of a plant, such as regions containing meristematic tissue—the area of active plant growth consisting of undifferentiated cells capable of cell division—continue to grow, some parts undergo programmed cell death (apoptosis). The cork found on stems, and the water-conducting tissue of the xylem, for example, are composed of dead cells. Answer: life cycle", "output": [ "Life span is distinct from what, which means the sequence of stages a plant goes through from seed germination to seed production of the mature plant?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3bd4074fd00c416f9185db6145ef05f1", "input": "Passage: The most famous mass extinction was 65 million years ago. Between the Mesozoic Era and the Cenozoic Era, about 50% of all animal species died off. This mass extinction is when the dinosaurs became extinct. Most scientists think that the extinction was caused by a giant meteorite that struck Earth. The impact heated the atmosphere until it became as hot as a kitchen oven. Animals roasted. Dust flew into the atmosphere and blocked sunlight for a year or more. This caused a deep freeze and ended photosynthesis. Sulfur from the impact mixed with water in the atmosphere. The result was acid rain. The rain dissolved the shells of the tiny marine plankton that form the base of the food chain. With little food being produced, animals starved. Answer: cenozoic", "output": [ "About 50% of all animal species died off between the mesozoic and which other era?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4c1b05685d2d4255abd9c8c1b60fd157", "input": "Passage: An electric generator is a device that changes kinetic energy to electrical energy through electromagnetic induction. A simple diagram of an electric generator is shown in Figure below . In a generator, some form of energy is applied to turn a shaft. This causes a coil of wire to rotate between opposite poles of a magnet. Because the coil is rotating in a magnetic field, electric current is generated in the wire. If the diagram in Figure below looks familiar to you, that’s because a generator is an electric motor in reverse. Look back at the electric motor in Figure above . If you were to mechanically turn the shaft of the motor (instead of using electromagnetism to turn it), the motor would generate electricity just like an electric generator. You can learn how to make a very simple electric generator by watching the video at the URL below. Making your own generator will help you understand how a generator works. Answer: an electric generator", "output": [ "What is a device that changes kinetic energy to electrical energy through electromagnetic induction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2f14bc00fe0f4806a6712e427e83c3e0", "input": "Passage: - Momentum equals mass multiplied by velocity. It is a vector, direction must be considered. Always define a positive direction and be consistent. Answer: momentum", "output": [ "Mass multiplied by velocity equals what force?" ] }, { "id": "task594-de25794a5d6c4bce9546247ac6e6f73f", "input": "Passage: Most prokaryotes have one or more long, thin \"whips\" called flagella (flagellum, plural) . You can see flagella in Figure below . Flagella help prokaryotes move toward food or away from toxins. Each flagellum spins around a fixed base. This causes the cell to roll and tumble. Answer: flagella", "output": [ "What thin whip-like structures help prokaryotes move toward food or away from toxins?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5391cfd1792046b6ac7249ad436c17b7", "input": "Passage: Printers like the one that made the plastic bicycle are a new type of technology. Technology is the application of science to solve problems. Because technology finds solutions to practical problems, new technologies may have major impacts on society, science, and industry. For example, some people predict that 3-D printing will revolutionize manufacturing. Answer: technology", "output": [ "What is the term for the application of science to solve problems?" ] }, { "id": "task594-68c467137910416c9c50fcfa6cb6fb21", "input": "Passage: When a sperm penetrates the egg, it triggers the egg to complete meiosis. The sperm also undergoes changes. Its tail falls off, and its nucleus fuses with the nucleus of the egg. The resulting cell, called a zygote , contains all the chromosomes needed for a new human organism. Half the chromosomes come from the egg and half from the sperm. Answer: a zygote", "output": [ "What is the name of the cell that results when a sperm nucleus fuses with a egg nucleus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-12c8414b07ea4e0a87a9fc7f4293e2f8", "input": "Passage: Water flows through all the world’s oceans. Warm water from the equator mixes with cold water from the poles. The mixing of warm and cold water makes the water temperature moderate. Answer: the poles", "output": [ "Warm water from the equator mixes with cold water from where?" ] }, { "id": "task594-401e13aa672241e48d107bb976147327", "input": "Passage: Groundwater dissolves minerals and rocks into ions. Groundwater deposits those ions into different types of structures. Limestone caves are the best place to see these structures. Water erodes the cave and it has deposits structures like stalactites and stalagmites. The cave pictured here is Carlsbad Caverns in New Mexico. Answer: ions", "output": [ "Groundwater dissolves minerals and rocks into what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2be697a9af3d41ae9809c728262b626e", "input": "Passage: A general plant life cycle is represented by the diagram in Figure below . From the figure, you can see that the diploid sporophyte has a structure called a sporangium (plural, sporangia) that undergoes meiosis to form haploid spores. A spore develops into a haploid gametophyte. The gametophyte has male or female reproductive organs that undergo mitosis to form haploid gametes (sperm or eggs). Fertilization of gametes produces a diploid zygote. The zygote grows and develops into a mature sporophyte, and the cycle repeats. Answer: sporangium", "output": [ "What is the structure in a diploid sporophyte that undergoes meiosis to form haploid spores?" ] }, { "id": "task594-91030add9a294048b00e891aff7d27b8", "input": "Passage: Most animal behaviors are controlled by both genes and experiences in a given environment. Answer: animal behaviors", "output": [ "What is controlled by both genes and experiences in a given envionment?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5a5749f35e2746ed9a173a879d119f5f", "input": "Passage: Nuclear energy is produced by carefully controlling the speed of a fission reaction. Answer: nuclear", "output": [ "Carefully controlling the speed of a fission reaction produces what kind of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ba52a865df6d426a8afd45eec9cec47f", "input": "Passage: CHAPTER SUMMARY 35.1 Neurons and Glial Cells The nervous system is made up of neurons and glia. Neurons are specialized cells that are capable of sending electrical as well as chemical signals. Most neurons contain dendrites, which receive these signals, and axons that send signals to other neurons or tissues. There are four main types of neurons: unipolar, bipolar, multipolar, and pseudounipolar neurons. Glia are non-neuronal cells in the nervous system that support neuronal development and signaling. There are several types of glia that serve different functions. Answer: nervous system", "output": [ "What anatomical system is made up of neurons and glia?" ] }, { "id": "task594-52118bc4237747c1a6d1b06e793ae4f8", "input": "Passage: Sutural bones are small, flat, irregularly shaped bones. They may be found between the flat bones of the skull. They vary in number, shape, size, and position. Answer: skull", "output": [ "In what area of the body are sutural bones found?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0afdb78213dd4e91872cc4f95473b0ae", "input": "Passage: Arthropod at http://animal. discovery. com/animal-facts/arthropod-info. htm. Answer: simple machines", "output": [ "A bicycle is an example of a compound machine made of many what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2c314a614b244a10b15559d44a7176d0", "input": "Passage: Intermediate filaments have no role in cell movement. Their function is purely structural. They bear tension, thus maintaining the shape of the cell, and anchor the nucleus and other organelles in place. Figure 4.22 shows how intermediate filaments create a supportive scaffolding inside the cell. The intermediate filaments are the most diverse group of cytoskeletal elements. Several types of fibrous proteins are found in the intermediate filaments. You are probably most familiar with keratin, the fibrous protein that strengthens your hair, nails, and the epidermis of the skin. Answer: keratin", "output": [ "What is the most familiar fibrous protein found in your body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4b0b4fc30c1744838bace03f8a58f3e0", "input": "Passage: Motion is defined as a change of position. Answer: change of position", "output": [ "Define motion." ] }, { "id": "task594-37b2dbc2ec4a4c1d907a08ada66337bd", "input": "Passage: A drug is any chemical that affects the body’s structure or function. Many drugs, including both legal and illegal drugs, are psychoactive drugs . This means that they affect the central nervous system, generally by influencing the transmission of nerve impulses. For example, some psychoactive drugs mimic neurotransmitters. At the link below, you can watch an animation showing how psychoactive drugs affect the brain. http://www. thirteen. org/closetohome/animation/neuron-main. html. Answer: drug", "output": [ "What word describes any chemical that affects the body’s structure or function?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ab8b281ec6234e06bf30a404ca3d4a25", "input": "Passage: On the far right are X rays and gamma rays. The have the shortest wavelengths and highest frequencies of all electromagnetic waves. They also have the greatest amount of energy. Answer: gamma rays", "output": [ "X rays and what other type of electromagnetic wave has the shortest wavelengths and the highest frequencies?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5631f4170a284bc582a8e630f82591f4", "input": "Passage: The immune system naturally becomes less effective as people get older. This is why older people are generally more susceptible to disease. Answer: immune system", "output": [ "What system gets less effective with age, that generally makes older people more disease susceptible?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6083d6dbbf004892baddad36a287a6b1", "input": "Passage: Drip irrigation uses much less water than other methods. Answer: drip", "output": [ "Which kind of irrigation uses much less water than other methods?" ] }, { "id": "task594-804c4dd7c3df4335b270c7436afb1ed7", "input": "Passage: where the term salt can refer to essentially any ionic compound. An example would be the reaction between hydrochloric acid and potassium hydroxide:. Answer: ionic", "output": [ "The term salt can refer to essentially any of what compounds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e3734edb40cd411bac2b8031ad8c1f0c", "input": "Passage: Biochemical compounds make up the cells and tissues of living things. They are also involved in all life processes. Given their diversity of functions, it’s not surprising that there are millions of different biochemical compounds. Even so, all biochemical compounds can be grouped into just four main classes: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. The classes are summarized in Table below . Answer: biochemical", "output": [ "What type of compounds make up the cells and tissues of living things?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bad1a04a95ec4a33a007ff6ad8957b20", "input": "Passage: Convection is the transfer of heat by a current. Convection happens in a liquid or a gas. Air near the ground is warmed by heat radiating from Earth's surface. The warm air is less dense, so it rises. As it rises, it cools. The cool air is dense, so it sinks to the surface. This creates a convection current, like the one in Figure below . Convection is the most important way that heat travels in the atmosphere. Answer: convection", "output": [ "What is the transfer of heat by a current?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0d912c0ed3664414b0162579cbb0581a", "input": "Passage: 27.1 | Anatomy and Physiology of the Male Reproductive System By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Describe the structure and function of the organs of the male reproductive system • Describe the structure and function of the sperm cell • Explain the events during spermatogenesis that produce haploid sperm from diploid cells • Identify the importance of testosterone in male reproductive function Unique for its role in human reproduction, a gamete is a specialized sex cell carrying 23 chromosomes—one half the number in body cells. At fertilization, the chromosomes in one male gamete, called a sperm (or spermatozoon), combine with the chromosomes in one female gamete, called an oocyte. The function of the male reproductive system (Figure 27.2) is to produce sperm and transfer them to the female reproductive tract. The paired testes are a crucial component in this process, as they produce both sperm and androgens, the hormones that support male reproductive physiology. In humans, the most important male androgen is testosterone. Several accessory organs and ducts aid the process of sperm maturation and transport the sperm and other seminal components to the penis, which delivers sperm to the female reproductive tract. In this section, we examine each of these different structures, and discuss the process of sperm production and transport. Answer: sperm", "output": [ "What is the male gamete called in humans?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e1dae49a89b84bb7b37a96d9db647724", "input": "Passage: All that magma and gas pushing upward can make the volcano’s slope begin to swell. Ground swelling may change the shape of a volcano or cause rock falls and landslides. Most of the time, the ground tilting is not visible. Scientists detect it by using tiltmeters, which are instruments that measure the angle of the slope of a volcano. Answer: tilt meters", "output": [ "Instruments that measure the angle of the slope of a volcano are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-de684036a34f46bd9364bdd8ca229612", "input": "Passage: A chloroplast consists of thylakoid membranes surrounded by stroma. The thylakoid membranes contain molecules of the green pigment chlorophyll. Answer: a chloroplast", "output": [ "What consists of thylakoid membranes surrounded by stroma?" ] }, { "id": "task594-05bff9a5e963413fa9e9f4753d2d7308", "input": "Passage: Imagine scuba diving and coming upon a jellyfish. Would you be startled if the jellyfish suddenly started to glow with bright yellow light, like the jellyfish in the picture above? If so, then the jellyfish would have done its job. Jellyfish give off light to startle possible predators. The light they emit is visible light. Answer: light", "output": [ "What do jellyfish give off to startle possible predators?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8cb109eb3bc84537bbbb731d18c1239a", "input": "Passage: Light is a wave of changing electric and magnetic fields. Light waves are caused by disturbances in an electromagnetic field, like the acceleration of charged particles (such as electrons). Light has a dual nature; at times, it acts like waves, while at other times it acts like particles, called photons . Light travels through space at the maximum speed allowed by the laws of physics, called the speed of light. Light has no mass, but it carries energy and momentum. Fermat's principle states that light will always take the path that takes the least amount of time (not distance). Answer: light", "output": [ "Fermat's principle states that what will always take the path that takes the least amount of time?" ] }, { "id": "task594-29710711be534fdfa0bea846ad39dc63", "input": "Passage: Figure 5.17 A uniporter carries one molecule or ion. A symporter carries two different molecules or ions, both in the same direction. An antiporter also carries two different molecules or ions, but in different directions. (credit: modification of work by “Lupask”/Wikimedia Commons). Answer: two", "output": [ "A symporter carries how many different molecules or ions in the same direction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e5f56db2424343b780be3d222a0443c0", "input": "Passage: Omnivores are animals that eat both plant- and animal-derived food. In Latin, omnivore means to eat everything. Humans, bears (shown in Figure 34.4a), and chickens are example of vertebrate omnivores; invertebrate omnivores include cockroaches and crayfish (shown in Figure 34.4b). Answer: animal-derived food", "output": [ "Omnivores are animals that eat both plant- and?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ec44feabceb34674ae9a47c68f39792f", "input": "Passage: The hemisphere that is tilted away from the Sun is cooler because it receives less direct rays. As Earth orbits the Sun, the Northern Hemisphere goes from winter to spring, then summer and fall. The Southern Hemisphere does the opposite from summer to fall to winter to spring. When it is winter in the Northern hemisphere, it is summer in the Southern hemisphere, and vice versa. Answer: direct rays", "output": [ "The hemisphere that is tilted away from the sun is cooler because it receives less what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ead7507e1115469b913f9a84ec632bed", "input": "Passage: Liquids with strong intermolecular forces have higher surface tensions than liquids with weaker forces. Answer: surface tension", "output": [ "Liquids with strong intermolecular forces have higher what than liquids with weaker forces?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c96bc29b5b304415bad36cf8b99e3833", "input": "Passage: Today, remote-control vehicles, called remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) go to the deepest ocean floor. They don’t have any people on board. However, they carry devices that record many measurements. They also collect sediments and take photos. Answer: remote-control vehicles", "output": [ "What type of vehicles is able to go to the deepest ocean floor?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e80a1fa340dd46d6ad7034fe9f1b55eb", "input": "Passage: Figure 33.18 Smooth muscle cells do not have striations, while skeletal muscle cells do. Cardiac muscle cells have striations, but, unlike the multinucleate skeletal cells, they have only one nucleus. Cardiac muscle tissue also has intercalated discs, specialized regions running along the plasma membrane that join adjacent cardiac muscle cells and assist in passing an electrical impulse from cell to cell. Answer: striations", "output": [ "Skeletal muscle cells and cardiac muscle cells share what property, which is not shared by smooth muscle cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f5eb4aca7c604f0888bcfb122253977e", "input": "Passage: Water pollution comes from many sources. One of the biggest sources is runoff. Runoff picks up chemicals such as fertilizer from agricultural fields, lawns, and golf courses. It carries the chemicals to bodies of water. The added nutrients from fertilizer often cause excessive growth of algae, creating algal blooms (see Figure below ). The algae use up oxygen in the water so that other aquatic organisms cannot survive. This has occurred over large areas of the ocean, creating dead zones , where low oxygen levels have killed all ocean life. A very large dead zone exists in the Gulf of Mexico. Measures that can help prevent these problems include cutting down on fertilizer use. Preserving wetlands also helps because wetlands filter runoff. Answer: runoff", "output": [ "What source of water pollution picks up chemicals from the ground with water and carries them to bodies of water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9696ea9a2c094c2882e24e83d4671e92", "input": "Passage: Chemical weathering is different than mechanical weathering. The minerals in the rock change. The rock changes composition and becomes a different type of rock. Most minerals form at high pressure or high temperatures deep within Earth. But at Earth's surface, temperatures and pressures are much lower. Minerals that were stable deeper in the crust are not stable at the surface. That’s why chemical weathering happens. Minerals that formed at higher temperature and pressure change into minerals that are stable at the surface. Chemical weathering is important. It starts the process of changing solid rock into soil. We need soil to grow food and create other materials we need. Chemical weathering works through chemical reactions that change the rock. Answer: chemical", "output": [ "What type of weathering causes the minerals in a rock to change?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2788d76df50a42e69567d04c3a763170", "input": "Passage: In eukaryotic cells, the start of transcription is one of the most complicated parts of gene regulation. There may be many regulatory proteins and regulatory elements involved. Regulation may also involve enhancers. Enhancers are distant regions of DNA that can loop back to interact with a gene’s promoter. Answer: start of transcription", "output": [ "Which is one of the most complicated parts of gene regulation in eukaryotic cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ee8aebfe26504a70a91612c079b36f8f", "input": "Passage: Protein Structure. The structure of a protein starts with its sequence of amino acids. What determines the secondary structure of a protein? What are two types of secondary protein structure?. Answer: amino acids", "output": [ "What does the structure of a protein start with?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cb4304842eeb4162868d793403ab279e", "input": "Passage: In the troposphere, temperature decreases with altitude. The troposphere gets some of its heat directly from the Sun. Most, however, comes from Earth's surface. The surface is heated by the Sun. Some of that heat radiates back into the air. This makes the temperature higher near the surface than at higher altitudes. Answer: it decreases", "output": [ "What happens to temperature in the troposphere as the altitude increases?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9049e4c792c54ff887441942a327359d", "input": "Passage: Stuart Webster. Blue cheese is blue because of the fungus growing throughout it. . CC BY 2.0. Answer: fungus", "output": [ "Why is blue cheese blue?" ] }, { "id": "task594-61e2ae86208e4d6e957d46a8692ccc1c", "input": "Passage: The radiation exposure is determined by the number of rads times the quality factor of the radiation. Answer: rads", "output": [ "The radiation exposure is determined by the number of what times the quality factor of the radiation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-542ef7b534794b4d84f7994e777be21f", "input": "Passage: Volcanoes at divergent plate boundaries are in the East Pacific Rise. Convergent plate boundaries, where there are trenches, have volcanoes. Hotspot volcanoes are in chains in the middle of the ocean basin. Answer: volcanoes", "output": [ "What do convergent plate boundaries with trenches have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4cb1d578e46f490396fc65d43f982092", "input": "Passage: The somatic nervous system also controls some unconscious movements, called reflexes. A reflex is a very rapid motor response that is not directed by the brain. In a reflex, nerve impulses travel to and from the spinal cord in a reflex arc , like the one in Figure below . In this example, the person jerks his hand away from the flame without any conscious thought. It happens unconsciously because the nerve impulses bypass the brain. Answer: reflexes", "output": [ "What is the term for the unconscious movements controlled by the somatic nervous system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5c1ef6fa6069478fba38baaf29f84117", "input": "Passage: Light from objects at different distances is focused by the lens of the eye. Muscles in the eye control the shape of the lens so the light is focused on the back of the eye no matter how far the object is from the lens. Answer: lens", "output": [ "Light from objects at different distances is focused by what part of the eye?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bf0f475966c24328801e7b3557e87235", "input": "Passage: Figure 20.19 Power is distributed over large distances at high voltage to reduce power loss in the transmission lines. The voltages generated at the power plant are stepped up by passive devices called transformers (see Transformers) to 330,000 volts (or more in some places worldwide). At the point of use, the transformers reduce the voltage transmitted for safe residential and commercial use. (Credit: GeorgHH, Wikimedia Commons). Answer: transformers", "output": [ "The voltages generated at a power plant are stepped up by what passive devices, which then reduce voltage to a safe level at the point of use?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d02b8209a7244026aa6b0dc8b6c61bc1", "input": "Passage: Pyrite has a similar color to gold. The appearance of the striations make pyrite different from gold. Answer: gold", "output": [ "What color is pyrite?" ] }, { "id": "task594-04972308b4a6426089c1678c08bb6e91", "input": "Passage: Blood is a fluid connective tissue that contains a liquid component called plasma. Answer: plasma", "output": [ "What is the liquid component in blood?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d8f294b80cb349a69567a32aedf3fa44", "input": "Passage: The orbits of the planets are elliptical. Answer: elliptical", "output": [ "What shape is the orbit of a planet?" ] }, { "id": "task594-00d79d5009a04158845cd6653fcb5e9c", "input": "Passage: Electromagnetic waves transfer energy across space as well as through matter. They vary in their wavelengths and frequencies, and higher-frequency waves have more energy. The full range of wavelengths of electromagnetic waves, shown in the Figure below , is called the electromagnetic spectrum. Answer: matter", "output": [ "Electromagnetic waves transfer energy across space as well as through what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2c5d83debb6e4b19b7eb3231ab68aabc", "input": "Passage: The frequency of sound waves is measured in hertz (Hz), or the number of waves that pass a fixed point in a second. Human beings can normally hear sounds with a frequency between about 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz. Sounds with frequencies below 20 hertz are called infrasound . Infrasound is too low-pitched for humans to hear. Sounds with frequencies above 20,000 hertz are called ultrasound . Ultrasound is too high-pitched for humans to hear. Answer: hertz", "output": [ "The frequency of sound waves is measured in what unit?" ] }, { "id": "task594-706be2f8e77447e29b69854d6fa49b39", "input": "Passage: The polymerase chain reaction is a way of making copies of a gene. It uses high temperatures and an enzyme to make new DNA molecules. The process keeps cycling to make many copies of a gene. Answer: a gene", "output": [ "The polymerase chain reaction is a way of making copies of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d52d1507c2974ca282e09a6ff641c034", "input": "Passage: Check Your Learning Ammonia can be liquefied by compression at room temperature; oxygen cannot be liquefied under these conditions. Why do the two gases exhibit different behavior? Answer: The critical temperature of ammonia is 405.5 K, which is higher than room temperature. The critical temperature of oxygen is below room temperature; thus oxygen cannot be liquefied at room temperature. Answer: critical temperature", "output": [ "Unlike ammonia, oxygen cannot be liquefied at room temperature because its what is below room temperature?" ] }, { "id": "task594-56f80bb9346c419781b79a34c51eae01", "input": "Passage: Yeasts are crucial for the fermentation process that makes beer, wine, and bread. Fermentation occurs in the absence of oxygen and allows the first step of cellular respiration, glycolysis, to continue. Answer: yeast", "output": [ "What is crucial for the fermentation progress in making bread?" ] }, { "id": "task594-16817078da384fd6bd728920875c86bd", "input": "Passage: Maxillary Bone The maxillary bone, often referred to simply as the maxilla (plural = maxillae), is one of a pair that together form the upper jaw, much of the hard palate, the medial floor of the orbit, and the lateral base of the nose (see Figure 7.4). The curved, inferior margin of the maxillary bone that forms the upper jaw and contains the upper teeth is the alveolar process of the maxilla (Figure 7.14). Each tooth is anchored into a deep socket called an alveolus. On the anterior maxilla, just below the orbit, is the infraorbital foramen. This is the point of exit for a sensory nerve that supplies the nose, upper lip, and anterior cheek. On the inferior skull, the palatine process from each maxillary bone can be seen joining together at the midline to form the anterior three-quarters of the hard palate (see Figure 7.8a). The hard palate is the bony plate that forms the roof of the mouth and floor of the nasal cavity, separating the oral and nasal cavities. Answer: maxillary bone", "output": [ "What bone is is one of a pair that together form the upper jaw, much of the hard palate, the medial floor of the orbit, and the lateral base of the nose?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ad6355d8da3440d5a7b575156f9592a5", "input": "Passage: Less often, a new species arises without geographic separation. This is called sympatric speciation . The following example shows one way this can occur. Answer: sympatric speciation", "output": [ "What is it called when a new species arises without geographic separation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8b89e672e5c34463bde4b6f13519291b", "input": "Passage: The external female reproductive structures are referred to collectively as the vulva . They include the labia (singular, labium ), which are the “lips” of the vulva. The labia protect the vagina and urethra, both of which have openings in the vulva. Answer: vulva", "output": [ "What do the external female reproductive structures are collectively referred to?" ] }, { "id": "task594-57aa714c3e69432f83068c4a530a3cc6", "input": "Passage: Blood travels through the bicuspid valve to the left atrium. Both the aortic and the pulmonary valves are semilunar valves. The mitral valve is an atrioventricular valve. Figure 40.17 Varicose veins are veins that become enlarged because the valves no longer close properly, allowing blood to flow backward. Varicose veins are often most prominent on the legs. Why do you think this is the case?. Answer: close properly", "output": [ "Varicose veins are veins that become enlarged because the valves no longer do this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ae157968fa93447f879d13d57ec0dff4", "input": "Passage: Mouth Brooding. Some species of fish carry their fertilized eggs in their mouth until they hatch. This is called mouth brooding. If you look closely, you can see the eggs inside the mouth of the cardinalfish pictured here. Answer: mouth brooding", "output": [ "Some species of fish carry their fertilized eggs in their mouth until they hatch; this is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f384094d458f4a91b692e44fb6a37c42", "input": "Passage: Parts of a Neuron As you learned in the first section, the main part of a neuron is the cell body, which is also known as the soma (soma = “body”). The cell body contains the nucleus and most of the major organelles. But what makes neurons special is that they have many extensions of their cell membranes, which are generally referred to as processes. Neurons are usually described as having one, and only one, axon—a fiber that emerges from the cell body and projects to target cells. That single axon can branch repeatedly to communicate with many target cells. It is the axon that propagates the nerve impulse, which is communicated to one or more cells. The other processes of the neuron are dendrites, which receive information from other neurons at specialized areas of contact called synapses. The dendrites are usually highly branched processes, providing locations for other neurons to communicate with the cell body. Information flows through a neuron from the dendrites, across the cell body, and down the axon. This gives the neuron a polarity—meaning that information flows in this one direction. Figure 12.8 shows the relationship of these parts to one another. Answer: cell body", "output": [ "Which part of a neuron contains the nucleus and most of the major organelles?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bdf514099c8d4addba8064f95095a61a", "input": "Passage: Humans have sent spacecraft up to study our star. The SOHO spacecraft has been in operation since 1996. The craft orbits the Sun in step with Earth but closer to it. SOHO has sent back amazing images. Onboard instruments have also sent back mountains of data. The data is mostly about the Sun's outer layers. Answer: 1996", "output": [ "What year did the soho spacecraft first started to operate?" ] }, { "id": "task594-393a95e450fd409b9dfc1505e6e65337", "input": "Passage: Cells make up all living things, including your own body. This picture shows a typical group of cells. But not all cells look alike. Cells can differ in shape and sizes. And the different shapes usually means different functions. Answer: cells", "output": [ "What small biological structures make up all living things, including the human body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-60eec72cf0274fba8aace0e30b317efd", "input": "Passage: Recall that the only required ingredients needed for photosynthesis are sunlight, carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), and water (H 2 O). From these simple inorganic ingredients, photosynthetic organisms produce the carbohydrate glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ), and other complex organic compounds. Essentially, these producers are changing the energy from the sunlight into a usable form of energy. They are also making the oxygen that we breathe. Oxygen is a waste product of photosynthesis. Answer: carbon dioxide", "output": [ "For photosynthesis to begin, the inputs required are sunlight, water, and what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0d6e5945164d4a90bc97988d5156ed46", "input": "Passage: So what happens to your body's wastes? Obviously, you must get rid of them. This is the job of the excretory system. You remove waste as a gas (carbon dioxide), as a liquid (urine and sweat), and as a solid. Excretion is the process of removing wastes and excess water from the body. Answer: excretory system", "output": [ "What body system gets rid of waste?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8a2241e875a44d9898103e090520298b", "input": "Passage: Habituation is learning to get used to something after being exposed to it for a while. Habituation usually involves getting used to something that is annoying or frightening, but not dangerous. Habituation is one of the simplest ways of learning. It occurs in just about every species of animal. Answer: habituation", "output": [ "Learning to get used to something after being exposed to it for a while is associated with what kind of learning?" ] }, { "id": "task594-55829b36bab44f7385abd3251f51a287", "input": "Passage: Autotrophs are organisms that make their own food. Most autotrophs use the energy in sunlight to make food in a process called photosynthesis . Only three types of organisms—plants, algae, and some bacteria—can make food through photosynthesis. Examples of each type of photosynthetic organism are shown in Figure below . Answer: autotrophs", "output": [ "What is the term for organisms that make their own food?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d2df3684f8934f58860ecda8b174c4f9", "input": "Passage: Producers are organisms that produce food for themselves and other organisms. They use energy and simple inorganic molecules to make organic compounds. The stability of producers is vital to ecosystems because all organisms need organic molecules. Producers are also called autotrophs . There are two basic types of autotrophs: photoautotrophs and chemoautotrophs. Answer: autotrophs", "output": [ "Photoautotrophs and chemoautotrophs are two basic types of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-488f7cffd99843c19503c496c75bf5fc", "input": "Passage: All prokaryotes are single-celled organisms. Answer: single-celled", "output": [ "What kind of organisms are prokaryotes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8ee0026a558b44818bd155a190b34123", "input": "Passage: Prokaryotic cells are cells that lack a nucleus. The DNA in prokaryotic cells is in the cytoplasm, rather than enclosed within a nuclear membrane. All the organisms in the Bacteria and Archaea Domains have prokaryotic cells. No other organisms have this type of cell. Organisms with prokaryotic cells are called prokaryotes . They are all single-celled organisms. They were the first type of organisms to evolve. They are still the most numerous organisms today. Answer: a nucleus", "output": [ "What significant part of the cell do prokaryotic cells lack?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f42a57385d714488a65b906f4ee2aa63", "input": "Passage: The theory of plate tectonics explains most of the features of Earth’s surface. Plate tectonics helps us to understand where and why mountains form. Using the theory, we know where new ocean floor will be created and where it will be destroyed. We know why earthquakes and volcanic eruptions happen where they do. We even can search for mineral resources using information about past plate motions. Plate tectonics is the key that unlocks many of the mysteries of our amazing planet. Answer: plate tectonics", "output": [ "What theory explains most of the features of earth’s surface?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c815dd0191f14dafb822be11c402df79", "input": "Passage: Genes are a major determinant of human skin color. However, exposure to ultraviolet radiation can increase the amount of pigment in the skin and make it appear darker. Answer: ultraviolet radiation", "output": [ "Exposure to what can increase the amount of pigment in the skin and make it appear darker?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4437532129f54183b5a409416d76a7f7", "input": "Passage: Geothermal energy is clean and does not release greenhouse gases. Answer: geothermal energy", "output": [ "What type of energy is clean and does not release greenhouse gases?" ] }, { "id": "task594-182fa0b9128346f0930c2d05e6a07c63", "input": "Passage: A Geiger counter provides a sensitive means of detecting radioactivity. A tube is filled with an inert gas, which will conduct electricity when radiation enters it. When a charged particle comes into the tube, it changes the electrical potential between the anode and the cathode. This change in potential in the tube produces a change in voltage in the electrical circuit and registers as a count. Geiger counters are fairly inexpensive and reliable, so they are useful in a wide range of applications. More complicated types of counters are also available, but are generally used in sophisticated experiments. Answer: geiger", "output": [ "What counter provides a sensitive means of detecting radioactivity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-571a232e83f1420a92c86f034698cc02", "input": "Passage: Conduction is usually faster in liquids and certain solids than in gases. Materials that are good conductors of thermal energy are called thermal conductors . Metals are excellent thermal conductors. They have freely moving electrons that can transfer energy quickly and easily. That’s why the metal pot in Figure above soon gets hot all over, even though it gains thermal energy from the fire only at the bottom of the pot. In Figure below , the metal heating element of the curling iron heats up almost instantly and quickly transfers energy to the strands of hair that it touches. Answer: thermal conductors", "output": [ "What are materials that are good conductors of thermal energy called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-407160b585d64b6eaa1d4f244946cce2", "input": "Passage: Whisk ferns have yellow sporangia and no leaves. Answer: leaves", "output": [ "Whisk ferns have yellow sporangia and no what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-958eb337f2c24adc902005f3f8ae4fd9", "input": "Passage: Allergies occur when the immune system attacks harmless substances that enter the body from the outside. Answer: allergies", "output": [ "What occurs when the immune system attacks harmless substances that enter the body from the outside?" ] }, { "id": "task594-61cbfd6eaad344b2b0753bf21d8f6749", "input": "Passage: The Moon is easily seen from Earth. Early astronomers used telescopes to study and map its surface. The Moon has also seen a great number of satellites, rovers, and orbiters. After all, it is relatively easy to get spacecraft to the satellite. Also, before humans could be safely sent to the Moon, many studies and experiments had to be completed. Answer: moon", "output": [ "What celestial object has been visited by manned spacecraft and is easily seen from earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3fc4ca5028ee433895b7cce14ee29819", "input": "Passage: Sensorium Those parts of the brain involved in the reception and interpretation of sensory stimuli are referred to collectively as the sensorium. The cerebral cortex has several regions that are necessary for sensory perception. From the primary cortical areas of the somatosensory, visual, auditory, and gustatory senses to the association areas that process information in these modalities, the cerebral cortex is the seat of conscious sensory perception. In contrast, sensory information can also be processed by deeper brain regions, which we may vaguely describe as subconscious—for instance, we are not constantly aware of the proprioceptive information that the cerebellum uses to maintain balance. Several of the subtests can reveal activity associated with these sensory modalities, such as being able to hear a question or see a picture. Two subtests assess specific functions of these cortical areas. The first is praxis, a practical exercise in which the patient performs a task completely on the basis of verbal description without any demonstration from the examiner. For example, the patient can be told to take their left hand and place it palm down on their left thigh, then flip it over so the palm is facing up, and then repeat this four times. The examiner describes the activity without any movements on their part to suggest how the movements are to be performed. The patient needs to understand the instructions, transform them into movements, and use sensory feedback, both visual and proprioceptive, to perform the movements correctly. Answer: sensorium", "output": [ "What term is used to describe the parts of the brain involved in the reception and interpretation of sensory stimuli collectively?" ] }, { "id": "task594-64dba7a80d3044a387a2c1c230e86185", "input": "Passage: But mining for gold is a slow, dirty, and dangerous process. Not everyone owns a gold mine – in both the ancient Egyptian society and during the Roman Empire, the gold mines were the property of the state, not an individual or group. So there were few ways for most people to legally get any gold for themselves. Answer: state", "output": [ "In ancient egypt gold mines were the property of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dd4ac5b565c445df8b7e8c958b95ba4c", "input": "Passage: 34.6 High-temperature Superconductors Superconductors are materials with a resistivity of zero. They are familiar to the general public because of their practical applications and have been mentioned at a number of points in the text. Because the resistance of a piece of superconductor is zero, there are no heat losses for currents through them; they are used in magnets needing high currents, such as in MRI machines, and could cut energy losses in power transmission. But most superconductors must be cooled to temperatures only a few kelvin above absolute zero, a costly procedure limiting their practical applications. In the past decade, tremendous advances have been made in producing materials that become superconductors at relatively high temperatures. There is hope that room temperature superconductors may someday be manufactured. Answer: zero", "output": [ "Superconductors are materials with a resistivity of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-acf06776fcd24148963bf2a78bf70a4a", "input": "Passage: Phagocytosis is the process by which large particles, such as cells, are taken in by a cell. For example, when microorganisms invade the human body, a type of white blood cell called a neutrophil removes the invader through this process, surrounding and engulfing the microorganism, which is then destroyed by the neutrophil (Figure 3.26). A variation of endocytosis is called pinocytosis. This literally means “cell drinking” and was named at a time when the assumption was that the cell was purposefully taking in extracellular fluid. In reality, this process takes in solutes that the cell needs from the extracellular fluid (Figure 3.26). A targeted variation of endocytosis employs binding proteins in the plasma membrane that are specific for certain substances (Figure 3.26). The particles bind to the proteins and the plasma membrane invaginates, bringing the substance and the proteins into the cell. If passage across the membrane of the target of receptor-mediated endocytosis is ineffective, it will not be removed from the tissue fluids or blood. Instead, it will stay in those fluids and increase in concentration. Some human diseases are caused by a failure of receptor-mediated endocytosis. For example, the form of cholesterol termed low-density lipoprotein or LDL (also referred to as “bad” cholesterol) is removed from the blood by receptormediated endocytosis. In the human genetic disease familial hypercholesterolemia, the LDL receptors are defective or missing entirely. People with this condition have life-threatening levels of cholesterol in their blood, because their cells cannot clear the chemical from their blood. Answer: phagocytosis", "output": [ "What is the process by which large particles, such as cells, are taken in by a cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-52b452b637414e1caa8c194d87c1f2ff", "input": "Passage: Venus has more volcanoes than any other planet. There are between 100,000 and one million volcanoes on Venus! Most of the volcanoes are now inactive. There are also a large number of craters. This means that Venus doesn’t have tectonic plates. Plate tectonics on Earth erases features over time. Figure below is an image made using radar data. The volcano is Maat Mons. Lava beds are in the foreground. Scientists think the color of sunlight on Venus is reddish-brown. Answer: venus", "output": [ "What planet has the most volcanoes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1dd0646a7332417d9222ca91c1f832b6", "input": "Passage: If you look at the map pictured below, you will see that the lithosphere is divided into plates ( Figure below ). There are a dozen major and several minor plates. Each plate is named for the continent or ocean basin it contains. Some plates are made of all oceanic lithosphere. A few are all continental lithosphere. But most plates are made of a combination of both. Notice the locations where the most earthquake epicenters are found. Answer: continental and oceanic lithosphere", "output": [ "Most plates are made up of a combination of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-623bb221c190431b9cf33f9e48bb03ce", "input": "Passage: Location of the Heart The human heart is located within the thoracic cavity, medially between the lungs in the space known as the mediastinum. Figure 19.2 shows the position of the heart within the thoracic cavity. Within the mediastinum, the heart is separated from the other mediastinal structures by a tough membrane known as the pericardium, or pericardial sac, and sits in its own space called the pericardial cavity. The dorsal surface of the heart lies near the bodies of the vertebrae, and its anterior surface sits deep to the sternum and costal cartilages. The great veins, the superior and inferior venae cavae, and the great arteries, the aorta and pulmonary trunk, are attached to the superior surface of the heart, called the base. The base of the heart is located at the level of the third costal cartilage, as seen in Figure 19.2. The inferior tip of the heart, the apex, lies just to the left of the sternum between the junction of the fourth and fifth ribs near their articulation with the costal cartilages. The right side of the heart is deflected anteriorly, and the left side is deflected posteriorly. It is important to remember the position and orientation of the heart when placing a stethoscope on the chest of a patient and listening for heart sounds, and also when looking at images taken from a midsagittal perspective. The slight deviation of the apex to the left is reflected in a depression in the medial surface of the inferior lobe of the left lung, called the cardiac notch. Answer: thoracic", "output": [ "The human heart is located within what cavity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b42dcdb9f9a349afbf96a638655a93ca", "input": "Passage: Renewable resources can be renewed as they are used. An example is timber, which comes from trees. New trees can be planted to replace those that are cut down. Sunlight is a renewable resource. It seems we will never run out of that!. Answer: renewable", "output": [ "Timber, obtained from trees that can be replanted to replace those that are cut down, is an example of what type of resource?" ] }, { "id": "task594-354dc523cd204cc3b18ef04e92492fb8", "input": "Passage: Cnidarians are aquatic invertebrates in Phylum Cnidaria. They include jellyfish and corals, both of which have radial symmetry. All cnidarians have nematocysts, and many are bioluminescent. They may exist in medusa and/or polyp form. Corals build hard exoskeletons that grow to become coral reefs. Answer: reefs", "output": [ "Corals build hard exoskeletons that grow to become coral what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-65e56dc41d0e444d836c859fe5e21221", "input": "Passage: Electromotive Force You can think of many different types of voltage sources. Batteries themselves come in many varieties. There are many types of mechanical/electrical generators, driven by many different energy sources, ranging from nuclear to wind. Solar cells create voltages directly from light, while thermoelectric devices create voltage from temperature differences. Answer: temperature", "output": [ "Solar cells create voltages directly from light, while thermoelectric devices create voltage from differences in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bf0a4b6f808a4044af8f630759e17a96", "input": "Passage: percent of the Amazon rainforest was lost. Rates are higher in other tropical rainforests. What we are likely to notice on a day-to-day basis as a result of biodiversity loss is that food will be more difficult to produce, clean water will be more difficult to find, and the rate of development of new medicines will become slower, as we depend upon other species for much of these services. This increased loss of biodiversity is almost entirely a result of human activities as we destroy species’ habitats, introduce disruptive species into ecosystems, hunt some species to extinction, continue to warm the planet with greenhouse gases, and influence nature in other ways. Slowing the loss of biodiversity is within our abilities if we make dramatic changes in our consumptive behavior and identify and protect the elements of our ecosystems that we depend on for our lives and welfare. Answer: biodiversity loss", "output": [ "The result of what, in places like the amazon rainforest, is that food will be harder to produce, clean water will be harder to find, and development of new medicines will become slower?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d95e62b861fb416eb6095055281227f3", "input": "Passage: Hip Bone The hip bone, or coxal bone, forms the pelvic girdle portion of the pelvis. The paired hip bones are the large, curved bones that form the lateral and anterior aspects of the pelvis. Each adult hip bone is formed by three separate bones that fuse together during the late teenage years. These bony components are the ilium, ischium, and pubis (Figure 8.13). These names are retained and used to define the three regions of the adult hip bone. Answer: hip", "output": [ "Which bones are the large, curved bones that form the lateral and anterior aspects of the pelvis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-514c753358f3443297bb79d063ee5fe9", "input": "Passage: Behavioral isolation occurs when the presence or absence of a specific behavior prevents reproduction from taking place. For example, male fireflies use specific light patterns to attract females. Various species of fireflies display their lights differently. If a male of one species tried to attract the female of another, she would not recognize the light pattern and would not mate with the male. Other prezygotic barriers work when differences in their gamete cells (eggs and sperm) prevent fertilization from taking place; this is called a gametic barrier. Similarly, in some cases closely related organisms try to mate, but their reproductive structures simply do not fit together. For example, damselfly males of different species have differently shaped reproductive organs. If one species tries to mate with the female of another, their body parts simply do not fit together. (Figure 18.19). Answer: behavioral isolation", "output": [ "What occurs when the presence or absence of a specific behavior prevents reproduction from taking place?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c1be5bd1e7654cbba01c4127d23339b4", "input": "Passage: Large viruses were once parasitic cells inside bigger host cells. Over time, genes needed to survive and reproduce outside host cells were lost. Answer: parasitic", "output": [ "Large viruses began as what type of cells inside bigger host cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-40db63ed222e4f8980aa1b34613ad4c5", "input": "Passage: Kidney failure happens when the kidneys cannot remove wastes from the blood. If the kidneys are unable to filter wastes from the blood, the wastes build up in the body. Kidney failure can be caused by an accident that injures the kidneys, the loss of a lot of blood, or by some drugs and poisons. Kidney failure may lead to permanent loss of kidney function. But if the kidneys are not seriously damaged, they may recover. Answer: kidney failure", "output": [ "What happens when the kidneys cannot remove wastes from the blood?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8d34f43f15ab42ef819900dcde45ed98", "input": "Passage: Two chemical species combine to produce a new compound. The general expression for this reaction is A + B → C. Answer: arthropods", "output": [ "What are the largest phylum of the animal kingdom?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b5c2c5d9f39742e6acafdd766b821db3", "input": "Passage: Solids and liquids are phases that have their own unique properties. Answer: properties", "output": [ "Solids and liquids are phases of matter that have their own unique what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1aeec287b8954b9081288cbcc7ac6df7", "input": "Passage: The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of all the nervous tissue that lies outside the central nervous system. It is shown in yellow in Figure below . It is connected to the central nervous system by nerves. A nerve is a cable-like bundle of axons. Some nerves are very long. The longest human nerve is the sciatic nerve. It runs from the spinal cord in the lower back down the left leg all the way to the toes of the left foot. Like the nervous system as a whole, the peripheral nervous system also has two divisions: the sensory division and the motor division. Answer: peripheral nervous system", "output": [ "Which nervous system consists of all the nervous tissue that lies outside the central nervous system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0b2dbcd0e6a74a39aa817b25cfb10ef3", "input": "Passage: You can reduce your risk of developing cancer by staying away from certain hazards. For example, the use of tanning beds can lead to skin cancer. Answer: skin cancer", "output": [ "What type of cancer can the use of tanning beds lead to?" ] }, { "id": "task594-84b5f68565a740cfa0ed6d7a0503580a", "input": "Passage: For example, in the fall, when the days start to get shorter, the trees sense that there is less sunlight. The plant is stimulated, and it sends messages telling the leaves to change colors and fall. This is an example of photoperiodism , the reaction of organisms, such as plants, to the length of day or night. Photoperiodism is also the reaction of plants to the length of light and dark periods. Many flowering plants sense the length of night, a dark period, as a signal to flower. Each plant has a different photoperiod, or night length. When the plant senses the appropriate length of darkness, resulting in an appropriate length of daylight, it flowers. Flowering plants are classified as long-day plants or short-day plants. Long-day plants flower when the length of daylight exceeds the necessary photoperiod, and short-day plants flower when the day length is shorter than the necessary photoperiod. Long-day plants include carnations, clover, lettuce, wheat, and turnips. Short-day plants include cotton, rice, and sugar cane. Answer: they get shorter", "output": [ "What happens to the length of the days in the fall?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2037fb958297448381ed9bd064403129", "input": "Passage: In a wheel and axle, force may be applied either to the wheel or to the axle. In both cases, the direction of the force does not change, but the force is either increased or applied over a greater distance. Answer: direction", "output": [ "In a wheel and axle, when force is applied either to the wheel or axle, what aspect of the force does not change?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1dbe2c3da65447c481637669428272ba", "input": "Passage: where R can be an alkyl group, an aryl group, or a hydrogen atom. The simplest example, HCO2H, is formic acid, so called because it is found in the secretions of stinging ants (from the Latin formica, meaning “ant”). Another example is acetic acid(CH3CO2H), which is found in vinegar. Like many acids, carboxylic acids tend to have sharp odors. For example, butyric acid (CH3CH2CH2CO2H), is responsible for the smell of rancid butter, and the characteristic odor of sour milk and vomit is due to lactic acid [CH3CH(OH)CO2H]. Some common carboxylic acids are shown in Figure 2.21 \"Some Common Carboxylic Acids\". where R can be an alkyl group, an aryl group, or a hydrogen atom. The simplest example, HCO2H, is formic acid, so called because it is found in the secretions of stinging ants (from the Latin formica, meaning “ant”). Another example is acetic acid(CH3CO2H), which is found in vinegar. Like many acids, carboxylic acids tend to have sharp odors. For example, butyric acid (CH3CH2CH2CO2H), is responsible for the smell of rancid butter, and the characteristic odor of sour milk and vomit is due to lactic acid [CH3CH(OH)CO2H]. Some common carboxylic acids are shown in Figure 2.21 \"Some Common Carboxylic Acids\". Answer: stinging ants", "output": [ "Formic acid is found in the secretions of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-63967543f56b4b9fa586a066f9ad81ed", "input": "Passage: Figure 8.5 The basic equation for photosynthesis is deceptively simple. In reality, the process takes place in many steps involving intermediate reactants and products. Glucose, the primary energy source in cells, is made from two three-carbon GA3Ps. Answer: glucose", "output": [ "What is the primary energy source for cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-87d984b4644e4b8bb0f118851cec38d7", "input": "Passage: Populations may show different patterns of growth. The growth pattern depends partly on the conditions under which a population lives. Two common growth patterns are exponential growth and logistic growth. Both are represented in Figure below . Answer: exponential and logistic", "output": [ "What are 2 common growth patterns of population?" ] }, { "id": "task594-624d0dbe05d94149885c8511d988d23e", "input": "Passage: U. S. law states that once mining is complete, the land must be restored to its natural state. This process is called reclamation . A pit may be refilled with dirt. It may be filled with water to create a lake. The pits may be turned into landfills. Underground mines may be sealed off or left open as homes for bats. The land is reshaped. Native plants are planted. Answer: reclamation", "output": [ "When land used for mining or other purposes is restored to its natural state, what do you call the process, which is often mandated by law?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ca28d4a8d0ca468694fa98a9fbd796b4", "input": "Passage: We have talked about the activity and decay of individual isotopes. In the real world, there is a decay chain that takes place until a stable end-product is produced. For U-238, the chain is a long one, with a mix of isotopes having very different half-lives. The end of the chain resides in lead, a stable element that does not decay further. Answer: stable end-product", "output": [ "What is required for a decay chain to end?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d0ea2b6804714d5da530b859e5b496f5", "input": "Passage: Intraspecific competition happens when members of the same species compete for the same resources. For example, two trees may grow close together and compete for light. One may out-compete the other by growing taller to get more available light. As members of the same species are usually genetically different, they have different characteristics, and in this example, one tree grows taller than the other. The organism that is better adapted to that environment is better able to survive. The other organism may not survive. In this example, it is the taller tree that is better adapted to the environment. Answer: intraspecific competition", "output": [ "When members of the same species compete for the same resources, it is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fae7519721614ec3b6874b8b4576ab70", "input": "Passage: Magnetite naturally attracts iron nails and filings. Its natural magnetism was discovered thousands of years ago. Answer: iron", "output": [ "What are magnetites naturally attracted to?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0927643a22b945db82f6aab87c633a56", "input": "Passage: Some of the pollutants from fossil fuels can be filtered out of exhaust before it is released into the air ( Figure below ). Other pollutants can be changed to harmless compounds before they are released. Two widely used technologies are scrubbers and catalytic converters. Answer: pollutants", "output": [ "Scrubbers and catalytic converters are examples of technologies that change what into harmless compounds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a5428ca94d6e49a5a0ee7cd898a7f4c2", "input": "Passage: The role a species plays in the ecosystem is called its niche. Answer: the ecosystem", "output": [ "Niche refers to the role a species plays in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-00045186a65b439aa64ae87de64e5f02", "input": "Passage: Evolution of Gene Regulation Prokaryotic cells can only regulate gene expression by controlling the amount of transcription. As eukaryotic cells evolved, the complexity of the control of gene expression increased. For example, with the evolution of eukaryotic cells came compartmentalization of important cellular components and cellular processes. A nuclear region that contains the DNA was formed. Transcription and translation were physically separated into two different cellular compartments. It therefore became possible to control gene expression by regulating transcription in the nucleus, and also by controlling the RNA levels and protein translation present outside the nucleus. Some cellular processes arose from the need of the organism to defend itself. Cellular processes such as gene silencing developed to protect the cell from viral or parasitic infections. If the cell could quickly shut off gene expression for a short period of time, it would be able to survive an infection when other organisms could not. Therefore, the organism evolved a new process that helped it survive, and it was able to pass this new development to offspring. Answer: transcription", "output": [ "Prokaryotic cells can only regulate gene expression by controlling the amount of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d70dfbe530124812b8155658e3eea4d8", "input": "Passage: Coevolution occurs when species evolve together. This often happens in species that have symbiotic relationships. Examples include flowering plants and their pollinators. Answer: coevolution", "output": [ "What is the term for species evolving together?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1bcde446da2c4770a702fe7d2efd9753", "input": "Passage: Fission is the opposite of fusion and releases energy only when heavy nuclei are split. As noted in Fusion, energy is released if the products of a nuclear reaction have a greater binding energy per nucleon ( BE / A ) than the parent nuclei. Figure 32.25. Answer: fission", "output": [ "What process is the opposite of fusion and releases energy only when heavy nuclei are split?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f5dc9bb7bb59453d928e88be5134a5cb", "input": "Passage: The electron cloud of a helium atom contains two electrons, which can normally be expected to be equally distributed spatially around the nucleus. However, at any given moment the electron distribution may be uneven, resulting in an instantaneous dipole. This weak and temporary dipole subsequently influences neighboring helium atoms through electrostatic attraction and repulsion. It induces a dipole on nearby helium atoms (see Figure below ). Answer: an instantaneous dipole", "output": [ "A weak and temporary dipole that influences nearby atoms through electrostatic attraction and repulsion is known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-53bc7359661e4404b0189bfaec0fc9b0", "input": "Passage: 25.5 Dispersion: The Rainbow and Prisms • The spreading of white light into its full spectrum of wavelengths is called dispersion. • Rainbows are produced by a combination of refraction and reflection and involve the dispersion of sunlight into a continuous distribution of colors. • Dispersion produces beautiful rainbows but also causes problems in certain optical systems. Answer: dispersion", "output": [ "What is the spreading of white light into its full spectrum of wavelengths called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-08d0f2475aa44c09b30ce5400be495bd", "input": "Passage: Frozen precipitation may fall as snow, sleet, or freezing rain. Answer: snow, sleet, freezing rain", "output": [ "What three forms does frozen precipitation take?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0216b06b430f40b9911bfc24a2dabb8d", "input": "Passage: Mollusks have a hard outer shell. There is a layer of tissue called the mantle between the shell and the body. Answer: mantle", "output": [ "What is the layer of tissue between the body and shell called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-34ab2fa725d64f0a8d03943530fe42d6", "input": "Passage: Bronchitis is an inflammation of the bronchi, the air passages that conduct air into the lungs. The bronchi become red and swollen with infection. Acute bronchitis is usually caused by viruses or bacteria, and may last several days or weeks. It is characterized by a cough that produces phlegm, or mucus. Symptoms include shortness of breath and wheezing. Acute bronchitis is usually treated with antibiotics. Answer: antibiotics", "output": [ "What is the usual treatment for acute bronchitis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cebc4716a58241a19e38c10530dd6df8", "input": "Passage: Equinox comes halfway between the two solstices. At equinoxes, the Sun's rays shine most directly at the Equator ( Figure below ). The daylight and nighttime hours are exactly equal on an equinox. The autumnal, or fall, equinox happens on September 22 or 23. The vernal, or spring, equinox happens March 21 or 22 in the Northern Hemisphere. Answer: equinox", "output": [ "What event occurs between the two solstices?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ed1dba35a9a3424eb5aede96a62a8a77", "input": "Passage: QUADruplets are four children born at one birth. Answer: quadruplets", "output": [ "What are four children born at one birth called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d78da1c4acd44963afdba4fa9f9abfec", "input": "Passage: The weather map pictured below ( Figure above ) shows air pressure. The lines on the map connect places that have the same air pressure. Air pressure is measured in a unit called the millibar. Isobars are the lines that connect the points with the same air pressure. The map also shows low- and high-pressure centers and fronts. Find the cold front on the map. This cold front is likely to move toward the northeast over the next couple of days. How could you use this information to predict what the weather will be on the East Coast?. Answer: millibar", "output": [ "What is the unit used to measure air pressure?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bcd0bc088584426f80f312666b665321", "input": "Passage: Most animals have an exoskeleton, including insects, spiders, scorpions, horseshoe crabs, centipedes, and crustaceans. Scientists estimate that, of insects alone, there are over 30 million species on our planet. The exoskeleton is a hard covering or shell that provides benefits to the animal, such as protection against damage from predators and from water loss (for land animals); it also provides for the attachments of muscles. As the tough and resistant outer cover of an arthropod, the exoskeleton may be constructed of a tough polymer such as chitin and is often biomineralized with materials such as calcium carbonate. This is fused to the animal’s epidermis. Ingrowths of the exoskeleton, called apodemes, function as attachment sites for muscles, similar to tendons in more advanced animals (Figure 33.3). In order to grow, the animal must first synthesize a new exoskeleton underneath the old one and then shed or molt the original covering. This limits the animal’s ability to grow continually, and may limit the individual’s ability to mature if molting does not occur at the proper time. The thickness of the exoskeleton must be increased significantly to accommodate any increase in weight. It is estimated that a doubling of body size increases body weight by a factor of eight. The increasing thickness of the chitin necessary to support this weight limits most animals with an exoskeleton to a relatively small size. The same principles apply to endoskeletons, but they are more efficient because muscles are attached on the outside, making it easier to compensate for increased mass. Answer: exoskeleton", "output": [ "What is the term for the hard covering that protects insects, crustaceans, and spiders?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8fab1175c39349709f718ec24ba27dcd", "input": "Passage: Electrical energy is transmitted by moving electrons in an electric current. In order to travel, electric current needs matter. It cannot pass through empty space. However, matter resists the flow of electric current. That’s because flowing electrons in current collide with particles of matter, which absorb their energy. Some types of matter offer more or less resistance to electric current than others. Answer: electrical energy", "output": [ "What is transmitted by moving electrons in an electric current?" ] }, { "id": "task594-978f0adf27bb44c1a3a9271567c4336e", "input": "Passage: Recall that a double bond consists of one sigma bond and one pi bond. In order for a double bond to be formed, each participating carbon atom must have at least one unhybridized p orbital. In a carbon-carbon double bond where both carbons are bonded to two additional atoms, each carbon is sp 2 hybridized. The double bond includes a sigma bond between a hybrid orbital from each carbon and a pi bond between the leftover p orbital from each carbon. The angles between any two bonds for an sp 2 hybridized carbon are approximately 120°. Answer: double bond", "output": [ "What kind of bond consists of one sigma bond and one pi bond?" ] }, { "id": "task594-89b23c7c181349289b75731e5da947f7", "input": "Passage: Christopher Auyeung. Ions are created by the loss or gain of electrons . CC BY-NC 3.0. Answer: ions", "output": [ "What are created based upon the loss or gain of electrons?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c5203d21042b419691e9b9815f6b99d6", "input": "Passage: The quantity of force multiplied by the time it is applied is called impulse. Answer: impulse", "output": [ "What is the quantity of force multiplied by the time it is applied called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d9d14b7563d74dd2be04e2356ff1795f", "input": "Passage: 4.3 | Connective Tissue Supports and Protects By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Identify and distinguish between the types of connective tissue: proper, supportive, and fluid • Explain the functions of connective tissues As may be obvious from its name, one of the major functions of connective tissue is to connect tissues and organs. Unlike epithelial tissue, which is composed of cells closely packed with little or no extracellular space in between, connective tissue cells are dispersed in a matrix. The matrix usually includes a large amount of extracellular material produced by the connective tissue cells that are embedded within it. The matrix plays a major role in the functioning of this tissue. The major component of the matrix is a ground substance often crisscrossed by protein fibers. This ground substance is usually a fluid, but it can also be mineralized and solid, as in bones. Connective tissues come in a vast variety of forms, yet they typically have in common three characteristic components: cells, large amounts of amorphous ground substance, and protein fibers. The amount and structure of each component correlates with the function of the tissue, from the rigid ground substance in bones supporting the body to the inclusion of specialized cells; for example, a phagocytic cell that engulfs pathogens and also rids tissue of cellular debris. Answer: protein fibers", "output": [ "Connective tissues typically have three characteristic components in common: cells, large amounts of amorphous ground substance, and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9a3d89bc42c74b47b71e45d2e124a87a", "input": "Passage: Specialization in Anole Lizards. Specialization lets different species of anole lizards live in the same area without competing. Answer: specialization", "output": [ "What lets different species of anole lizards live in the same area without competing?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7f42e74bbbf44071a563b666c9f9a3a2", "input": "Passage: Pea plants are naturally self-pollinating. In self-pollination , pollen grains from anthers on one plant are transferred to stigmas of flowers on the same plant. Mendel was interested in the offspring of two different parent plants, so he had to prevent self-pollination. He removed the anthers from the flowers of some of the plants in his experiments. Then he pollinated them by hand with pollen from other parent plants of his choice. When pollen from one plant fertilizes another plant of the same species, it is called cross-pollination . The offspring that result from such a cross are called hybrids. Answer: cross-pollination", "output": [ "What is it called when pollen from one plant fertilizes another plant of the same species?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fc45038ca73c47f8b9f618129dddfe97", "input": "Passage: A liquid is a form of matter that has a definite volume, but an indefinite shape. As water is poured from one container into another, it adopts the shape of its new container. However, the volume of the water does not change, because the water molecules are still relatively close to one another in the liquid state. Unlike a solid, the arrangement of particles in a liquid is not rigid and orderly. Liquids are also incompressible. Answer: a liquid", "output": [ "What is a form of matter that has a definite volume, but an indefinite shape?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c574604efbe54bab8ae483168b387e0b", "input": "Passage: Greenhouse gases include CO 2 , H 2 O, methane, O 3 , nitrous oxides (NO and NO 2 ), and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). All are a normal part of the atmosphere except CFCs. The table below shows how each greenhouse gas naturally enters the atmosphere ( Table below ). Answer: greenhouse gases", "output": [ "Co 2 , h 2 o, methane, o 3 , nitrous oxides (no and no 2 ), and chlorofluorocarbons (cfcs) are known as what type of gases?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5b7b83b4c4954fcaa6fc68c2eb87bde1", "input": "Passage: In this lesson, you learned some of the ways that humans differ from other mammals. For example, humans have a larger and more complex brain than other mammals. That’s why they are also the most intelligent mammals. The next chapter introduces the biology of the human animal. Answer: humans", "output": [ "What mammal is the most intelligent?" ] }, { "id": "task594-49e239eda9b44e22815279b8d19a35de", "input": "Passage: This diagram represents the cell cycle in eukaryotes. The cell cycle depicts the life of an eukaryotic cell. The cell cycle has four phases: the first growth or gap (G 1 ) phase, the synthesis (S) phase, the second growth or gap (G 2 ) phase and the mitotic (M) phase. The M phase includes mitosis and cytokinesis. The cell spends the majority of the cycle in the first three phases (G 1 , S, G 2 ) of the cycle, collectively known as interphase. After cytokinesis, two genetically identical daughter cells are formed. Answer: four", "output": [ "How many cycles do cells have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c88cca85ca1c40068b4faf91b7603887", "input": "Passage: In catalysis, if a molecule forms strong bonds to the catalyst, then the catalyst may become poisoned. Experiments on various catalysts showed the following results: a. Fe, Ru, and Os form weak bonds with N2; however, O2, alkynes, alkenes, CO, H2, and CO2 interact more strongly. CO2 and H2 form weak bonds with a Co or Ni surface. Rh, Pd, Ir, and Pt form weak bonds with H2 but do not bond with CO2. Cu, Ag, and Au form weak bonds with CO and ethylene. Explain why Fe was chosen as a catalyst to convert nitrogen and hydrogen to ammonia. Why is Fe more suitable than Ru or Os? f. Because alkenes generally interact more strongly with metal surfaces than does H 2, what catalyst would you choose for hydrogenation of an alkene such as ethylene? g. Although platinum is used in catalytic converters for automobile exhaust, it was not found to be a particularly effective catalyst for the reaction of H2 with a mixture of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide to produce methane. Why? h. If you were interested in developing a catalyst to reversibly bind ethylene, which of the catalysts listed here would you choose? 14. Nonstoichiometric metal oxides can be effective catalysts for oxidation–reduction reactions. One such catalyst is Ni1−xO, found to be effective for converting CO to CO2when oxygen is present. Why is it so effective? 15. The chemical reactions in an organism can be controlled by regulating the activity of certain enzymes. Efficient regulation results in an enzyme being active only when it is needed. For example, if a cell needed. Answer: catalyst gets poisoned", "output": [ "What happens if a molecule forms strong bonds to the catalyst?" ] }, { "id": "task594-29153c4e2a7b42ab8cb1921ab6568213", "input": "Passage: If a solute is a gas, increasing the temperature decreases its solubility. For example, less carbon dioxide can dissolve in warm water than in cold water. Answer: warm water", "output": [ "In which kind of water can less carbon dioxide dissolve?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9cdc0f2e72454f159cd4e500ca020568", "input": "Passage: The menstrual cycle is a series of changes in the reproductive system of mature females that repeats every month on average. It includes changes in the uterus as well as development of an egg and ovulation. If fertilization does not occur, menstruation occurs and the cycle repeats. Answer: lack of fertilization", "output": [ "What causes the menstrual cycle to be repeated?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ff8d21a1ba574dca934b38118d565662", "input": "Passage: Secondary Vesicles The brain continues to develop, and the vesicles differentiate further (see Figure 13.3b). The three primary vesicles become five secondary vesicles. The prosencephalon enlarges into two new vesicles called the telencephalon and the diencephalon. The telecephalon will become the cerebrum. The diencephalon gives rise to several adult structures; two that will be important are the thalamus and the hypothalamus. In the embryonic diencephalon, a structure known as the eye cup develops, which will eventually become the retina, the nervous tissue of the eye called the retina. This is a rare example of nervous tissue developing as part of the CNS structures in the embryo, but becoming a peripheral structure in the fully formed nervous system. The mesencephalon does not differentiate into any finer divisions. The midbrain is an established region of the brain at the primary vesicle stage of development and remains that way. The rest of the brain develops around it and constitutes a large percentage of the mass of the brain. Dividing the brain into forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain is useful in considering its developmental pattern, but the midbrain is a small proportion of the entire brain, relatively speaking. The rhombencephalon develops into the metencephalon and myelencephalon. The metencephalon corresponds to the adult structure known as the pons and also gives rise to the cerebellum. The cerebellum (from the Latin meaning “little brain”) accounts for about 10 percent of the mass of the brain and is an important structure in itself. The most significant connection between the cerebellum and the rest of the brain is at the pons, because the pons and cerebellum develop out of the same vesicle. The myelencephalon corresponds to the adult structure known as the medulla oblongata. The structures that come. Answer: at the pons", "output": [ "Where is the most significant connection between the cerebellum and the rest of the brain?" ] }, { "id": "task594-81f9ced789e44bfda52304acb4d51db9", "input": "Passage: Weathering changes solid rock into sediments. Sediments are different sizes of rock particles. Boulders are sediments; so is gravel. At the other end, silt and clay are also sediments. Weathering causes rocks at the Earth’s surface to change form. The new minerals that form are stable at the Earth’s surface. Answer: weathering", "output": [ "Which process causes rocks at the earth's surface to change form?" ] }, { "id": "task594-03dbbaa58a024be3bba6fc3b6c003e9f", "input": "Passage: Testing a hypothesis requires data. Data can be gathered by observations or by experiments. Answer: data", "output": [ "What do you require to test a hypothesis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d0fd8d0e41cf4b299497ffd62ae54c6c", "input": "Passage: Metamorphism. This long word means “to change form. “ A rock undergoes metamorphism if it is exposed to extreme heat and pressure within the crust. With metamorphism, the rock does not melt all the way. The rock changes due to heat and pressure. A metamorphic rock may have a new mineral composition and/or texture. Answer: heat and pressure", "output": [ "What is a rock exposed to if it's undergoing metamorphism?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2e327ca401fc4704b0fca29fab71a3d3", "input": "Passage: Fibrous root systems have many small branching roots, called fibrous roots , but no large primary root. The huge number of threadlike roots increases the surface area for absorption of water and minerals, but fibrous roots anchor the plant less securely. Answer: fibrous roots", "output": [ "Fibrous root systems have many small branching roots called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-df5fc24f5e74403e9c8e9a359b6adf9b", "input": "Passage: Autosomal Dominant Inheritance. Only one “affected” allele is necessary to result in the “affected” phenotype. For a genetic disease inherited in this manner, only one mutant allele is necessary to result in the phenotype. Achondroplasia (discussed later) is an example of a dominant disorder. Both homozygous and heterozygous individuals will show the phenotype. Homozygous achondroplasia is usually a lethal condition. Answer: allele", "output": [ "In autosomal dominant inheritance only one \"affected\" what is necessary to result in an \"affected\" phenotype?" ] }, { "id": "task594-745782ffe6a64236877f00b3f1e557bb", "input": "Passage: Discussion As might have been expected, the player slides a shorter distance by sliding uphill. Note that the problem could also have been solved in terms of the forces directly and the work energy theorem, instead of using the potential energy. This method would have required combining the normal force and force of gravity vectors, which no longer cancel each other because they point in different directions, and friction, to find the net force. You could then use the net force and the net work to find the distance d that reduces the kinetic energy to zero. By applying conservation of energy and using the potential energy instead, we need only consider the gravitational potential energy. Answer: gravity", "output": [ "What force increases a slide downhill and decreases a slide uphill?" ] }, { "id": "task594-daa9e71e4a1d4938af028669e04818f6", "input": "Passage: Carbon is a nonmetal in group 14 of the periodic table. Like other group 14 compounds, carbon has four valence electrons. Valence electrons are the electrons in the outer energy level of an atom that are involved in chemical bonds. The valence electrons of carbon are shown in Figure below . Answer: valence", "output": [ "What type of electrons does carbon have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-edb7e7292bb24b47be3e91dc4a541802", "input": "Passage: Thermoregulation Animals can be divided into two groups: those that maintain a constant body temperature in the face of differing environmental temperatures, and those that have a body temperature that is the same as their environment and thus varies with the environmental temperature. Animals that do not have internal control of their body temperature are called ectotherms. The body temperature of these organisms is generally similar to the temperature of the environment, although the individual organisms may do things that keep their bodies slightly below or above the environmental temperature. This can include burrowing underground on a hot day or resting in the sunlight on a cold day. The ectotherms have been called cold-blooded, a term that may not apply to an animal in the desert with a very warm body temperature. An animal that maintains a constant body temperature in the face of environmental changes is called an endotherm. These animals are able to maintain a level of activity that an ectothermic animal cannot because they generate internal heat that keeps their cellular processes operating optimally even when the environment is cold. Answer: ectotherms", "output": [ "Animals that do not have internal control of their body temperature are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2626383560d3498d9c61586f488953c3", "input": "Passage: Underground water can be heated by magma. The hot water moves through cracks below Earth’s surface. Hot water can hold more dissolved particles than cold water. The hot, salty solution has chemical reactions with the rocks around it. The water picks up more dissolved particles. As it flows through open spaces in rocks, the water deposits solid minerals. When a mineral fills cracks in rocks, the deposits are called “veins. ” Figure below shows a white quartz vein. When the minerals are deposited in open spaces, large crystals grow. These rocks are called geodes. Figure below shows a “geode” that was formed when amethyst crystals grew in an open space in a rock. Answer: veins", "output": [ "What are the mineral deposits that fill in underground cracks called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-180764a98d1e4ac2a8dbd123f9965806", "input": "Passage: Aldosterone Recall that aldosterone increases the excretion of potassium and the reabsorption of sodium in the distal tubule. Aldosterone is released if blood levels of potassium increase, if blood levels of sodium severely decrease, or if blood pressure decreases. Its net effect is to conserve and increase water levels in the plasma by reducing the excretion of sodium, and thus water, from the kidneys. In a negative feedback loop, increased osmolality of the ECF (which follows aldosterone-stimulated sodium absorption) inhibits the release of the hormone (Figure 26.13). Answer: sodium", "output": [ "The net effect of aldosterone is to conserve and increase water levels in the plasma by reducing the excretion of what element, and thus water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3eb4498171104d20aef9c1a7c6822fe2", "input": "Passage: As you age, you might start noticing pain in your knees or elbows. These are examples of joints. Joints are the part of the skeletal system that connect your bones. Joint pain is a common problem as people age. Answer: joints", "output": [ "Knees and elbows are examples of what part of the skeletal system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-699cf027b79643bcb97d9954a4878695", "input": "Passage: Proteins are biochemical compounds that consist of one or more chains of small molecules called amino acids. Amino acids are the monomers of proteins. There are only about 20 different amino acids. The sequence of amino acids in chains and the number of chains in a protein determine the protein’s shape. Shapes may be very complex. You can learn more about the shapes of proteins at this link:. Answer: proteins", "output": [ "What is the name for biochemical compounds that consist of one or more chains of small molecules called amino acids?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5e3270abe6a14d54b0ee1e3a61bff458", "input": "Passage: Surface tension is an imbalance of attractive forces between liquid molecules at the surface of a liquid. Answer: surface tension", "output": [ "What term describes an imbalance of attractive forces between liquid molecules at the surface of a liquid?" ] }, { "id": "task594-18a852db495746aaa054383c85a5a3f3", "input": "Passage: Radar stands for ra dio d etection and r anging. In police radar, a radar gun sends out short bursts of microwaves. The microwaves reflect back from oncoming vehicles and are detected by a receiver in the radar gun. The frequency of the reflected waves is used to compute the speed of the vehicles. Radar is also used for tracking storms, detecting air traffic, and other purposes. Answer: microwaves", "output": [ "In police radar, a radar gun sends out short bursts of which waves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2e38c040f5634085b38f2bc8f82b856a", "input": "Passage: By gaining an electron, the chlorine atom becomes a chloride ion. It now has more electrons than protons and a charge of -1. Negative ions are named by adding the suffix – ide to the first part of the element name. The symbol for chloride is Cl - . Answer: negative ions", "output": [ "What kind of ions are named by adding the suffix -ide to the end?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5b96e4c39813461e8d27158d36af7045", "input": "Passage: Primates called prosimians are generally smaller. There are also far fewer of them. Prosimians include lemurs, such as the mouse lemur in Figure above , and lorises. Prosimians are thought to be more similar to the earliest primates. Answer: primates", "output": [ "Prosimians are thought to be more similar to the earliest of these?" ] }, { "id": "task594-903f48e1e45b4517b2108d5c6957af79", "input": "Passage: Medications that can result in edema include vasodilators, calcium channel blockers used to treat hypertension, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, estrogen therapies, and some diabetes medications. Underlying medical conditions that can contribute to edema include congestive heart failure, kidney damage and kidney disease, disorders that affect the veins of the legs, and cirrhosis and other liver disorders. Therapy for edema usually focuses on elimination of the cause. Activities that can reduce the effects of the condition include appropriate exercises to keep the blood and lymph flowing through the affected areas. Other therapies include elevation of the affected part to assist drainage, massage and compression of the areas to move the fluid out of the tissues, and decreased salt intake to decrease sodium and water retention. Answer: edema", "output": [ "Activities that can reduce the effects of what condition include exercises to keep the blood and lymph flowing through affected areas?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c2756c4230bc4652b4877d9c235889e4", "input": "Passage: Courtesy of the U. S. EPA. Nitrogen and sulfur oxides combine with rain to form acid rain . Public Domain. Answer: nitrogen and sulfur oxides", "output": [ "What combines with rain to form acid rain?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f749c400b41d4d9eba0770465c356126", "input": "Passage: Animals are a kingdom of multicellular eukaryotes. They cannot make their own food. Instead, they get nutrients by eating other living things. Therefore, animals are heterotrophs . Answer: heterotrophs", "output": [ "Animals can not produce their own food making them _________." ] }, { "id": "task594-4c6988ecf0804536ba7a60b49057d6ea", "input": "Passage: The diver has energy because of her position high above the pool. The type of energy she has is called potential energy. Potential energy is energy that is stored in a person or object. Often, the person or object has potential energy because of its position or shape. Answer: potential energy", "output": [ "What energy is stored in a person or object?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0ce5aa65bef54b729fecedb54557f33a", "input": "Passage: Recall that people with type O blood do not have any antigens on their RBCs. As a result, type O blood can be given to people with blood types A, B, or AB. If there are no antigens on the RBCs, there cannot be an antibody reaction in the blood. People with type O blood are often called universal donors . Answer: universal donors", "output": [ "People with type o blood are often called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-89e47b86275a4a1d802e00fbc06b257b", "input": "Passage: Figure 23.13, the esophagus runs a mainly straight route through the mediastinum of the thorax. To enter the abdomen, the esophagus penetrates the diaphragm through an opening called the esophageal hiatus. Answer: thorax", "output": [ "The esophagus runs a mainly straight route through the mediastinum of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-afa8bd2b240d4d98a5a2360ce6773380", "input": "Passage: There are only about 1,000 living species of gymnosperms, whereas there are hundreds of thousands of living species of angiosperms. Because angiosperms are so numerous and diverse, they are described separately below. Living gymnosperms are typically classified in the divisions described in Table below . Most modern gymnosperms are trees with woody trunks. The majority are conifers such as pine trees. Answer: gymnosperms", "output": [ "Conifers are the most prevalent type of what plant group?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5a50fee87e784fb3b0e24981b0fbed17", "input": "Passage: Core electrons are the electrons that are closer to the nucleus and therefore do not participate in bonding. Answer: bonding", "output": [ "Because core electrons are closer to the nucleus, they are not involved in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ecdd9c7380d145098603ddf72df98f6b", "input": "Passage: All waves can be defined in terms of their frequency and intensity. Answer: wave", "output": [ "Frequency and intensity are two measurable properties of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1293be0abc7644129a66c577d3eb571d", "input": "Passage: that have taken place during this time. There are however, areas of knowledge and human experience that the methods of science cannot be applied to. These include such things as answering purely moral questions, aesthetic questions, or what can be generally categorized as spiritual questions. Science has cannot investigate these areas because they are outside the realm of material phenomena, the phenomena of matter and energy, and cannot be observed and measured. The scientific method is a method of research with defined steps that include experiments and careful observation. The steps of the scientific method will be examined in detail later, but one of the most important aspects of this method is the testing of hypotheses. A hypothesis is a suggested explanation for an event, which can be tested. Hypotheses, or tentative explanations, are generally produced within the context of a scientific theory. A scientific theory is a generally accepted, thoroughly tested and confirmed explanation for a set of observations or phenomena. Scientific theory is the foundation of scientific knowledge. In addition, in many scientific disciplines (less so in biology) there are scientific laws, often expressed in mathematical formulas, which describe how elements of nature will behave under certain specific conditions. There is not an evolution of hypotheses through theories to laws as if they represented some increase in certainty about the world. Hypotheses are the day-to-day material that scientists work with and they are developed within the context of theories. Laws are concise descriptions of parts of the world that are amenable to formulaic or mathematical description. Natural Sciences What would you expect to see in a museum of natural sciences? Frogs? Plants? Dinosaur skeletons? Exhibits about how the brain functions? A planetarium? Gems and minerals? Or maybe all of the above? Science includes such diverse fields as astronomy, biology, computer sciences, geology, logic, physics, chemistry, and mathematics (Figure 1.16). However, those fields of science related to the physical world and its phenomena and processes are considered natural sciences. Thus, a museum of natural sciences might contain any of the items listed above. Answer: observation", "output": [ "The scientific method is a method of research with defined steps that include experiments and careful what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-417d05a57ef24c50a030c82326b187d9", "input": "Passage: Salt isn’t the only solute that dissolves in water. In fact, so many things dissolve in water that water is sometimes called the universal solvent. Water is such a good solvent because it is a very polar compound. A polar compound has positively and negatively charged ends. Solutes that are also charged are attracted to the oppositely charged ends of water molecules. This allows the water molecules to pull the solute particles apart. Answer: polar compound", "output": [ "Which compound has positively and negatively charged ends?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3f4cb2cf3dcc4950b01d7dff544655f4", "input": "Passage: The atmosphere has layers. The layers correspond with how temperature changes with altitude. By understanding the way temperature changes with altitude, we can learn a lot about how the atmosphere works. Answer: temperature", "output": [ "The layers of the atmosphere correspond with what changes with altitude?" ] }, { "id": "task594-00b68893a4004af1bd6d728b30bdfaa9", "input": "Passage: Homeobox genes are involved in the regulation of genes important to development. They encode transcription factors. Answer: homeobox genes", "output": [ "What types of genes encode transcription factors?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cbb525a618b24334bac33db0cac08adb", "input": "Passage: 17.2 | Mapping Genomes By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Define genomics • Describe genetic and physical maps • Describe genomic mapping methods Genomics is the study of entire genomes, including the complete set of genes, their nucleotide sequence and organization, and their interactions within a species and with other species. Genome mapping is the process of finding the locations of genes on each chromosome. The maps created by genome mapping are comparable to the maps that we use to navigate streets. A genetic map is an illustration that lists genes and their location on a chromosome. Genetic maps provide the big picture (similar to a map of interstate highways) and use genetic markers (similar to landmarks). A genetic marker is a gene or sequence on a chromosome that co-segregates (shows genetic linkage) with a specific trait. Early geneticists called this linkage analysis. Physical maps present the intimate details of smaller regions of the chromosomes (similar to a detailed road map). A physical map is a representation of the physical distance, in nucleotides, between genes or genetic markers. Both genetic linkage maps and physical maps are required to build a complete picture of the genome. Having a complete map of the genome makes it easier for researchers to study individual genes. Human genome maps help researchers in their efforts to identify human disease-causing genes related to illnesses like cancer, heart disease, and cystic fibrosis. Genome mapping can be used in a variety of other applications, such as using live microbes to clean up pollutants or even prevent pollution. Research involving plant genome mapping may lead to producing higher crop yields or developing plants that better adapt to climate change. Answer: genetic marker", "output": [ "What term describes a gene or sequence on a chromosome that co-segregates (shows genetic linkage) with a specific trait?" ] }, { "id": "task594-add0236f4fb247da9986358546ce52b1", "input": "Passage: Overview of Systemic Veins Systemic veins return blood to the right atrium. Since the blood has already passed through the systemic capillaries, it will be relatively low in oxygen concentration. In many cases, there will be veins draining organs and regions of the body with the same name as the arteries that supplied these regions and the two often parallel one another. This is often described as a “complementary” pattern. However, there is a great deal more variability in the venous circulation than normally occurs in the arteries. For the sake of brevity and clarity, this text will discuss only the most commonly encountered patterns. However, keep this variation in mind when you move from the classroom to clinical practice. In both the neck and limb regions, there are often both superficial and deeper levels of veins. The deeper veins generally correspond to the complementary arteries. The superficial veins do not normally have direct arterial counterparts, but in addition to returning blood, they also make contributions to the maintenance of body temperature. When the ambient temperature is warm, more blood is diverted to the superficial veins where heat can be more easily dissipated to the environment. In colder weather, there is more constriction of the superficial veins and blood is diverted deeper where the body can retain more of the heat. The “Voyage of Discovery” analogy and stick drawings mentioned earlier remain valid techniques for the study of systemic veins, but veins present a more difficult challenge because there are numerous anastomoses and multiple branches. It is like following a river with many tributaries and channels, several of which interconnect. Tracing blood flow through arteries follows the current in the direction of blood flow, so that we move from the heart through the large arteries and into the smaller arteries to the capillaries. From the capillaries, we move into the smallest veins and follow the direction of blood flow into larger veins and back to the heart. Figure 20.35 outlines the path of the major systemic veins. Answer: oxygen", "output": [ "Systemic veins return blood low in what to the right atrium?" ] }, { "id": "task594-07c2a3f061364473971bf3c038d7e10d", "input": "Passage: Scientists may focus on very different aspects of the natural world. For example, some scientists focus on the world of tiny objects, such as atoms and molecules. Other scientists devote their attention to huge objects, such as the sun and other stars. But all scientists have at least one thing in common. They want to understand how and why things happen. Achieving this understanding is the goal of science. Answer: science", "output": [ "The desire to understand how and why things happen is shared by all branches of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a0085efa99314634841c4ae207a4bcd4", "input": "Passage: The heart contracts rhythmically to pump blood to the lungs and the rest of the body. Specialized cardiac muscle cells trigger the contractions. Answer: blood", "output": [ "The heart contracts rhythmically to pump what to the lungs and the rest of the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c74904096e4742078538653d32a3e792", "input": "Passage: The shape of the path of an object undergoing projectile motion in two dimensions is a parabola. Answer: parabola", "output": [ "The shape of the path of an object undergoing projectile motion in two dimensions is a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ae75928472f44c7881bc5a165e38b479", "input": "Passage: Electromagnetic waves that are commonly called light fall roughly in the middle of the electromagnetic spectrum. Light includes infrared light, visible light, and ultraviolet light. Answer: infrared, visible, ultraviolet", "output": [ "What are 3 types of light?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b9474d6a894040d593b36088324ae7cb", "input": "Passage: What does sunshine have to do with sleep (other than the sun shining in your eyes and waking you up)? For many people, sleeping problems have to do with an amine that the brain makes called melatonin. This compound affects the sleep-wake cycle and is affected by sunlight. During the winter, the daily cycle of melatonin production may be affected by less sunlight hours. If this cycle is changed, the person may have trouble sleeping. Melatonin supplements are available in pharmacies and health food stores and may be of help for those with sleeping problems. Answer: melatonin", "output": [ "During the winter, production of what amine involved in the sleep-wake cycle may be affected by less sunlight hours?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f3bc3d845d044e5d951d1f4bb71fa02a", "input": "Passage: Figure 17.12 Thyroid Gland The thyroid gland is located in the neck where it wraps around the trachea. (a) Anterior view of the thyroid gland. (b) Posterior view of the thyroid gland. (c) The glandular tissue is composed primarily of thyroid follicles. The larger parafollicular cells often appear within the matrix of follicle cells. LM × 1332. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012). Answer: thyroid gland", "output": [ "What gland is located in the neck, where it wraps around the trachea?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d8885bbab7cf4139ac19d609c204d208", "input": "Passage: The penumbra is the part of the shadow that is partially lit. Answer: penumbra", "output": [ "What is the part of the shadow that is partially lit called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b263d8af6df04e28a3f85a092ea4332a", "input": "Passage: The idea of evolution has been around for centuries. In fact, it goes all the way back to the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. However, evolution is most often associated with Charles Darwin. Darwin published a book on evolution in 1859 titled On the Origin of Species . In the book, Darwin stated the theory of evolution by natural selection. He also presented a great deal of evidence that evolution occurs. Answer: aristotle", "output": [ "The idea of evolution has been around for centuries. in fact, it goes all the way back to the ancient greek philosopher named?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8ed7d425ddcb40dab24a730ecdc57f47", "input": "Passage: The outer planets are made of hydrogen and helium, so they are called gas giants. Answer: gas giants", "output": [ "The outer planets are made of hydrogen and helium, so they are termed what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b3f3233f68d24124adaeee7b72b80aa1", "input": "Passage: Glaciers cause erosion by plucking and abrasion. Valley glaciers form several unique features through erosion, including cirques, arêtes, and horns. Answer: valley glaciers", "output": [ "Which type of glaciers form several unique features through erosion, including cirques, arêtes, and horns?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fa7edaeef39046748147f7fb9549ee26", "input": "Passage: From Genotype to Phenotype Each human body cell has a full complement of DNA stored in 23 pairs of chromosomes. Figure 28.24 shows the pairs in a systematic arrangement called a karyotype. Among these is one pair of chromosomes, called the sex chromosomes, that determines the sex of the individual (XX in females, XY in males). The remaining 22 chromosome pairs are called autosomal chromosomes. Each of these chromosomes carries hundreds or even thousands of genes, each of which codes for the assembly of a particular protein—that is, genes are “expressed” as proteins. An individual’s complete genetic makeup is referred to as his or her genotype. The characteristics that the genes express, whether they are physical, behavioral, or biochemical, are a person’s phenotype. You inherit one chromosome in each pair—a full complement of 23—from each parent. This occurs when the sperm and oocyte combine at the moment of your conception. Homologous chromosomes—those that make up a complementary pair—have genes for the same characteristics in the same location on the chromosome. Because one copy of a gene, an allele, is inherited from each parent, the alleles in these complementary pairs may vary. Take for example an allele that encodes for dimples. A child may inherit the allele encoding for dimples on the chromosome from the father and the allele that encodes for smooth skin (no dimples) on the chromosome from the mother. Answer: homologous chromosomes", "output": [ "A complementary pair of chromosomes have genes for the same characteristics in the same location on the chromosome are known as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-37b60f8a7e6f4f03a46901333178c63f", "input": "Passage: The active site is specific for the reactants of the biochemical reaction the enzyme catalyzes. Similar to puzzle pieces fitting together, the active site can only bind certain substrates. Answer: substrates", "output": [ "The active site can only bind certain what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9ce3d695e544437e93ec5651d03ef20b", "input": "Passage: An amorphous solid is a solid that lacks an ordered internal structure. Answer: an amorphous solid", "output": [ "What is a type of solid that lacks an ordered internal structure?" ] }, { "id": "task594-65336757b3c241abb441db725a7b4fae", "input": "Passage: Beginning in puberty, each month one of the follicles and its primary oocyte starts to mature (also see Figure below ). The primary oocyte resumes meiosis and divides to form a secondary oocyte and a smaller cell, called a polar body. Both the secondary oocyte and polar body are haploid cells. The secondary oocyte has most of the cytoplasm from the original cell and is much larger than the polar body. Answer: cytoplasm", "output": [ "What does the secondary oocyte have the most of from the original cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d6f2f3c0d66341ce80d117216121ab7a", "input": "Passage: Receptor tyrosine kinases epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR), vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR), HER2/neu Receptor tyrosine kinases add phosphate groups to other proteins to activate or inactivate them. Receptor kinases add phosphate groups to receptor proteins at the surface of the cell. These receptor proteins receive signals from outside the cell and initiate a signal transduction process inside the cell. Tyrosine kinases add phosphate groups to tyrosine residues in the target protein. They can cause cancer by turning the receptor permanently on (constitutively), even without signals from outside the cell. Answer: receptor kinases", "output": [ "What adds phosphate groups to receptor proteins at the surface of the cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6cf5c0f39d5041f39dbb6ec57057bdba", "input": "Passage: Hardness helps determine how an element (especially a metal) might be used. Many elements are fairly soft (silver and gold, for example) while others (such as titanium, tungsten, and chromium) are much harder. Carbon is an interesting example of hardness. In graphite (the “lead” found in pencils) the carbon is very soft, while the carbon in a diamond is roughly seven times as hard. Answer: carbon", "output": [ "Although they differ vastly in hardness, pencil lead and diamonds both contain what element?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f0db8b558ac040688015211554fd30c7", "input": "Passage: There is an associated magnetic field ( B ) which propagates outward as well (see Figure 24.6). The electric and magnetic fields are closely related and propagate as an electromagnetic wave. This is what happens in broadcast antennae such as those in radio and TV stations. Closer examination of the one complete cycle shown in Figure 24.5 reveals the periodic nature of the generator-driven charges oscillating up and down in the antenna and the electric field produced. At time t = 0 , there is the maximum separation of charge, with negative charges at the top and positive charges at the bottom, producing the maximum magnitude of the electric field (or E -field) in the upward direction. One-fourth of a cycle later, there is no charge separation and the field next to the antenna is zero, while the maximum. Answer: electromagnetic wave", "output": [ "The electric and magnetic fields are closely related and propagate as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b7775939951b46a59f0744f7528f6338", "input": "Passage: Sometimes deep ocean water rises to the surface. This is called upwelling . The figure below shows why it happens ( Figure below ). Strong winds blow surface water away from shore. This allows deeper water to flow to the surface and take its place. Answer: upwelling", "output": [ "What phenomenon occurs when strong winds blow surface water away from shore, allowing deeper water to flow to the surface and take its place?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ca1820984d864504b03bd42b5a63a76e", "input": "Passage: Cooling and crystallization. Deep within the Earth, temperatures can get hot enough to create magma. As magma cools, crystals grow, forming an igneous rock. The crystals grow larger if the magma cools slowly, as it does if it remains deep within the Earth. If the magma cools quickly, the crystals will be very small. When crystals form from magma it is called crystallization . Answer: crystallization", "output": [ "What is it called when crystals form from magma?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b8fc342e1c6540e7a95c4295d64a95ca", "input": "Passage: The winds of a tornado can reach very high speeds. The faster the winds blow, the greater the damage they cause. Wind speed and damage are used to classify tornadoes. Table below shows how. Answer: wind speed, damage", "output": [ "What is used to classify tornadoes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bc3dbf35633840d4b3a36a727adab250", "input": "Passage: The most noticeable magnetic activity of the Sun is the appearance of sunspots. Sunspots are cooler, darker areas on the Sun’s surface ( Figure below ). Sunspots occur in an 11-year cycle. The number of sunspots begins at a minimum. The number gradually increases to the maximum. Then the number returns to a minimum again. Answer: 11", "output": [ "What is the year cycle that sunspots occur?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ddef8c6c3cb246aa96f31298b515fbaf", "input": "Passage: A familiar example may help you understand the vibrating electric and magnetic fields that make up electromagnetic waves. Consider a bar magnet, like the one in the Figure below . The magnet exerts magnetic force over an area all around it. This area is called a magnetic field. The field lines in the diagram represent the direction and location of the magnetic force. Because of the field surrounding a magnet, it can exert force on objects without touching them. They just have to be within its magnetic field. Answer: magnetic field", "output": [ "A magnet can exert force on objects without touching them, as long as they are within what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4836007cfb7d4cae872f7b4a039ed907", "input": "Passage: Chordates include vertebrates and invertebrates that have a notochord. Answer: a notochord", "output": [ "Chordates include vertebrates and invertebrates that have what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5118c694eb664d639b4ea5a9e6af3b0c", "input": "Passage: Certain medications can suppress the immune system. This is an intended effect of drugs given to people with transplanted organs. In many cases, however, it is an unwanted side effect of drugs used to treat other diseases. Answer: transplanted organs", "output": [ "Certain medications can suppress the immune system. this is an intended effect of drugs given to people with what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e61f32b555414707b96265dac3dbab8a", "input": "Passage: Small molecules can pass through the plasma membrane through a process called diffusion. Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an area where there is a higher concentration (larger amount) of the substance to an area where there is a lower concentration (lower amount) of the substance ( Figure below ). The amount of a substance in relation to the total volume is the concentration . During diffusion, molecules are said to flow down their concentration gradient , flowing from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Molecules flowing down a concentration gradient is a natural process and does not require energy. Answer: diffusion", "output": [ "What is the process of small molecules passing through the plasma membrane called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ac2db594da98423a8d52d3181baf3888", "input": "Passage: 3. Zeros that appear in front of all of the nonzero digits are called left-end zeros. Left-end zeros are never significant. A. 0.008 has one significant figure. Answer: left-end zeros", "output": [ "Zeros that appear in front of all of the nonzero digits are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b82ce263177a4fcdb65e417f9dfa1dda", "input": "Passage: Runoff causes more erosion if the land is bare. Plants help hold the soil in place. The runoff water pictured below ( Figure below ) is brown because it eroded soil from a bare, sloping field. Can you find evidence of erosion by runoff where you live? What should you look for?. Answer: bare", "output": [ "On what type of land does runoff cause more erosion?" ] }, { "id": "task594-feed167298414c4ba27d1d773d2ff1c7", "input": "Passage: Distance is the length of the route between two points. The SI unit for distance is the meter (m). Answer: distance", "output": [ "What is the term for the length of the route between two points?" ] }, { "id": "task594-da618be173384f6e97e71057f905f4ae", "input": "Passage: Some traits are controlled by more than one gene. They are called polygenic traits. Each gene for a polygenic trait may have two or more alleles. The genes may be on the same or different chromosomes. Polygenic traits may have many possible phenotypes. Skin color and adult height are examples of polygenic traits in humans. Think about all the variation in the heights of adults you know. Normal adults may range from less than 5 feet tall to more than 7 feet tall. There are people at every gradation of height in between these extremes. Answer: genes", "output": [ "Polygenic traits are controlled by more than one of these?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1687699ff3cf438bbc80b064b0f4685a", "input": "Passage: An aquifer is a layer of saturated porous rock. It lies below the water table. An impermeable layer, such as clay, is below the aquifer. Answer: an aquifer", "output": [ "What is a layer of saturated porous rock?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a49e9c37b2d940d2a690f96e961af2aa", "input": "Passage: Angiosperm success is a result of two novel structures that ensure reproductive success: flowers and fruit. Flowers allowed plants to form cooperative evolutionary relationships with animals, in particular insects, to disperse their pollen to female gametophytes in a highly targeted way. Fruit protect the developing embryo and serve as an agent of dispersal. Different structures on fruit reflect the dispersal strategies that help with the spreading of seeds. Answer: fruit", "output": [ "Angiosperm success is a result of two novel structures that ensure reproductive success: flowers and this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-52da56d271b64a2499d5c42b6655d8e0", "input": "Passage: The pyruvate molecules from glycolysis next enter the matrix of a mitochondrion. That's where the second stage of cellular respiration takes place. This stage is called the Krebs cycle . During this stage, two more molecules of ATP are produced. Other energy-storing molecules are also produced (to be used to make more ATP in stage 3). The Krebs cycle requires oxygen. Anything that needs oxygen is described as aerobic . The oxygen combines with the carbon from the pyruvate molecules. This forms carbon dioxide, a waste product. Answer: krebs cycle", "output": [ "What is the second stage of cellular respiration?" ] }, { "id": "task594-37552383d8474b309d8073d263e953c1", "input": "Passage: 31.3 Peripheral nervous system The peripheral nervous system is broken down into two sub-systems, the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. ANS - Autonomic Nervous System The ANS has two components - parasympathetic and sympathetic. The sympathetic nervous system is the \"fight or flight\" or fright response and results in an increased heart rate, increased rate of breathing, and an elevated blood glucose level. There is also decreased digestion. The second neurotransmitter is epinephrine. In this case, the first neuron is short and the second neuron is long. The parasympathetic nervous system is the rest and digest system. Drugs must be able to pass the blood brain barrier to have an effect on the CNS. Drugs act by affecting the neuron and how likely it is to fire an action potential. Stroke occurs when there is a blood clot that goes to the brain and prevent blood flow. Answer: parasympathetic and sympathetic", "output": [ "What are the two components of the autonomic nervous system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5364b1bd41484170b9917057740880a8", "input": "Passage: Because alkanes contain only C–C and C–H bonds, which are strong and not very polar (the electronegativities of C and H are similar; Figure 7.15 \"Pauling Electronegativity Values of the \"), they are not easily attacked by nucleophiles or electrophiles. Consequently, their reactivity is limited, and often their reactions occur only under extreme conditions. For example, catalytic cracking can be used to convert straight-chain alkanes to highly branched alkanes, which are better fuels for internal combustion engines. Catalytic cracking is one example of a pyrolysis reaction (from the Greek pyros, meaning “fire,” and lysis, meaning “loosening”), in which alkanes are heated to a sufficiently high temperature to induce cleavage of the weakest bonds: the C–C single bonds. The result is a mixture of radicals derived from essentially random cleavage of the various C–C bonds in the chain. Pyrolysis of n-pentane, for example, is nonspecific and can produce these four radicals: Equation 24.7. Answer: under extreme conditions", "output": [ "When do alkane reactions usually occur?" ] }, { "id": "task594-52791aa07baf4ff1befd6b23efa95b00", "input": "Passage: The solubility of a substance is the amount of that substance that is required to form a saturated solution in a given amount of solvent at a specified temperature. Solubility is often measured as the grams of solute per 100 g of solvent. The solubility of sodium chloride in water is 36.0 g per 100 g water at 20°C. The temperature must be specified because solubility varies with temperature. For gases, the pressure must also be specified. Solubility is specific for a particular solvent. We will consider solubility of material in water as solvent. Answer: solubility", "output": [ "What term means the amount of a substance required to form a saturated solution in a given amount of solvent at a specified temperature?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5d308521f88a411bb3596e2b733c6e1f", "input": "Passage: All compounds form when atoms of different elements share or transfer electrons. In water, the atoms share electrons. In some other compounds, called ionic compounds , atoms transfer electrons. The electrons actually move from one atom to another. When atoms transfer electrons in this way, they become charged particles called ions. The ions are held together by ionic bonds. Answer: ions", "output": [ "When electrons move from one atom to another, they become what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8b774c74b94f42e5ae27702eb56a138d", "input": "Passage: Enzymes are needed to speed up biochemical reactions in organisms. They work by lowering activation energy. Answer: enzymes", "output": [ "What do organisms need to speed up biochemical reactions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-33858d73034142ada9890fb3ba925ab0", "input": "Passage: Radioactivity is the ability of an atom to emit charged particles and energy from its nucleus. The charged particles and energy are called by the general term radiation. Answer: radioactivity", "output": [ "What is the ability of an atom to emit charged particles and energy from its nucleus called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-684697619c304843999695e116a9ae05", "input": "Passage: Runoff is likely to cause more erosion if the land is bare. Plants help hold the soil in place. The runoff water in Figure below is brown because it eroded soil from a bare, sloping field. Can you find evidence of erosion by runoff where you live? What should you look for?. Answer: erosion", "output": [ "Runoff is likely to cause more what if the land is bare?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7e9078deb35144dba1be9272030059e2", "input": "Passage: About 5% of earthquakes take place within a plate, away from plate boundaries. These intraplate earthquakes are caused by stresses within a plate. Since plates move over a spherical surface, zones of weakness are created. Intraplate earthquakes happen along these zones of weakness. The earthquakes may take place along ancient faults or rift zones. Answer: 5%", "output": [ "What is the percentage of earthquakes that take place within a plate, away from plate boundaries?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3f8f446cb89740098039e51a0e72bf82", "input": "Passage: An increase in temperature of a gas in a rigid container increases the pressure. Answer: pressure increases", "output": [ "What happens when an increase in temperature of a gas in a rigid container happens?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1cf5fa93cf8142589200a1fed546ea54", "input": "Passage: Commensalism is a symbiotic relationship in which one species benefits while the other species is not affected. An example is the relationship between birds called cattle egrets and cattle (see Figure below ). Cattle egrets feed on insects. They follow cattle herds around to take advantage of the insects stirred up by the feet of the cattle. The egrets get ready access to food from the relationship, whereas the cattle are not affected. Answer: commensalism", "output": [ "What is the term for a symbiotic relationship in which one species benefits while the other species is not affected?" ] }, { "id": "task594-96e8391a5d3941c382d717ed2e2b59cf", "input": "Passage: 8.5 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary To ensure that you understand the material in this chapter, you should review the meanings of the following bold terms in the following summary and ask yourself how they relate to the topics in the chapter. A phase is a certain form of matter that has the same physical properties throughout. Three phases are common: the solid, the liquid, and the gas phase. What determines the phase of a substance? Generally, the strength of the intermolecular interactions determines whether a substance is a solid, liquid, or gas under any particular conditions. Covalent network bonding is a very strong form of intermolecular interaction. Diamond is one example of a substance that has this intermolecular interaction. Ionic interactions, the forces of attraction due to oppositely charged ions, are also relatively strong. Covalent bonds are another type of interaction within molecules, but if the bonds are polar covalent bonds, then the unequal sharing of electrons can cause charge imbalances within molecules that cause interactions between molecules. These molecules are described as polar, and these interactions are called dipole-dipole interactions. A certain rather strong type of dipole-dipole interaction, involving a hydrogen atom, is called hydrogen bonding. On the other hand, equal sharing of electrons forms nonpolar covalent bonds, and the interactions between different molecules is less because the molecules are nonpolar. All substances have very weak dispersion forces (also called London forces) caused by the movement of electrons within the bonds themselves. In the solid phase, intermolecular interactions are so strong that they hold the individual atoms or molecules in place. In many solids, the regular three-dimensional arrangement of particles makes a crystal. In other solids, the irregular arrangement of particles makes an amorphous solid. In liquids, the intermolecular interactions are Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: phase", "output": [ "What is the term for a certain form of matter that has the same physical properties throughout?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e6bc1f9e9d1541d0b8b52f5c8fdc23ee", "input": "Passage: Nails The nail bed is a specialized structure of the epidermis that is found at the tips of our fingers and toes. The nail body is formed on the nail bed, and protects the tips of our fingers and toes as they are the farthest extremities and the parts of the body that experience the maximum mechanical stress (Figure 5.13). In addition, the nail body forms a back-support for picking up small objects with the fingers. The nail body is composed of densely packed dead keratinocytes. The epidermis in this part of the body has evolved a specialized structure upon which nails can form. The nail body forms at the nail root, which has a matrix of proliferating cells from the stratum basale that enables the nail to grow continuously. The lateral nail fold overlaps the nail on the sides, helping to anchor the nail body. The nail fold that meets the proximal end of the nail body forms the nail cuticle, also called the eponychium. The nail bed is rich in blood vessels, making it appear pink, except at the base, where a thick layer of epithelium over the nail matrix forms a crescent-shaped region called the lunula (the “little moon”). The area beneath the free edge of the nail, furthest from the cuticle, is called the hyponychium. It consists of a thickened layer of stratum corneum. Answer: fingers and toes", "output": [ "The nail bed is a specialized structure of the epidermis that is found at the tips of our what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-95f250cc8053406f8c49657cc7a212aa", "input": "Passage: The color of soil indicates its fertility. Black or dark brown soils are rich in nitrogen and contain a high percentage of organic materials. Soils that are nitrogen poor and low in organic material might be gray, yellow, or red. Answer: color", "output": [ "What visual property of soil indicates fertility and nitrogen content?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2e2a746900c44f47bcf6072216fa8d20", "input": "Passage: Avian Adaptations Birds have a highly efficient, simplified digestive system. Recent fossil evidence has shown that the evolutionary divergence of birds from other land animals was characterized by streamlining and simplifying the digestive system. Unlike many other animals, birds do not have teeth to chew their food. In place of lips, they have sharp pointy beaks. The horny beak, lack of jaws, and the smaller tongue of the birds can be traced back to their dinosaur ancestors. The emergence of these changes seems to coincide with the inclusion of seeds in the bird diet. Seed-eating birds have beaks that are shaped for grabbing seeds and the two-compartment stomach allows for delegation of tasks. Since birds need to remain light in order to fly, their metabolic rates are very high, which means they digest their food very quickly and need to eat often. Contrast this with the ruminants, where the digestion of plant matter takes a very long time. Ruminants Ruminants are mainly herbivores like cows, sheep, and goats, whose entire diet consists of eating large amounts of roughage or fiber. They have evolved digestive systems that help them digest vast amounts of cellulose. An interesting feature of the ruminants’ mouth is that they do not have upper incisor teeth. They use their lower teeth, tongue and lips to tear and chew their food. From the mouth, the food travels to the esophagus and on to the stomach. Answer: birds", "output": [ "Recent fossil evidence has shown that the evolutionary divergence of what group from other land animals was characterized by streamlining and simplifying the digestive system, which allowed a high metabolic rate?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2e365af9e38c48fa9d18546e77b49980", "input": "Passage: Wind power uses moving air as a source of energy. Some types of wind power have been around for a long time. People have used windmills to grind grain and pump water for hundreds of years. Sailing ships have depended on wind for millennia. Wind is now used to generate electricity. Moving air can make a turbine spin, just like moving water can. Moving air has kinetic energy. When wind hits the blades of the turbine, the kinetic energy makes the blades move. The turbine spins and creates electricity. Answer: electricity", "output": [ "The turbine of a windmill spins and creates what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-21155dd3a140452e8b04f50bf8dd7c38", "input": "Passage: Pulmonary Ventilation The difference in pressures drives pulmonary ventilation because air flows down a pressure gradient, that is, air flows from an area of higher pressure to an area of lower pressure. Air flows into the lungs largely due to a difference in pressure; atmospheric pressure is greater than intra-alveolar pressure, and intra-alveolar pressure is greater than intrapleural pressure. Air flows out of the lungs during expiration based on the same principle; pressure within the lungs becomes greater than the atmospheric pressure. Pulmonary ventilation comprises two major steps: inspiration and expiration. Inspiration is the process that causes air to enter the lungs, and expiration is the process that causes air to leave the lungs (Figure 22.17). A respiratory cycle is one sequence of inspiration and expiration. In general, two muscle groups are used during normal inspiration: the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles. Additional muscles can be used if a bigger breath is required. When the diaphragm contracts, it moves inferiorly toward the abdominal cavity, creating a larger thoracic cavity and more space for the lungs. Contraction of the external intercostal muscles moves the ribs upward and outward, causing the rib cage to expand, which increases the volume of the thoracic cavity. Due to the adhesive force of the pleural fluid, the expansion of the thoracic cavity forces the lungs to stretch and expand as well. This increase in volume leads to a decrease in intra-alveolar pressure, creating a pressure lower than atmospheric pressure. As a result, a pressure gradient is created that drives air into the lungs. Answer: pressure", "output": [ "Air flows into the lungs largely due to a difference in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7314038a39064712ab59e62aea8fe80b", "input": "Passage: The stoichiometry of a reaction describes the relative amounts of reactants and products in a balanced chemical equation. A stoichiometric quantity of a reactant is the amount necessary to react completely with the other reactant(s). If a quantity of a reactant remains unconsumed after complete reaction has occurred, it is in excess. The reactant that is consumed first and limits the amount of product(s) that can be obtained is the limiting reactant. To identify the limiting reactant, calculate the number of moles of each reactant present and compare this ratio to the mole ratio of the reactants in the balanced chemical equation. The maximum amount of product(s) that can be obtained in a reaction from a given amount of reactant(s) is the theoretical yield of the reaction. The actual yieldis the amount of product(s) actually obtained in the reaction; it cannot exceed the theoretical yield. The percent yield of a reaction is the ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield, expressed as a percentage. Answer: in excess", "output": [ "If a quantity of a reactant remains unconsumed after complete reaction has occurred, it is?" ] }, { "id": "task594-262ab9fd14eb4ca48540e10ff14f01f9", "input": "Passage: The ocean is becoming increasingly polluted with trash. Ocean acidification is also occurring because ocean water dissolves some of the excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The more acidic water harms aquatic organisms. Answer: carbon dioxide", "output": [ "Ocean acidification results from the ocean absorbing what gas from the atmosphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d1e9148de8084dd5acabda054f4bb19a", "input": "Passage: Monosaccharides A monosaccharide is a monomer of carbohydrates. Five monosaccharides are important in the body. Three of these are the hexose sugars, so called because they each contain six atoms of carbon. These are glucose, fructose, and galactose, shown in Figure 2.18a. The remaining monosaccharides are the two pentose sugars, each of which contains five atoms of carbon. They are ribose and deoxyribose, shown in Figure 2.18b. Answer: carbon", "output": [ "Glucose, fructose, and galactose are hexose sugars, which contain six atoms of what element?" ] }, { "id": "task594-920dd2b77726422e8f9ee815d6ba6f78", "input": "Passage: are responsible for establishing long-term memory, but the ultimate location of those memories is usually in the region in which the sensory perception was processed. The main sensation associated with the parietal lobe is somatosensation, meaning the general sensations associated with the body. Posterior to the central sulcus is the postcentral gyrus, the primary somatosensory cortex, which is identified as Brodmann’s areas 1, 2, and 3. All of the tactile senses are processed in this area, including touch, pressure, tickle, pain, itch, and vibration, as well as more general senses of the body such as proprioception and kinesthesia, which are the senses of body position and movement, respectively. Anterior to the central sulcus is the frontal lobe, which is primarily associated with motor functions. The precentral gyrus is the primary motor cortex. Cells from this region of the cerebral cortex are the upper motor neurons that instruct cells in the spinal cord to move skeletal muscles. Anterior to this region are a few areas that are associated with planned movements. The premotor area is responsible for thinking of a movement to be made. The frontal eye fields are important in eliciting eye movements and in attending to visual stimuli. Broca’s area is responsible for the production of language, or controlling movements responsible for speech; in the vast majority of people, it is located only on the left side. Anterior to these regions is the prefrontal lobe, which serves cognitive functions that can be the basis of personality, short-term memory, and consciousness. The prefrontal lobotomy is an outdated mode of treatment for personality disorders (psychiatric conditions) that profoundly affected the personality of the patient. Answer: left", "output": [ "Broca’s area, responsible for the production of language or controlling movements responsible for speech, is nearly always located on what side of the brain?" ] }, { "id": "task594-15a86717b1bb454babdb778ddfa16949", "input": "Passage: In physics, resistance is opposition to the flow of electric charges in an electric current as it travels through matter. The SI unit for resistance is the ohm. Resistance occurs because moving electrons in current bump into atoms of matter. Resistance reduces the amount of electrical energy that is transferred through matter. That’s because some of the electrical energy is absorbed by the atoms and changed to other forms of energy, such as heat. You can see an animation of resistance at the level of atoms and electrons at this URL: http://www. physics. org/explorelink. asp?id=1738&q=electricalresistance¤tpage=1&age=0&knowledge=0&item=3. Answer: electrical charges", "output": [ "In physics, resistance is opposition to the flow of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6b9083614b284cdcb56b0a69d815b157", "input": "Passage: Amphibians are ectothermic vertebrates that divide their time between freshwater and terrestrial habitats. They are the first true tetrapods, or vertebrates with four limbs. Amphibians breathe with gills as larvae and with lungs as adults. They have a three-chambered heart and relatively complex nervous system. Answer: terrestrial habitats", "output": [ "Amphibians are ectothermic vertebrates that divide their time between freshwater and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b8a843787bc14f6ba237bb21534c36a5", "input": "Passage: Some predator species are known as keystone species. A keystone species is one that plays an especially important role in its community. Major changes in the numbers of a keystone species affect the populations of many other species in the community. For example, some sea star species are keystone species in coral reef communities. The sea stars prey on mussels and sea urchins, which have no other natural predators. If sea stars were removed from a coral reef community, mussel and sea urchin populations would have explosive growth. This, in turn, would drive out most other species. In the end, the coral reef community would be destroyed. Answer: keystone", "output": [ "What is a species that plays an especially important role in it's community called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-56d2a0dad58f45e2b03ab3b6e93e0bf2", "input": "Passage: Photography by Kat. Ferns are common in the understory of the tropical rainforest . CC BY 2.0. Answer: understory", "output": [ "In a tropical rainforest, where are ferns common?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3433f9fc89a94a679dce7131f0113e27", "input": "Passage: sphincter, but the esophagus remains closed when there is no swallowing action. Acid reflux or “heartburn” occurs when the acidic digestive juices escape into the esophagus. Stomach A large part of digestion occurs in the stomach, shown in Figure 34.11. The stomach is a saclike organ that secretes gastric digestive juices. The pH in the stomach is between 1.5 and 2.5. This highly acidic environment is required for the chemical breakdown of food and the extraction of nutrients. When empty, the stomach is a rather small organ; however, it can expand to up to 20 times its resting size when filled with food. This characteristic is particularly useful for animals that need to eat when food is available. Answer: acid reflux", "output": [ "What is the cause of the “heartburn” that occurs when acidic digestive juices escape into the esophagus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2c081cea60004f9f9e56fe8e9e7e23cb", "input": "Passage: An electric generator is a device that changes kinetic energy to electrical energy through electromagnetic induction. An electric transformer is a device that uses electromagnetic induction to change the voltage of electric current. Answer: electric transformer", "output": [ "What device uses electromagnetic induction to change the voltage of electric current?" ] }, { "id": "task594-be6ab410bf5c4330bc0dfea8ee72e10c", "input": "Passage: Gene expression and protein synthesis are usually considered the same molecular process. Answer: protein synthesis", "output": [ "Gene expression and what else are usually considered the same molecular process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d0d955cb67214bdea80d99f2ab0ea044", "input": "Passage: In classical physics, momentum is a simple product of mass and velocity. However, we saw in the last section that when special relativity is taken into account, massive objects have a speed limit. What effect do you think mass and velocity have on the momentum of objects moving at relativistic speeds? Momentum is one of the most important concepts in physics. The broadest form of Newton’s second law is stated in terms of momentum. Momentum is conserved whenever the net external force on a system is zero. This makes momentum conservation a fundamental tool for analyzing collisions. All of Work, Energy, and Energy Resources is devoted to momentum, and momentum has been important for many other topics as well, particularly where collisions were involved. We will see that momentum has the same importance in modern physics. Relativistic momentum is conserved, and much of what we know about subatomic structure comes from the analysis of collisions of accelerator-produced relativistic particles. The first postulate of relativity states that the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames. Does the law of conservation of momentum survive this requirement at high velocities? The answer is yes, provided that the momentum is defined as follows. Relativistic Momentum Relativistic momentum. Answer: velocity", "output": [ "In classical physics, momentum is a simple product of mass and this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-27b31cfe1afc42d992f6889754b23151", "input": "Passage: The main reason that insects have been so successful is their ability to fly. Insects are the only invertebrates that can fly and the first animals to evolve flight. Flight has important advantages. It’s a guaranteed means of escape from nonflying predators. It also aids in the search for food and mates. Answer: insects", "output": [ "What are the only invertebrates that can fly?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3656beb261194be4814b0ac201d26df7", "input": "Passage: ♦ Glasses are mixtures of oxides, the main component of which is silica (SiO2). Silica is called the glass former, while additives are referred to as glass modifiers. The crystalline lattice of the glass former breaks down during heating, producing the random atomic arrangements typical of a liquid. Adding a modifier and cooling the melt rapidly produces a glass. How does the three-dimensional structure of the glass differ from that of the crystalline glass former? Would you expect the melting point of a glass to be higher or lower than that of pure SiO2? Lead glass, a particular favorite of the Romans, was formed by adding lead oxide as the modifier. Answer: glass modifiers", "output": [ "Glasses are mixtures of oxides, the main component of which is silica (sio2). silica is called the glass former, while additives are referred to as this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-19883d856cd94903a7f642547306f3c2", "input": "Passage: the activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells,. Answer: independent cells", "output": [ "What does the activity of an organism depend on the totality of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a68e1965b4c2482f950c69edc65a8fe6", "input": "Passage: When heat is positive, the total energy of the system is increasing. Answer: it increases", "output": [ "What happens to the total energy of the system when heat is positive?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f4c5abbf436143fca62561cd6745cf90", "input": "Passage: Figure 11.35 (a) Capillary action depends on the radius of a tube. The smaller the tube, the greater the height reached. The height is negligible for large-radius tubes. (b) A denser fluid in the same tube rises to a smaller height, all other factors being the same. Answer: eukaryotic", "output": [ "What domain-level category of cells can contain more than 1000 times the dna found in a typical bacterial cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6005f8e8ca35441184231c8863eda76d", "input": "Passage: All living things need energy. Most ecosystems get energy from the Sun. Producers use the energy to make food. They pass some of the energy to consumers. Food chains and food webs show how energy flows through ecosystems. Answer: energy", "output": [ "All living things require what, which most ecosystems obtain from the sun?" ] }, { "id": "task594-11578b88943147c3b542c5ac63083d78", "input": "Passage: The diffusion of water across a membrane because of a difference in concentration is called osmosis. Answer: osmosis", "output": [ "What do we call the diffusion of water across a membrane because of a difference in concentration?" ] }, { "id": "task594-176c2a10ede94fdebb493e1a1b6fe745", "input": "Passage: Some of Earth’s freshwater is found in wetlands. A wetland is an area that is covered with water, or at least has very soggy soil, during all or part of the year. Certain species of plants thrive in wetlands, and they are rich ecosystems. Freshwater wetlands are usually found at the edges of streams, rivers, ponds, or lakes. Wetlands can also be found at the edges of seas. Answer: wetland", "output": [ "What do you call an area covered with water, or possessing very soggy soil, all or part of the year?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c1140d9601144c54b5d0b1d829465251", "input": "Passage: A laboratory instrument used to analyze and test for static charge is called an electroscope. Seen below, an electroscope consists of a metal knob connected by a metal stem to two very lightweight pieces of metal called leaves, shown in yellow. The leaves are enclosed in a box to eliminate stray air currents. Answer: electroscope", "output": [ "What laboratory instrument is used to analyze and test for static charge?" ] }, { "id": "task594-af0084ba31244d9a9c7a0381f7695b02", "input": "Passage: Conditioning is a way of learning that involves a reward or punishment. If you ever trained a dog to obey a command, you probably gave the dog a tasty treat each time he performed the desired behavior. It may not have been very long before the dog would reliably follow the command in order to get the treat. This is an example of conditioning that involves a reward. Answer: conditioning", "output": [ "The way of learning that involves reward and punishment is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3c72346677794cd88619ab99fcfc7777", "input": "Passage: An integrated circuit (microchip) is an electronic component that consists of many other electronic components such as transistors. Integrated circuits are used in virtually all modern electronic devices to carry out specific tasks. Answer: integrated circuit", "output": [ "What is the term for an electronic component that consists of many other electronic components?" ] }, { "id": "task594-db0b2c53ec9e46419b63061c8b098f30", "input": "Passage: Most fungi get organic compounds from dead organisms. Fungi use their hyphae to penetrate deep into decaying organic matter. They produce enzymes at the tips of their hyphae. The enzymes digest the organic matter so the fungal cells can absorb it. Fungi are the main decomposers in forests. They are the only decomposers that can break down cellulose and wood. They have special enzymes for this purpose. Answer: hyphae", "output": [ "What do fungi use to penetrate deep into decaying matter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a9873a8e7d794156b4e643a0f352f3e2", "input": "Passage: At the end of the Precambrian, a mass extinction occurred. In a mass extinction , the majority of species die out. The Precambrian mass extinction was the first of six mass extinctions that occurred on Earth. It’s not certain what caused this first mass extinction. Changes in Earth’s geology and climate were no doubt involved. Answer: precambrian mass extinction", "output": [ "What was the first mass extinction that occurred on earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-007d90d89b2745ce8aa84fa74127937b", "input": "Passage: 47.2 | The Importance of Biodiversity to Human Life By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Identify chemical diversity benefits to humans • Identify biodiversity components that support human agriculture • Describe ecosystem services It may not be clear why biologists are concerned about biodiversity loss. When biodiversity loss is thought of as the extinction of the passenger pigeon, the dodo bird, and even the woolly mammoth, the loss may appear to be an emotional one. But is the loss practically important for the welfare of the human species? From the perspective of evolution and ecology, the loss of a particular individual species is unimportant (however, the loss of a keystone species can lead to ecological disaster). Extinction is a normal part of macroevolution. But the accelerated extinction rate means the loss of tens of thousands of species within our lifetimes, and it is likely to have dramatic effects on human welfare through the collapse of ecosystems and in added costs to maintain food production, clean air and water, and human health. Agriculture began after early hunter-gatherer societies first settled in one place and heavily modified their immediate environment. This cultural transition has made it difficult for humans to recognize their dependence on undomesticated living things on the planet. Biologists recognize the human species is embedded in ecosystems and is dependent on them,. Answer: extinction", "output": [ "The passenger pigeon, the dodo bird, and the woolly mammoth represent individual cases of what fate?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c4778c60156f469b861b4cbf9c710c4b", "input": "Passage: The mildest and most common type of brain injury is a concussion . This is a bruise on the surface of the brain. It may cause temporary problems such as headache, drowsiness, and confusion. Most concussions in young people occur when they are playing sports, especially contact sports like football. Other sports, like soccer, boxing, baseball, lacrosse, skateboarding, and hockey can also result in concussions. A concussion normally heals on its own in a few days. Answer: concussion", "output": [ "What is the mildest type of brain injury?" ] }, { "id": "task594-240a594605844a89be6d3034fa6e05a7", "input": "Passage: Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829) was an important French naturalist. He was one of the first scientists to propose that species change over time. However, Lamarck was wrong about how species change. His idea of the inheritance of acquired characteristics is incorrect. Traits an organism develops during its own life time cannot be passed on to offspring, as Lamarck believed. Answer: inheritance of acquired characteristics", "output": [ "How did lamarck believe species change over time?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6a4e6f5ac53041b78d551aa5dd4fca46", "input": "Passage: The active transport of ions across the membrane causes an electrical gradient to build up across the plasma membrane. The number of positively charged ions outside the cell is greater than the number of positively charged ions in the cytosol. This results in a relatively negative charge on the inside of the membrane, and a positive charge on the outside. This difference in charges causes a voltage across the membrane. Voltage is electrical potential energy that is caused by a separation of opposite charges, in this case across the membrane. The voltage across a membrane is called membrane potential . Membrane potential is very important for the conduction of electrical impulses along nerve cells. Answer: plasma membrane", "output": [ "The active transport of ions across the membrane causes an electrical gradient to build up across the what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c99008b2bf5c44279a5e6faddca236a4", "input": "Passage: Some minerals are valuable simply because they are beautiful. Jade has been used for thousands of years in China. Native Americans have been decorating items with turquoise since ancient times. Minerals like jade, turquoise, diamonds, and emeralds are gemstones. A gemstone is a material that is cut and polished to use in jewelry. Many gemstones, such as those shown in Figure below , are minerals. Answer: turquoise", "output": [ "Which mineral do native americans use to decorate items?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f237866fe60246c3b553cef2fe0d7b07", "input": "Passage: Many simple sugars can combine by repeated condensation reactions until a very large molecule is formed. A polysaccharide is a complex carbohydrate polymer formed from the linkage of many monosaccharide monomers. One of the best known polysaccharides is starch, the main form of energy storage in plants. Starch is a staple in most human diets. Foods such as corn, potatoes, rice, and wheat have high starch contents. Starch is made of glucose monomers and occurs in both straight-chain and branched forms. Amylose is the straight-chain form and consists of hundreds of linked glucose molecules. The branched form of starch is called amylopectin. In the small intestine, starch is hydrolyzed to form glucose. The glucose can then be converted to biochemical energy or stored for later use. Answer: starch", "output": [ "What is the main form of energy storage in plants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4efcf9fd26bd4246b55d2b8c86ff7271", "input": "Passage: Modern reptiles live in many different habitats. They can be found on every continent except Antarctica. Answer: reptiles", "output": [ "Modern members of what broad animal group live in many different habitats and are found on every continent except antarctica?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3c72a0e4c69c4d848f1ab8e905c8920e", "input": "Passage: It may seem as though burning destroys matter, but the same amount, or mass, of matter still exists after a campfire as before. Look at the sketch in Figure below . It shows that when wood burns, it combines with oxygen and changes not only to ashes but also to carbon dioxide and water vapor. The gases float off into the air, leaving behind just the ashes. Suppose you had measured the mass of the wood before it burned and the mass of the ashes after it burned. Also suppose you had been able to measure the oxygen used by the fire and the gases produced by the fire. What would you find? The total mass of matter after the fire would be the same as the total mass of matter before the fire. Answer: mass", "output": [ "It may seem as though burning destroys matter, but the same amount of what, still exists after a campfire as before?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1277b24eb611492394fb32c5667b89d7", "input": "Passage: Flatworms have an incomplete digestive system. This means that the digestive tract has only one opening. Digestion takes place in the gastrovascular cavity. Answer: gastrovascular cavity", "output": [ "Where does digestion take place within an incomplete digestive system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-83463df484d5462e91d13b7914cb6c98", "input": "Passage: According to the cell theory, all organisms are made up of one or more cells. Cells are the sites where all life processes take place. Cells come only from pre-existing cells. New cells forms when existing cells divide. Answer: the cell theory", "output": [ "What theory states that all organisms are made up of one or more cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-953efd3ea0e04bfebbe92dd9f30e4725", "input": "Passage: Placental mammals give birth to a relatively large and mature fetus. This is possible because they have a placenta to nourish the fetus and protect it from the mother’s immune system. This allows for a long period of growth and development before birth. Answer: large", "output": [ "Do placental mammals give birth to relatively small or large fetuses?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fb803b6c2e894b12995b56a099acb881", "input": "Passage: There are many farming methods that help prevent soil erosion. Answer: soil erosion", "output": [ "Many innovative farming methods can prevent what type of erosion, which is especially important in agriculture?" ] }, { "id": "task594-941c044edbe44dee863e7b4bcac9b031", "input": "Passage: Carbohydrates are an important group of biological molecules that includes sugars and starches. Answer: starches", "output": [ "Carbohydrates are an important group of biological molecules that includes sugars and these?" ] }, { "id": "task594-58f89d85117147a5b152a30f82c5470a", "input": "Passage: The age of a rock in years is its absolute age. The main evidence for absolute age comes from radiometric dating methods, such as carbon-14 dating. These methods depend on radioactive decay. Answer: radioactive", "output": [ "Radiometric dating methods, such as carbon-14 dating depend on what type of decay?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7ed7eaf601924038806cda11b37e55d0", "input": "Passage: For feeding, the insect head contains one pair of lower jaws and two pairs of upper jaws. Insects have also evolved a wide range of specialized mouthparts for eating certain foods. You can see some examples in Figure below . Answer: two pairs", "output": [ "How many pairs of upper jaws do insects have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a9f76e437df74ba48dd1d489f41d7548", "input": "Passage: Sperm are produced in the testes in the process of spermatogenesis. They mature in the epididymes before being ejaculated from the body through the penis. Answer: testes", "output": [ "Where are sperm produced in the process of spermatogenesis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d73f3dc92e08433ca43dbcb726ea1aa2", "input": "Passage: Green cyanobacteria on a lake make food by photosynthesis. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "Green cyanobacteria on a lake produce food through what process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-417597e18f5c4483b311ed9cd65e3394", "input": "Passage: The primary amine in which the nitrogen atom is attached directly to a benzene ring has a special name—aniline. Aryl amines are named as derivatives of aniline. Answer: aniline", "output": [ "The primary amine in which the nitrogen atom is attached directly to a benzene ring has a special name, what is it?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b1ed9d1c7d3a40bf954a93cd5477b862", "input": "Passage: Abiotic features of rivers and streams vary along the length of the river or stream. Streams begin at a point of origin referred to as source water. The source water is usually cold, low in nutrients, and clear. The channel (the width of the river or stream) is narrower here than at any other place along the length of the river or stream. Headwater streams are of necessity at a higher elevation than the mouth of the river and often originate in regions with steep grades leading to higher flow rates than lower elevation stretches of the river. Faster-moving water and the short distance from its origin results in minimal silt levels in headwater streams; therefore, the water is clear. Photosynthesis here is mostly attributed to algae that are growing on rocks; the swift current inhibits the growth of phytoplankton. Photosynthesis may be further reduced by tree cover reaching over the narrow stream. This shading also keeps temperatures lower. An additional input of energy can come from leaves or other organic material that falls into a river or stream from the trees and other plants that border the water. When the leaves decompose, the organic material and nutrients in the leaves are returned to the water. The leaves also support a food chain of invertebrates that eat them and are in turn eaten by predatory invertebrates and fish. Plants and animals have adapted to this fast-moving water. For instance, leeches (phylum Annelida) have elongated bodies and suckers on both ends. These suckers attach to the substrate, keeping the leech anchored in place. In temperate regions, freshwater trout species (phylum Chordata) may be an important predator in these fast-moving and colder river and streams. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "In headwater streams, what plant process is mostly attributed to algae that are growing on rocks?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b37c36bc517749a39fbdf4d59d1456c6", "input": "Passage: Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy between particles of matter that are touching. Thermal energy is always transferred from particles of warmer matter to particles of cooler matter. Answer: conduction", "output": [ "What do you call the transfer of thermal energy between particles of matter that are touching?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3d7383e839934e9cb257c435b4f839ef", "input": "Passage: The three germ layers are the endoderm, the ectoderm, and the mesoderm. Cells in each germ layer differentiate into tissues and embryonic organs. The ectoderm gives rise to the nervous system and the epidermis, among other tissues. The mesoderm gives rise to the muscle cells and connective tissue in the body. The endoderm gives rise to the gut and many internal organs. Organogenesis Gastrulation leads to the formation of the three germ layers that give rise during further development to the different organs in the animal body. This process is called organogenesis. Organs develop from the germ layers through the process of differentiation. During differentiation, the embryonic stem cells express specific sets of genes that will determine their ultimate cell type. For example, some cells in the ectoderm will express the genes specific to skin cells. As a result, these cells will take on the shape and characteristics of epidermal cells. The process of differentiation is regulated by location-specific chemical signals from the cell’s embryonic environment that sets in play a cascade of events that regulates gene expression. Answer: endoderm, ectoderm, mesoderm", "output": [ "Which germ layers are essential for animal embryos to grow and develop into a body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b4638b4d1ce64e3784d3f131316facca", "input": "Passage: Not getting enough minerals can cause health problems. For example, too little calcium may cause osteoporosis. This is a disease in which bones become soft and break easily. Getting too much of some minerals can also cause health problems. Many people get too much sodium. Sodium is added to most packaged foods. People often add more sodium to their food by using table salt. Too much sodium causes high blood pressure in some people. Answer: osteoporosis", "output": [ "What disease can too little calcium cause?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e4d7f1912a0b49638db53245adc9a9b0", "input": "Passage: Some precipitation that falls on land soaks into the ground. This water becomes groundwater. Groundwater may seep out of the ground at a spring or into a body of water such as the ocean. Some groundwater is taken up by plant roots. Some may flow deeper underground to an aquifer. An aquifer is an underground layer of rock that stores water. Water may be stored in an aquifer for thousands of years. Answer: precipitation", "output": [ "Where does groundwater primarily come from?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6a0e2566e7a246aba0a6e738a061c106", "input": "Passage: Many common electric devices contain electromagnets. Some examples include hair dryers, fans, CD players, telephones, and doorbells. Most electric devices that have moving parts contain electric motors. You can read below how doorbells and electric motors use electromagnets. Answer: electric motors", "output": [ "What type of motor is used in most household devices with moving parts?" ] }, { "id": "task594-574f6f3e6add4db0a9f139b2ee6a4967", "input": "Passage: There are a number of different ways to measure the strength of a given crystal lattice. One way would be to measure the amount of energy needed to completely pull apart an ionic substance into isolated ions. This value, known as the lattice energy , cannot be measured directly, but it can be calculated based on measured energy changes for other more feasible processes. The lattice energy of an ionic solid provides us with one way to measure the relative strength of the ionic bonds in that compound. Table below shows the lattice energies for various ionic substances:. Answer: measured energy changes", "output": [ "Lattice energy cannot be measured directly. what is its calculation based on?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cf8b036ff9334749a4c4f7fa13e3caf3", "input": "Passage: Electromagnetic waves vary in their wavelength, frequency, and energy. The full range of electromagnetic waves makes up the electromagnetic spectrum. Answer: electromagnetic spectrum", "output": [ "What term is used to describe the full range of electromagnetic waves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0ac37588d24d4e0bbbdc916f82a95da3", "input": "Passage: membrane are nonpolar). Some examples of these are other lipids, oxygen and carbon dioxide gases, and alcohol. However, water-soluble materials—like glucose, amino acids, and electrolytes—need some assistance to cross the membrane because they are repelled by the hydrophobic tails of the phospholipid bilayer. All substances that move through the membrane do so by one of two general methods, which are categorized based on whether or not energy is required. Passive transport is the movement of substances across the membrane without the expenditure of cellular energy. In contrast, active transport is the movement of substances across the membrane using energy from adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Answer: passive transport", "output": [ "What is the movement of substances across the membrane without the expenditure of cellular energy called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5c6ba9b79c8e4e8ea10d5d2763444160", "input": "Passage: Helium has long been used in balloons and blimps. Since it is much less dense than air, it will float above the ground. We can buy small balloons filled with helium at stores, but large ones (such as the balloon seen above) are much more expensive and take up a lot more helium. Answer: helium", "output": [ "What sort of gas is found in balloons and blimps, and is used to make them float in the sky?" ] }, { "id": "task594-08c351c5110446da904ed98a0a65f205", "input": "Passage: Liquids have a definite volume, but no definite shape. A gallon of milk will keep the same volume whether it is stored in a one-gallon milk jug or a ten-gallon barrel. The volume is the same, but the fluid will either fill the jug or spread out over the bottom of the barrel. Answer: liquid", "output": [ "What state of matter has a definite volume, but not a definite shape?" ] }, { "id": "task594-be1aa7af871544878dd8498680fd6002", "input": "Passage: The lithosphere is composed of both the crust and the uppermost mantle. The lithosphere is a brittle, rigid solid. It is easily cracked or broken. Answer: crust", "output": [ "Besides the uppermost mantle, what else is the lithosphere composed of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4f2d150408e3455caa2b6ee6a3a152cb", "input": "Passage: Hair serves many functions such as acting as a filter and keeping the body warm. Answer: hair", "output": [ "What mammalian feature serves functions such as filtration and keeping the body warm?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8e3e0166bf8b461b94574222e52fec87", "input": "Passage: 4. Molecular crystals -- Molecular crystals typically consist of molecules at the lattice points of the crystal, held together by relatively weak intermolecular forces (see Figure below ). The intermolecular forces may be dispersion forces in the case of nonpolar crystals, or dipole-dipole forces in the case of polar crystals. Some molecular crystals, such as ice, have molecules held together by hydrogen bonds. When one of the noble gases is cooled and solidified, the lattice points are individual atoms rather than molecules. In all cases, the intermolecular forces holding the particles together are far weaker than either ionic or covalent bonds. As a result, the melting and boiling points of molecular crystals are much lower. Lacking ions or free electrons, molecular crystals are poor electrical conductors. Answer: molecular crystals", "output": [ "What crystals consist of molecules at the lattice points of the crystal, held together by relatively weak intermolecular forces?" ] }, { "id": "task594-acdfa49a411e497eb789c4250ebede7a", "input": "Passage: If you look at a star through a prism, you will see a spectrum . The spectrum is the range of colors seen in a rainbow. The spectrum has specific dark bands where elements in the star have absorbed light of certain energies. An astronomer can use these lines to determine which elements are in a distant star. In fact, the element helium was first discovered in our Sun, not on Earth. This was done by analyzing the absorption lines in the spectrum of the sun. Answer: spectrum", "output": [ "What will you see if you look at a star through a prism?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a8677c7498224ff091ab1a5421026e8d", "input": "Passage: Anabolic reactions involve forming bonds. Smaller molecules are combined to form larger ones. For example, simple sugars are combined to form complex carbohydrates. Anabolic reactions require energy, so they are endothermic. Answer: endothermic", "output": [ "Anabolic reactions require energy, so they are considered what type of reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0679d1005dc64c27a3da5bd54e1346b8", "input": "Passage: If more NH 3 were added, the reverse reaction would be favored. This “favoring” of a reaction means temporarily speeding up the reaction in that direction until equilibrium is reestablished. Recall that once equilibrium is reestablished, the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are again equal. The addition of NH 3 would result in increased formation of the reactants, N 2 and H 2 . Answer: favoring", "output": [ "What's it called when the reaction is sped up until equilibrium is established?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3fd16430a1de4270be0f2cc2585d8912", "input": "Passage: In the liquid state, the hydrogen bonds of water can break and reform as the molecules flow from one place to another. When water is cooled, the molecules begin to slow down. Eventually, when water is frozen to ice, the hydrogen bonds become permanent and form a very specific network (see Figure below ). Answer: slow down", "output": [ "As the temperature of water decreases what happens to the speed of the water molecules?" ] }, { "id": "task594-277d58310f444583ae7e3dda905a4f4f", "input": "Passage: One major factor that limits the length of food chains is energy. Energy is lost as heat between each trophic level due to the second law of thermodynamics. Thus, after a limited number of trophic energy transfers, the amount of energy remaining in the food chain may not be great enough to support viable populations at yet a higher trophic level. The loss of energy between trophic levels is illustrated by the pioneering studies of Howard T. Odum in the Silver Springs, Florida, ecosystem in the 1940s (Figure 46.5). The primary producers generated 20,819 kcal/m2/yr (kilocalories per square meter per year), the primary consumers generated 3368 kcal/m2/yr, the secondary consumers generated 383 kcal/m2/yr, and the tertiary consumers only generated 21 kcal/m2/yr. Thus, there is little energy remaining for another level of consumers in this ecosystem. Answer: thermodynamics", "output": [ "Energy is lost as heat between each trophic level due to the second law of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2c57f149e5214bbf9b88496ca7278f1d", "input": "Passage: Cow manure can have a second life as a source of methane gas, which can be converted to electricity. Not only that food scraps can also be converted into green energy. Answer: methane", "output": [ "Cow manure can have a second life as a source of what gas?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c711d7fcb2684776ab2138e51cae394f", "input": "Passage: Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes that material substances undergo. Of all the scientific disciplines, it is perhaps the most extensively connected to other fields of study. Geologists who want to locate new mineral or oil deposits use chemical techniques to analyze and identify rock samples. Oceanographers use chemistry to track ocean currents, determine the flux of nutrients into the sea, and measure the rate of exchange of nutrients between ocean layers. Engineers consider the relationships between the structures and the properties of substances when they specify materials for various uses. Physicists take advantage of the properties of substances to detect new subatomic particles. Astronomers use chemical signatures to determine the age and distance of stars and thus answer questions about how stars form and how old the universe is. The entire subject of environmental science depends on chemistry to explain the origin and impacts of phenomena such as air pollution, ozone layer depletion, and global warming. The disciplines that focus on living organisms and their interactions with the physical world rely heavily on biochemistry, the application of chemistry to the study of biological processes. A living cell contains a large collection of complex molecules that carry out thousands of chemical reactions, including those that are necessary for. Answer: chemistry", "output": [ "What is the study of matter and the changes that material substances undergo." ] }, { "id": "task594-40b32ae101db4158acfcb6e429cf1a35", "input": "Passage: Sponges come in a variety of shapes and sizes. For example, they may be shaped like tubes, fans, cones, or just blobs. They range in diameter from about a centimeter (0.4 inches) to over a meter (3.3 feet). Many species live in colonies that may be quite large. Adult sponges are sessile . This means they are unable to move from place to place. Root-like projections anchor them to solid surfaces such as rocks and reefs. Answer: sessile", "output": [ "What is it called when something is unable to move from place to place?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cf6c18764e584c46963a5a3e20df4d65", "input": "Passage: Nuclear changes occur with a simultaneous release of energy. Where does this energy come from? If we could precisely measure the masses of the reactants and the products of a nuclear reaction, we would notice that the amount of mass drops slightly in the conversion from reactants to products. Consider the following nuclear reaction, in which the molar mass of each species is indicated to four decimal places:. Answer: energy", "output": [ "Nuclear changes occur with a simultaneous release of what, and a slight drop in mass?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9f0773677d0145418d9ae2cdf52c5db0", "input": "Passage: The only light that people can see is called visible light . This light consists of a very narrow range of wavelengths that falls between infrared light and ultraviolet light. Within the visible range, we see light of different wavelengths as different colors of light, from red light, which has the longest wavelength, to violet light, which has the shortest wavelength (see Figure below ). When all of the wavelengths of visible light are combined, as they are in sunlight, visible light appears white. You can learn more about visible light at this URL: http://www. youtube. com/watch?v=PMtC34pzKGc . Answer: visible light", "output": [ "What do we call the only light that people can see?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0ffe6490bf374de0a66114f981ede449", "input": "Passage: Mutualism is a symbiotic relationship in which both species benefit. An example of mutualism is pictured in Figure below . The clownfish in the photo is hiding among the tentacles of a sea anemone. The tentacles have stingers that can inject poison in the anemone’s prey. The clownfish is protected from the stingers by mucus that covers its body. Answer: benefit", "output": [ "Mutualism is a symbiotic relationship in which both species do what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7c5b898778804ef48bb22fcc2ac8d887", "input": "Passage: Some of the best known types of fungi are mushrooms, which can be edible or poisonous ( Figure below ). Many species are grown commercially, but others are harvested from the wild. When you order a pizza with mushrooms or add them to your salad, you are most likely eating Agaricus bisporus , known as white or button mushrooms, the most commonly eaten species. Other mushroom species are gathered from the wild for people to eat or for commercial sale. Many mushroom species are poisonous to humans. Some mushrooms will simply give you a stomachache, while others may kill you. Some mushrooms you can eat when they are cooked but are poisonous when raw. So if you find mushrooms in the wild, don't eat them until you are certain they are safe!. Answer: fungi", "output": [ "Mushrooms are an example of what type of organism, which includes beneficial and toxic specimens?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6c28e7ff1f454ea495830490150bd697", "input": "Passage: Friction is the force that opposes motion between any surfaces that are in contact. There are four types of friction: static, sliding, rolling, and fluid friction. Static, sliding, and rolling friction occur between solid surfaces. Fluid friction occurs in liquids and gases. All four types of friction are described below. You can see a video demonstration of the different types at this URL:. Answer: static, sliding, rolling", "output": [ "What 3 types of friction occur between solid surfaces?" ] }, { "id": "task594-94ad8717bd7d4e8f8306e533784254ed", "input": "Passage: Encephalitis and meningitis aren’t very common, but they can be extremely serious. They may cause swelling of the brain, which can be fatal. That’s why it’s important to know the symptoms of these diseases. Both encephalitis and meningitis typically cause a severe headache and a fever. Meningitis also causes a stiff neck. Both require emergency medical treatment. Answer: brain", "output": [ "Fatal swelling of what organ can result from both encephalitis and meningitis, which typically cause a severe headache and a fever?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2c0bbe290db24ff2b73c5006a83cd758", "input": "Passage: For machines that change only the direction of the force, such as the rope systems on flagpoles, the output force is the same as the input force. Therefore, the mechanical advantage is equal to 1. Answer: 1", "output": [ "If a machine only changes the direction of a force without changing the ratio of the output/input forces, then what is its associated mechanical advantage?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6f591e70c9ca41919afdece8a08255d8", "input": "Passage: Molecular formulas tell us how many atoms of each element are present in one molecule of a molecular compound. In many cases, the molecular formula is the same as the empirical formula. For example, the molecular formula of methane is CH 4 , and because 1:4 is the smallest whole-number ratio that can be written for this compound, that is also its empirical formula. Sometimes, however, the molecular formula is a simple whole-number multiple of the empirical formula. Acetic acid is an organic acid that gives vinegar its distinctive taste and smell. Its molecular formula is C 2 H 4 O 2 . Glucose is a simple sugar that cells use as their primary source of energy. Its molecular formula is C 6 H 12 O 6 . The structures of both molecules are shown in Figure below . They are very different compounds, yet both have the same empirical formula, CH 2 O. Answer: glucose", "output": [ "What simple sugar is the cell's primary source of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4c74959e29954e3aba4c440dbd910722", "input": "Passage: Average acceleration is the rate of change of velocity, or the change in velocity per unit time. Answer: velocity", "output": [ "Average acceleration is the rate of change of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b7a97d1787294c85974077c3a71b3e90", "input": "Passage: Clouds form when water vapor condenses around particles in the air. The particles are specks of matter, such as dust or smoke. Billions of these tiny water droplets come together to make up a cloud. If the air is very cold, ice crystals form instead of liquid water. Answer: clouds", "output": [ "What forms when water vapor condenses around particles in the air?" ] }, { "id": "task594-76b259509d544f3c973f6b65a440ad76", "input": "Passage: Sex-linked traits are located on genes on the sex chromosomes. Answer: sex", "output": [ "Sex-linked traits are located on genes on what chromosomes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-14395b9111574a199f26bd087ca9a9c2", "input": "Passage: Epilepsy is a disease in which seizures occur. A seizure is a period of lost consciousness that may include violent muscle contractions. It is caused by abnormal electrical activity in the brain. Epilepsy may result from an infection, injury, or tumor. In many cases, however, the cause can’t be identified. There is no known cure for epilepsy, but the seizures often can be prevented with medicine. Sometimes children with epilepsy outgrow it by adulthood. Answer: epilepsy", "output": [ "Abnormal electrical activity in the brain is the cause of what disease associated with seizures?" ] }, { "id": "task594-90c56ac4c4a04f7c817b42e7ba8204ec", "input": "Passage: If water gets hot enough, it starts to boil. Bubbles of water vapor form in boiling water. This happens as particles of liquid water gain enough energy to completely overcome the force of attraction between them and change to the gaseous state. The bubbles rise through the water and escape from the pot as steam. Answer: it boils", "output": [ "When water particles become hot enough to overcome the force of attraction between them, what happens to the water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-77d0f32a523d4794bdee19e10ee78266", "input": "Passage: The deprotonated form of an acid is referred to as its conjugate base. Similarly, the protonated form of a base is referred to as its conjugate acid. Answer: becomes more basic", "output": [ "As ph increases what happens to a solution?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f5769b687ab846b288eb06c552372353", "input": "Passage: Secondhand smoke , which comes from breathing the smoke release from tobacco products. Secondhand smoke is also the smoke exhaled by a cigarette smoker. This smoke is extremely dangerous to human health. Answer: secondhand smoke", "output": [ "What is the health-threatening smoke exhaled by a cigarette smoker or released from tobacco products?" ] }, { "id": "task594-01f3925a61964f5a9c9809e1fa0adb43", "input": "Passage: Chapter 9 1 Figure 9.10 Ligase, as this enzyme joins together Okazaki fragments. 2 A 4 B 6 A 8 C 10 D 12 The DNA is wound around proteins called histones. The histones then stack together in a compact form that creates a fiber that is 30-nm thick. The fiber is further coiled for greater compactness. During metaphase of mitosis, the chromosome is at its most compact to facilitate chromosome movement. During interphase, there are denser areas of chromatin, called heterochromatin, that contain DNA that is not expressed, and less dense euchromatin that contains DNA that is expressed. 14 Telomerase has an inbuilt RNA template. Answer: histones", "output": [ "The dna is wound around proteins called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ff5743a53058499f8e74420d40e93b55", "input": "Passage: Active versus Passive Immunity Immunity to pathogens, and the ability to control pathogen growth so that damage to the tissues of the body is limited, can be acquired by (1) the active development of an immune response in the infected individual or (2) the passive transfer of immune components from an immune individual to a nonimmune one. Both active and passive immunity have examples in the natural world and as part of medicine. Active immunity is the resistance to pathogens acquired during an adaptive immune response within an individual (Table 21.6). Naturally acquired active immunity, the response to a pathogen, is the focus of this chapter. Artificially acquired active immunity involves the use of vaccines. A vaccine is a killed or weakened pathogen or its components that, when administered to a healthy individual, leads to the development of immunological memory (a weakened primary immune response) without causing much in the way of symptoms. Thus, with the use of vaccines, one can avoid the damage from disease that results from the first exposure to the pathogen, yet reap the benefits of protection from immunological memory. The advent of vaccines was one of the major medical advances of the twentieth century and led to the eradication of smallpox and the control of many infectious diseases, including polio, measles, and whooping cough. Answer: immunity", "output": [ "Active and passive forms of what enable the body to resist damage from pathogens?" ] }, { "id": "task594-111760eb58c8404fbe79e172e31d81e5", "input": "Passage: Bases are ionic compounds that produce negative hydroxide ions (OH - ) when dissolved in water. An ionic compound contains positive metal ions and negative nonmetal ions held together by ionic bonds. (Ions are atoms that have become charged particles because they have either lost or gained electrons. ) An example of a base is sodium hydroxide (NaOH). When it dissolves in water, it produces negative hydroxide ions and positive sodium ions (Na + ). This can be represented by the equation:. Answer: bases", "output": [ "What are the ionic compounds that produce negative hydroxide ions when dissolved in water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-575e7f028fbe4da5937f1df8472ec4ea", "input": "Passage: A chemical reaction is a process that changes some chemical substances into others. During a chemical reaction, the reactants are used up to create the products. Answer: chemical reaction", "output": [ "What is the term for a process that changes some chemical substances into others?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1f2356ed3f824fd1af6c4365e4ac9c94", "input": "Passage: Energy is defined as the ability to cause changes in matter. You can change energy from one form to another when you lift your arm or take a step. In each case, energy is used to move matter — you. The energy of moving matter is called kinetic energy . Answer: energy", "output": [ "What is defined as the ability to cause changes in matter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d61cae7259044db0962f003abcfd53a7", "input": "Passage: Insight learning , which is based on past experience and reasoning, is a hallmark of the human animal. Humans have used insight learning to solve problems ranging from starting a fire to traveling to the moon. It usually involves coming up with new ways to solve problems. Insight learning generally happens quickly. An animal has a sudden flash of insight. Insight learning requires relatively great intelligence. Human beings use insight learning more than any other species. They have used their intelligence to solve problems ranging from inventing the wheel to flying rockets into space. Answer: insight", "output": [ "What type of learning is based on past experience and reasoning?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b7b401bb6aac49be95f4cbfbdb3007bd", "input": "Passage: Atoms cannot only gain extra electrons. They can also lose electrons. In either case, they become ions . Ions are atoms that have a positive or negative charge because they have unequal numbers of protons and electrons. If atoms lose electrons, they become positive ions, or cations. If atoms gain electrons, they become negative ions, or anions. Consider the example of fluorine (see Figure below ). A fluorine atom has nine protons and nine electrons, so it is electrically neutral. If a fluorine atom gains an electron, it becomes a fluoride ion with an electric charge of -1. Answer: an ion", "output": [ "What's the name for an atom that has gained or lost an electron?" ] }, { "id": "task594-47a9b6d2ec25428e8308496933ad90c5", "input": "Passage: Veins are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. This blood is no longer under much pressure, so many veins have valves that prevent backflow of blood. Veins generally carry deoxygenated blood. The largest vein is the inferior vena cava, which carries blood from the lower body to the heart. Answer: heart", "output": [ "Veins are blood vessels that carry blood toward what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-96c77a65ba8f4124815ef7ee6c793baa", "input": "Passage: Regulation of Transcription. Regulatory proteins bind to regulatory elements to control transcription. The regulatory elements are embedded within the DNA. Answer: transcription", "output": [ "Regulatory proteins bind to regulatory elements to control what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0f55cc19a6e5499c98015b263c2f956c", "input": "Passage: The heat that is either absorbed or released is measured in joules. The mass is measured in grams. The change in temperature is given by , where is the final temperature and is the initial temperature. Answer: joules", "output": [ "In what unit is heat measured in?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5e45bdb1369a4190a12e1144a4d0a722", "input": "Passage: Organ system : Group of organs that work together to perform a certain function. Examples of organ systems in a human include the skeletal, nervous, and reproductive systems. Answer: reproductive systems", "output": [ "Examples of organ systems in a human include the skeletal, nervous, and what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-04c37c2f5a9d43739bf929d63b284606", "input": "Passage: Biotechnology is the use of biological agents for technological advancement. Biotechnology was used for breeding livestock and crops long before the scientific basis of these techniques was understood. Since the discovery of the structure of DNA in 1953, the field of biotechnology has grown rapidly through both academic research and private companies. The primary applications of this technology are in medicine (production of vaccines and antibiotics) and agriculture (genetic modification of crops, such as to increase yields). Biotechnology also has many industrial applications, such as fermentation, the treatment of oil spills, and the production of biofuels (Figure 17.2). Answer: medicine and agriculture", "output": [ "Biotechnology is the use of biological agents for technological advancement. what two areas are the primary applications of this technology used?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4911a76b06c2402dbf86bea8fa43f60c", "input": "Passage: Brightly colored fruits attract animals that may disperse their seeds. It’s hard to miss the bright red apples on these trees. Answer: attract animals to disperse their seeds", "output": [ "What is an advantage of brightly colored fruits?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e884f82d71a6463f9ed40270be92ebf7", "input": "Passage: 41.4 Nitrogenous Wastes Ammonia is the waste produced by metabolism of nitrogen-containing compounds like proteins and nucleic acids. While aquatic animals can easily excrete ammonia into their watery surroundings, terrestrial animals have evolved special mechanisms to eliminate the toxic ammonia from their systems. Urea is the major byproduct of ammonia metabolism in vertebrate animals. Uric acid is the major byproduct of ammonia metabolism in birds, terrestrial arthropods, and reptiles. Answer: urea", "output": [ "When vertebrate animals metabolize ammonia what is the primary byproduct that is produced?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6be772e3887d4836a2c9b9e84ad53c03", "input": "Passage: Pseudo-ruminants Some animals, such as camels and alpacas, are pseudo-ruminants. They eat a lot of plant material and roughage. Digesting plant material is not easy because plant cell walls contain the polymeric sugar molecule cellulose. The digestive enzymes of these animals cannot break down cellulose, but microorganisms present in the digestive system can. Therefore, the digestive system must be able to handle large amounts of roughage and break down the cellulose. Pseudo-ruminants have a threechamber stomach in the digestive system. However, their cecum—a pouched organ at the beginning of the large intestine containing many microorganisms that are necessary for the digestion of plant materials—is large and is the site where the roughage is fermented and digested. These animals do not have a rumen but have an omasum, abomasum, and reticulum. Answer: in their cecum", "output": [ "Where is roughage fermented and digested in pseudo-ruminants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-00b7c6ad53e147b0a70a7866ef8dc07c", "input": "Passage: Constructive interference occurs when two wave crests overlap, doubling the wave amplitude at that location. Answer: constructive interference", "output": [ "What occurs when two wave crests overlap?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6994138e958d4c3d919e62ad8f0d203a", "input": "Passage: Compliance Compliance is the ability of any compartment to expand to accommodate increased content. A metal pipe, for example, is not compliant, whereas a balloon is. The greater the compliance of an artery, the more effectively it is able to expand to accommodate surges in blood flow without increased resistance or blood pressure. Veins are more compliant than arteries and can expand to hold more blood. When vascular disease causes stiffening of arteries, compliance is reduced and resistance to blood flow is increased. The result is more turbulence, higher pressure within the vessel, and reduced blood flow. This increases the work of the heart. Answer: heart", "output": [ "When vascular disease causes stiffening of arteries, compliance is reduced and resistance to blood flow is increased. the result is more turbulence, higher pressure within the vessel, and reduced blood flow. this increases the work of this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-aa1fc19260d54db88ee9a883b67004cd", "input": "Passage: Outline the forces that act on particles in the nucleus. Answer: mass movement", "output": [ "What type of movement is caused by erosion from direct gravity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d69b73fdbf9c49898ef0a1fb0435c3c2", "input": "Passage: Nuclear power plants use uranium in fuel rods. The fuel rods become nuclear waste. Nuclear waste can be dangerous for hundreds of thousands of years. Answer: uranium", "output": [ "What element do nuclear power plants use in fuel rods?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bd8b72f0e7d64679b5627bb699b37ef6", "input": "Passage: The bottom two chambers of the heart are called the left and right ventricles. The ventricles receive blood from the atria and pump it out of the heart, either to the lungs or to the rest of the body. Answer: ventricles", "output": [ "What structures receive blood from the atria and pump it out of the heart?" ] }, { "id": "task594-03047ff89feb458b95272948ac11f740", "input": "Passage: Behaviors that are closely controlled by genes with little or no environmental influence are called innate behaviors . These are behaviors that occur naturally in all members of a species whenever they are exposed to a certain stimulus. Innate behaviors do not have to be learned or practiced. They are also called instinctive behaviors. An instinct is the ability of an animal to perform a behavior the first time it is exposed to the proper stimulus. For example, a dog will drool the first time—and every time—it is exposed to food. Answer: innate behaviors", "output": [ "What is the term for behaviors that are closely controlled by genes with little or no environmental influence?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1d5c1be5965b4280808c7d81ea9b9d3d", "input": "Passage: During early adulthood, people form intimate relationships and start careers. Serious health problems start showing up in middle adulthood and old age. Aging occurs as cells lose their ability to divide. Answer: divide", "output": [ "Aging occurs as cells lose their ability to do what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4294e2f4bf0a4ddd9874e848eb3cda85", "input": "Passage: Some arthropods have special excretory structures. They are called coxal glands and Malpighian tubules . Coxal glands collect and concentrate liquid waste from blood. They excrete the waste from the body through a pore. Malphigian tubules carry waste from the digestive tract to the anus. The waste is excreted through the anus. Answer: blood", "output": [ "Coxal glands collect liquid waste from what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-14e34a0295064a84a7ac30b6d35a7a8c", "input": "Passage: Blood Blood is considered a connective tissue because it has a matrix, as shown in Figure 33.17. The living cell types are red blood cells (RBC), also called erythrocytes, and white blood cells (WBC), also called leukocytes. The fluid portion of whole blood, its matrix, is commonly called plasma. Answer: connective", "output": [ "What type of tissue is blood?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3a6bb32135aa4a0291814c0f77f72e56", "input": "Passage: Medulla The medulla is the region known as the myelencephalon in the embryonic brain. The initial portion of the name, “myel,” refers to the significant white matter found in this region—especially on its exterior, which is continuous with the white. Answer: medulla", "output": [ "What is the region known as the myelencephalon in the embryonic brain?" ] }, { "id": "task594-28136154572a4b08a911c2f54da18b83", "input": "Passage: On the ventral side of the embryonic disc, opposite the amnion, cells in the lower layer of the embryonic disk (the hypoblast) extend into the blastocyst cavity and form a yolk sac. The yolk sac supplies some nutrients absorbed from the trophoblast and also provides primitive blood circulation to the developing embryo for the second and third week of development. When the placenta takes over nourishing the embryo at approximately week 4, the yolk sac has been greatly reduced in size and its main function is to serve as the source of blood cells and germ cells (cells that will give rise to gametes). During week 3, a finger-like outpocketing of the yolk sac develops into the allantois, a primitive excretory duct of the embryo that will become part of the urinary bladder. Together, the stalks of the yolk sac and allantois establish the outer structure of the umbilical cord. The last of the extra-embryonic membranes is the chorion, which is the one membrane that surrounds all others. The development of the chorion will be discussed in more detail shortly, as it relates to the growth and development of the placenta. Answer: yolk sac", "output": [ "On the ventral side of the embryonic disc, opposite the amnion, cells in the lower layer of the embryonic disk (the hypoblast) extend into the blastocyst cavity and form this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-904815a719214a86b9410e3025c7ec28", "input": "Passage: Vacuoles are membrane-bound organelles that can have secretory, excretory, and storage functions. Many organisms will use vacuoles as storage areas and some plant cells have very large vacuoles. Vesicles are much smaller than vacuoles and function in transporting materials both within and to the outside of the cell. Answer: vacuoles", "output": [ "What are membrane-bound organelles that can have secretory, excretory, and storage functions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4d6040f6ba5f4ebea06d7f7268de0e4c", "input": "Passage: Sternum The sternum is the elongated bony structure that anchors the anterior thoracic cage. It consists of three parts: the manubrium, body, and xiphoid process. The manubrium is the wider, superior portion of the sternum. The top of the manubrium has a shallow, U-shaped border called the jugular (suprasternal) notch. This can be easily felt at the anterior base of the neck, between the medial ends of the clavicles. The clavicular notch is the shallow depression located on either side at the superior-lateral margins of the manubrium. This is the site of the sternoclavicular joint, between the sternum and clavicle. The first ribs also attach to the manubrium. The elongated, central portion of the sternum is the body. The manubrium and body join together at the sternal angle, so called because the junction between these two components is not flat, but forms a slight bend. The second rib attaches to the sternum at the sternal angle. Since the first rib is hidden behind the clavicle, the second rib is the highest rib that can be identified by palpation. Thus, the sternal angle and second rib are important landmarks for the identification and counting of the lower ribs. Ribs 3–7 attach to the sternal body. The inferior tip of the sternum is the xiphoid process. This small structure is cartilaginous early in life, but gradually becomes ossified starting during middle age. Answer: sternum", "output": [ "What is the name of the elongated bony structure that anchors the anterior thoracic cage?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8414ddad5c524d6b95486e6aa1861520", "input": "Passage: Sperm are released into the surrounding water through the osculum. If they enter a female sponge through a pore, they may be trapped by collar cells. Trapped sperm are delivered to eggs inside the female body, where fertilization takes place. The resulting zygote develops into a larva. Unlike the adult, the larva is motile. It is covered with cilia that propel it through the water. As the larva grows, it becomes more similar to an adult sponge and loses its ability to swim. Answer: larva", "output": [ "Unlike an adult sponge, what stage is motile due to cilia that propel it through water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-504bccc230c045c79a780668f1f99c18", "input": "Passage: Eukaryotic cells also contain other organelles besides the nucleus. An organelle is a structure within the cytoplasm that performs a specific job in the cell. Organelles called mitochondria, for example, provide energy to the cell, and organelles called vacuoles store substances in the cell. Organelles allow eukaryotic cells to carry out more functions than prokaryotic cells can. This allows eukaryotic cells to have greater cell specificity than prokaryotic cells. Ribosomes, the organelle where proteins are made, are the only organelles in prokaryotic cells. Answer: organelle", "output": [ "What is the term for a structure within the cytoplasm that performs a specific job in the cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3cc324190e764a5ba66be9122dd8df46", "input": "Passage: Rheumatic fever is caused by a virus that has antigens similar to molecules in human heart tissues. When the immune system attacks the virus, it may also attack the heart. What type of immune system disease is rheumatic fever? Explain your answer. Answer: rheumatic fever", "output": [ "Name the fever that is caused by a virus that has antigens similar to molecules in human heart tissues." ] }, { "id": "task594-439f5915946c4361a0a6e451fd4c13e0", "input": "Passage: Figure 20.13 Diabetes is a disease characterized by high concentrations of glucose in the blood. Treating diabetes involves making lifestyle changes, monitoring blood-sugar levels, and sometimes insulin injections. (credit: “Blausen Medical Communications”/Wikimedia Commons). Answer: diabetes", "output": [ "What is a disease characterized by high concentrations of glucose in the blood?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2026cfd1c4ad4ed8ad5d469bcbaa5a26", "input": "Passage: Avoid close contact with people who are sick. This includes kissing, hugging, shaking hands, and sharing cups or eating utensils. Answer: negative electrons", "output": [ "What type of electrons are attracted to the positive nucleus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d2148490e40a4807a705a11497f7163e", "input": "Passage: Energy from the Sun has a wide range of wavelengths. The total range of energy is called the electromagnetic spectrum . You can see it in Figure below . Answer: electromagnetic spectrum", "output": [ "Energy from the sun has a wide range of wavelengths.what is the total range of energy called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e8719e3286f04c5883f71529cb2a86ab", "input": "Passage: A concave lens is thicker at the edges than it is in the middle. You can see the shape of a concave lens in the Figure below . From the diagram, it’s clear that the lens causes rays of light to diverge, or spread apart, as they pass through it. Note that the image formed by a concave lens is on the same side of the lens as the object. It is also smaller than the object and right-side up. However, it isn’t a real image. It is a virtual image. Your brain “tricks” you into seeing an image there. The light rays actually pass through the glass to the other side and spread out in all directions. You can explore the formation of images by a concave lens at this URL: http://phet. colorado. edu/sims/geometric-optics/geometric-optics_en. html. Answer: concave", "output": [ "A lens of what shape causes rays of light to diverge, or spread apart, as they pass through it?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d0baa400f6234c869240cda582669808", "input": "Passage: Altitude is height above sea level. The density of air decreases with height. There are two reasons. At higher altitudes, there is less air pushing down from above. Also, gravity is weaker farther from Earth's center. So at higher altitudes, air molecules can spread out more. Air density decreases. You can see this in Figure below . Answer: sea level", "output": [ "Altitude is height above what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d2a98149fd6a4635b55d4c0273945206", "input": "Passage: Most muscles are skeletal muscles, which are attached to bones by tendons. Skeletal muscles work in pairs to move bones back and forth at joints. Answer: tendons", "output": [ "By what are skeletal muscles attached to bones?" ] }, { "id": "task594-328360e1015d400ab75ef020de00b026", "input": "Passage: Rotation Rotation can occur within the vertebral column, at a pivot joint, or at a ball-and-socket joint. Rotation of the neck or body is the twisting movement produced by the summation of the small rotational movements available between adjacent vertebrae. At a pivot joint, one bone rotates in relation to another bone. This is a uniaxial joint, and thus rotation is the only motion allowed at a pivot joint. For example, at the atlantoaxial joint, the first cervical (C1) vertebra (atlas) rotates around the dens, the upward projection from the second cervical (C2) vertebra (axis). This allows the head to rotate from side to side as when shaking the head “no. ” The proximal radioulnar joint is a pivot joint formed by the head of the radius and its articulation with the ulna. This joint allows for the radius to rotate along its length during pronation and supination movements of the forearm. Rotation can also occur at the ball-and-socket joints of the shoulder and hip. Here, the humerus and femur rotate around their long axis, which moves the anterior surface of the arm or thigh either toward or away from the midline of the body. Movement that brings the anterior surface of the limb toward the midline of the body is called medial (internal) rotation. Conversely, rotation of the limb so that the anterior surface moves away from the midline is lateral (external) rotation (see Figure 9.12f). Be sure to distinguish medial and lateral rotation, which can only occur at the multiaxial shoulder and hip joints, from circumduction, which can occur at either biaxial or multiaxial joints. Answer: pivot joint", "output": [ "What is the name of a joint in which one bone rotates in relation to another bone?" ] }, { "id": "task594-090b86428f3644ea925fc01e4ae5e496", "input": "Passage: 6. Aging is associated with the death of cells. Give two reasons why cells die. Answer: aging", "output": [ "What natural process is associated with the death of cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-358f359be21f47f5a0f03e2723cacd1e", "input": "Passage: Some viruses live in a dormant state inside the body. This is called latency . For example, the virus that causes chicken pox may infect a young child and cause the short-term disease chicken pox. Then the virus may remain latent in nerve cells within the body for decades. The virus may re-emerge later in life as the disease called shingles. In shingles, the virus causes painful skin rashes with blisters (see Figure below ). Answer: latency", "output": [ "What term is used to describe viruses that live in a dormant state inside the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-87a2fe8ed6304be2a7a71f66175b6135", "input": "Passage: The oxygen atoms, however, form oxygen gas, which is a waste product of photosynthesis. The oxygen given off supplies most of the oxygen in our atmosphere. Before photosynthesis evolved, Earth’s atmosphere lacked oxygen altogether, and this highly reactive gas was toxic to the many organisms living at the time. Something had to change! Most contemporary organisms rely on oxygen for efficient respiration. So plants don’t just “restore” the air, they also had a major role in creating it!. Answer: oxygen", "output": [ "Plants not only contribute food but what else for organisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9395a77a58ab46f3b6b22944e1d1543b", "input": "Passage: In endocytosis, a substance or particle from outside the cell is engulfed by the cell membrane. The membrane folds over the substance and it becomes completely enclosed by the membrane. There are two main kinds of endocytosis: pinocytosis and phagocytosis. Answer: endocytosis", "output": [ "What is the term for a particle from outside the cell engulfing the cells membrane?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1039687a67d5440e9205c3a9f0bb8fba", "input": "Passage: Figure 17.6 In influenza virus infection, glycoproteins attach to a host epithelial cell. As a result, the virus is engulfed. RNA and proteins are made and assembled into new virions. Answer: viral disease", "output": [ "Influenza is a type of what, where glycoproteins attach to a host epithelial cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6947ee461e9f4b458b63846d675ec753", "input": "Passage: Virtually all animals have internal digestion of food. Animals consume other organisms and may use special tissues and organs to digest them. (Other heterotrophs, such as fungi, absorb nutrients directly from the environment. ). Answer: internal", "output": [ "What sort of digestion do animals engage in?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ad9062cfa917474d8ceb27d301844f72", "input": "Passage: Cnidarians can be found in almost all ocean habitats. A few species live in fresh water. Answer: ocean", "output": [ "Are cnidarians typically found in ocean or fresh water habitats?" ] }, { "id": "task594-19ccc821e617417abd6e95896f900c54", "input": "Passage: The attraction of oppositely charged ions caused by electron transfer is called an ionic bond. Answer: ionic bond", "output": [ "What is the attraction of oppositely charged ions caused by electron transfer called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e62bfc1dd0534d77934415208b586612", "input": "Passage: In 1869, a Russian scientist named Dmitri Mendeleev created the periodic table , which is a way of organizing elements according to their unique characteristics, like atomic number, density, boiling point, and other values ( Figure below ). Each element is represented by a one or two letter symbol. For example, H stands for hydrogen, and Au stands for gold. The vertical columns in the periodic table are known as groups, and elements in groups tend to have very similar properties. The table is also divided into rows, known as periods. Answer: dmitri mendeleev", "output": [ "Who created the periodic table?" ] }, { "id": "task594-72b389d994f4417ea07d957a0687ab4e", "input": "Passage: Chromosome Structural Rearrangements Cytologists have characterized numerous structural rearrangements in chromosomes, including partial duplications, deletions, inversions, and translocations. Duplications and deletions often produce offspring that survive but exhibit physical and mental abnormalities. Cri-du-chat (from the French for “cry of the cat”) is a syndrome associated with nervous system abnormalities and identifiable physical features that results from a deletion of most of the small arm of chromosome 5 (Figure 7.11). Infants with this genotype emit a characteristic high-pitched cry upon which the disorder’s name is based. Answer: chromosomes", "output": [ "Structural rearrangements of what include partial duplications, deletions, inversions, and translocations; duplications and deletions often produce offspring that survive but exhibit physical and mental abnormalities?" ] }, { "id": "task594-33d4d7d669b647179a6ee9ef50163537", "input": "Passage: Many cancerous cells are the products of normal cells that have lost the ability to regulate the cell cycle. The genes that encode the proteins involved in cell cycle regulation have mutations. One category of genes, called oncogenes, accelerate the cell cycle. Some cancers can be inherited, such as breast cancer (due to mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes). Approximately five to ten percent of cancers are entirely hereditary. Other cancers are triggered by an environmental stimulus, such as through the relationship between tobacco smoke and lung cancer, or ultraviolet radiation and skin cancer. Answer: cancerous cells", "output": [ "What type of cells are often the product of normal cells that have lost the ability to regulate the cell cycle?" ] }, { "id": "task594-84abf3153bf94ff4ae45e431db40e35a", "input": "Passage: Gene transcription is controlled by regulatory proteins that bind to regulatory elements on DNA. The proteins usually either activate or repress transcription. Answer: gene transcription", "output": [ "What is controlled by regulatory proteins that bind to regulatory elements on dna?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9d5d955ae20d4d5bb0c9da7435c19dcd", "input": "Passage: Protons and neutrons are located in a central nucleus, while electrons orbit about the nucleus. Answer: central nucleus", "output": [ "Where are protons and neutrons located?" ] }, { "id": "task594-05e063986edc4f6dbcca0de734144d35", "input": "Passage: The organs in Figure below make up the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. This is essentially a long tube that connects the mouth to the anus. Food enters the mouth and then passes through the rest of the GI tract. Food waste leaves the body through the anus. In adults, the GI tract is more than 9 meters (30 feet) long!. Answer: gastrointestinal tract", "output": [ "What term describes the long tube that connects the mouth to the anus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fb5899eed42f4a3eb50352b06dc55bf8", "input": "Passage: The circulatory system can be compared to a system of interconnected, one-way roads that range from superhighways to back alleys. Like a network of roads, the job of the circulatory system is to allow the transport of materials from one place to another. As described in Figure below , the materials carried by the circulatory system include hormones, oxygen, cellular wastes, and nutrients from digested food. Transport of all these materials is necessary to maintain homeostasis of the body. The main components of the circulatory system are the heart, blood vessels, and blood. Answer: blood", "output": [ "The main components of the circulatory system are the heart, blood vessels, and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b5b6d59d6f7d4a6e8a84a1a6554c05f7", "input": "Passage: Composite volcanoes usually have craters on the top. Why are the craters sometimes “U” or horseshoe-shaped?. Answer: composite", "output": [ "A crater can usually be found on the top of what kind of volcanoes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-89828137a9f3410085819100fd166807", "input": "Passage: A nuclear fusion reaction is so named because the nuclei (center) of atoms fuse (join) together in the process. In stars like our Sun, hydrogen atoms join together to create a helium atom. Nuclear fusion reactions need a lot of energy to get started. Once they begin, they produce even more energy. ( Figure below ). Answer: helium atom", "output": [ "In stars like our sun, hydrogen atoms join together to create what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-68b7ef699f57427884cb6eed239b0e7e", "input": "Passage: Oceanographers use bathymetric maps to show the features of the bottom of a body of water. Answer: bathymetric", "output": [ "What kind of map can show the features of the bottom of a body of water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-df520152f3964f8db71076efc425e264", "input": "Passage: The rock of the mantle is mostly peridotite. Peridotite is formed of crystals of olivine (green) and pyroxene (black). Answer: peridotite", "output": [ "The rock of the mantle is mostly what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-341df6af89754cdcb92f560c625836e4", "input": "Passage: Biochemical reactions are optimal at physiological temperatures. For example, most biochemical reactions work best at the normal body temperature of 98.6˚F. Many enzymes lose function at lower and higher temperatures. At higher temperatures, an enzyme’s shape deteriorates. Only when the temperature comes back to normal does the enzyme regain its shape and normal activity. Answer: biochemical", "output": [ "Normal body temperature is ideal for most of what type of reactions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b25d9bd143c8485eba406a19a12ff9e0", "input": "Passage: Carbon dioxide chemically weathers rock by creating acids. Answer: by creating acids", "output": [ "How does carbon dioxide chemically weather rocks?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cc778fece1fe4768840d2b52c9917580", "input": "Passage: Introduction to Linear Momentum and Collisions We use the term momentum in various ways in everyday language, and most of these ways are consistent with its precise scientific definition. We speak of sports teams or politicians gaining and maintaining the momentum to win. We also recognize that momentum has something to do with collisions. For example, looking at the rugby players in the photograph colliding and falling to the ground, we expect their momenta to have great effects in the resulting collisions. Generally, momentum implies a tendency to continue on course—to move in the same direction—and is associated with great mass and speed. Momentum, like energy, is important because it is conserved. Only a few physical quantities are conserved in nature, and studying them yields fundamental insight into how nature works, as we shall see in our study of momentum. Answer: conserved", "output": [ "Generally, momentum implies a tendency to continue on course—to move in the same direction—and is associated with great mass and speed. momentum, like energy, is important because it is what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9d3a26523e424f15995271f56f910941", "input": "Passage: These devices are not very sensitive to low levels of radiation, but more sensitive devices are also available that reliably measure the frequency of radioactive events. One such device is the Geiger counter. A Geiger counter is a tube filled with an inert gas that will conduct electricity when exposed to charged radiation, such as alpha or beta particles. When a charged particle enters the tube, it changes the electrical potential between the anode and the cathode, and this change in potential is registered by an electrical circuit as a single radioactive event. Geiger counters are fairly inexpensive and reliable, so they are useful in a wide range of applications. More complicated types of counters are also available, but are generally used only in sophisticated experiments. Answer: geiger counter", "output": [ "What is the tube-like device used to reliably measure lower levels of radiation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4af45f8b3a174edcbbfb9dd496ca49bb", "input": "Passage: High levels of nutrients, called eutrophication, can cause conditions that deprive fish of oxygen. Answer: oxygen", "output": [ "Eutrophication, or high levels of nutrients, can cause conditions that deprive fish of what vital gas?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2c5c49db6fe0459bba6dde3f5ce9beab", "input": "Passage: The concentration of a solution represents the percentage of the solution that is the solute. You can calculate the concentration of a solution using this formula:. Answer: percentage of solute", "output": [ "What does the concentration of a solution represent?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b29950dae56d4e7185c6241006cfd08c", "input": "Passage: Pancreatic Secretion Regulation of pancreatic secretion is the job of hormones and the parasympathetic nervous system. The entry of acidic chyme into the duodenum stimulates the release of secretin, which in turn causes the duct cells to release bicarbonaterich pancreatic juice. The presence of proteins and fats in the duodenum stimulates the secretion of CCK, which then stimulates the acini to secrete enzyme-rich pancreatic juice and enhances the activity of secretin. Parasympathetic regulation occurs mainly during the cephalic and gastric phases of gastric secretion, when vagal stimulation prompts the secretion of pancreatic juice. Usually, the pancreas secretes just enough bicarbonate to counterbalance the amount of HCl produced in the stomach. Hydrogen ions enter the blood when bicarbonate is secreted by the pancreas. Thus, the acidic blood draining from the pancreas neutralizes the alkaline blood draining from the stomach, maintaining the pH of the venous blood that flows to the liver. Answer: secretin", "output": [ "The entry of acidic chyme into the duodenum stimulates the release of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-741c2492c24544da8780240c3040bed2", "input": "Passage: Proteins are biochemical compounds that consist of one or more chains of amino acids. Proteins have many different functions. For example, some are enzymes, and some are hormones. Answer: proteins", "output": [ "What is a biochemical compound that is a chain of amino acids called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-27605348b0a641dba635dd524f8fb13e", "input": "Passage: Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels have been rising for the past several decades. Answer: atmospheric", "output": [ "What type of carbon dioxide levels have been rising for the past several decades?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8608c41891a145d9a5bff3a35ff03c63", "input": "Passage: Homeostasis, or the maintenance of constant conditions in the body, is a fundamental property of all living things. In the human body, the substances that participate in chemical reactions must remain within narrows ranges of concentration. Too much or too little of a single substance can disrupt your bodily functions. Because metabolism relies on reactions that are all interconnected, any disruption might affect multiple organs or even organ systems. Water is the most ubiquitous substance in the chemical reactions of life. The interactions of various aqueous solutions—solutions in which water is the solvent—are continuously monitored and adjusted by a large suite of interconnected feedback systems in your body. Understanding the ways in which the body maintains these critical balances is key to understanding good health. Answer: homeostasis", "output": [ "The maintenance of constant conditions in the body is also known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-669efad6662f48d09d5fef81704fa661", "input": "Passage: External Fertilization External fertilization usually occurs in aquatic environments where both eggs and sperm are released into the water. After the sperm reaches the egg, fertilization takes place. Most external fertilization happens during the process of spawning where one or several females release their eggs and the male(s) release sperm in the same area, at the same time. The release. Answer: external", "output": [ "What type of fertilization usually occurs in aquatic environments where both eggs and sperm are released into the water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5282a6a52e1b407b8e9622e0e3750bff", "input": "Passage: Stars are born in clouds of gas and dust called nebulas. Our Sun and solar system formed out of a nebula. A nebula is shown in Figure below . In Figure above , the fuzzy area beneath the central three stars contains the Orion nebula. Answer: stars", "output": [ "What celestial bodies are born in clouds of gas and dust called nebulas?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8f149066e600495ca0979ad804323f8a", "input": "Passage: The ovaries release the eggs and secrete estrogen. Answer: the ovaries", "output": [ "Which organ secretes estrogen?" ] }, { "id": "task594-476687492c8848ea9f99fee7a4c28afe", "input": "Passage: 21.3 Preserving Biodiversity Five mass extinctions with losses of more than 50 percent of extant species are observable in the fossil record. Recent extinctions are recorded in written history and are the basis for one method of estimating contemporary extinction rates. The other method uses measures of habitat loss and species-area relationships. Estimates of contemporary extinction rates vary but are as high as 500 times the background rate, as determined from the fossil record, and are predicted to rise. There is a legislative framework for biodiversity protection. International treaties such as CITES regulate the transportation of endangered species across international borders. Legislation within individual countries protecting species and agreements on global warming have had limited success; there is at present no international agreement on targets for greenhouse gas emissions. In the United States, the Endangered Species Act protects listed species but is hampered by procedural difficulties and a focus on individual species. The Migratory Bird Act is an agreement between Canada and the United States to protect migratory birds. The non-profit sector is also very active in conservation efforts in a variety of ways. Conservation preserves are a major tool in biodiversity protection. Presently, 11 percent of Earth’s land surface is protected in some way. The science of island biogeography has informed the optimal design of preserves; however, preserves have limitations imposed by political and economic forces. In addition, climate change will limit the effectiveness of present preserves in the future. A downside of preserves is that they may lessen the pressure on human societies to function more sustainably outside the preserves. Habitat restoration has the potential to restore ecosystems to previous biodiversity levels before species become extinct. Examples of restoration include reintroduction of keystone species and removal of dams on rivers. Zoos have attempted to take a more active role in conservation and can have a limited role in captive breeding programs. Zoos also have a useful role in education. Answer: restoration", "output": [ "Removal of dams on rivers is an example of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b225eff82f6c4e139ad5c9515b22a823", "input": "Passage: At each level of a food chain, a lot of energy is lost. Only about ten percent of the energy passes to the next level. Where does that energy go? Some energy is given off as heat. Some energy goes into animal wastes. Energy also goes into growing things that another consumer can't eat, like fur. It's because so much energy is lost that most food chains have just a few levels. There’s not enough energy left for higher levels. Answer: food chain", "output": [ "Loss of energy is the reason that what typically has few levels?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3ca6932128f74b0d9034fd424141cdac", "input": "Passage: The thyroid gland is a large gland in the neck. Thyroid hormones increase the rate of metabolism in cells throughout the body. They control how quickly cells use energy and make proteins. Answer: thyroid", "output": [ "Hormones produced by what gland in the neck increase the rate of metabolism in cells throughout the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8258c903295c4aceb144914175d9212e", "input": "Passage: In a syncline, rocks arch downward. A three-dimensional syncline is a basin. Answer: a basin", "output": [ "What is a three dimensional snycline?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a821bc0071b644e59d99936235612d6b", "input": "Passage: With less energy at higher trophic levels, there are usually fewer organisms as well. Organisms tend to be larger in size at higher trophic levels, but their smaller numbers result in less biomass. Biomass is the total mass of organisms at a trophic level. The decrease in biomass from lower to higher levels is also represented by Figure above . Answer: trophic", "output": [ "Organisms tend to be larger in size at higher what levels?" ] }, { "id": "task594-081931c949604cac97202e41186633f4", "input": "Passage: Most of the visible light on Earth comes from the sun. The sun and other stars produce light because they are so hot. They glow with light due to their extremely high temperatures. This way of producing light is called incandescence . Incandescent light bulbs also produce light in this way. When electric current passes through a wire filament inside an incandescent bulb, the wire gets so hot that it glows. Do you see the glowing filament inside the incandescent light bulb in the Figure below ?. Answer: incandescence", "output": [ "The way in which the sun produces light is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7faf9402375943e591617106fe8a8d30", "input": "Passage: called the relative osmotic pressure if neither solution is pure water, and it is called the osmotic pressure if one solution is pure water. Osmotic pressure can be large, depending on the size of the concentration difference. For example, if pure water and sea water are separated by a semipermeable membrane that passes no salt, osmotic pressure will be 25.9 atm. This value means that water will diffuse through the membrane until the salt water surface rises 268 m above the pure-water surface! One example of pressure created by osmosis is turgor in plants (many wilt when too dry). Turgor describes the condition of a plant in which the fluid in a cell exerts a pressure against the cell wall. This pressure gives the plant support. Dialysis can similarly cause substantial pressures. Answer: turgor", "output": [ "What is the condition of a plant in which the fluid in a cell exerts a pressure against the cell wall?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0bf7fe1d83714970a0e31b4c74cd7cfa", "input": "Passage: The cavities normally contain hydrated cations that are loosely bound to the oxygen atoms of the negatively charged framework by electrostatic interactions. The sizes and arrangements of the channels and cavities differ in different types of zeolites. For example, in zeolite A the aluminosilicate cages are arranged in a cubic fashion, and the channels connecting the cavities intersect at right angles. In contrast, the cavities in faujasite are much larger, and the channels intersect at 120° angles. In these idealized models, the oxygen atoms that connect each pair of silicon atoms have been omitted. Silicon and germanium react with nitrogen at high temperature to form nitrides(M3N4): Equation 22.26. Answer: nitrides", "output": [ "Silicon and germanium react with nitrogen at high temperature to form what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a22f09009c5549cabe2de6723bbd07b5", "input": "Passage: Reptiles also have several adaptations for living on land. They have a skin covered in scales to protect them from drying out. All reptiles have lungs to breathe air. Reptiles are also amniotes , which means their embryos are surrounded by a thin membrane. This membrane protects the embryo from the harsh conditions of living on land. Reptile eggs are also surrounded by a protective shell, which may be either flexible or inflexible. Answer: scales", "output": [ "What protects reptiles from drying out?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fd9790eba6884f179df78ece4f8fa21e", "input": "Passage: The conservation of momentum principle can be applied to systems as different as a comet striking Earth and a gas containing huge numbers of atoms and molecules. Conservation of momentum is violated only when the net external force is not zero. But another larger system can always be considered in which momentum is conserved by simply including the source of the external force. For example, in the collision of two cars considered above, the two-car system conserves momentum while each one-car system does not. Making Connections: Take-Home Investigation—Drop of Tennis Ball and a Basketball Hold a tennis ball side by side and in contact with a basketball. Drop the balls together. (Be careful!) What happens? Explain your observations. Now hold the tennis ball above and in contact with the basketball. What happened? Explain your observations. What do you think will happen if the basketball ball is held above and in contact with the tennis ball?. Answer: molecules", "output": [ "The conservation of momentum principle can be applied to systems as different as a comet striking earth and a gas containing huge numbers of atoms and these?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e2cbb228e2ea4b00a60b456cc9ce4006", "input": "Passage: Latitude is the distance north or south of the Equator. It’s measured in degrees, from 0° to 90°. Several climate factors vary with latitude. Answer: latitude", "output": [ "What is used to measure, in degrees, the distance north or south of the equater?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9a4304a84a974e55a5ed8570a1324e30", "input": "Passage: The amount of reactants and products do not have to be equal. However, after equilibrium is attained, the amounts of reactants and products will be constant. Answer: equilibrium", "output": [ "In a chemical reaction, the amounts of reactants and products will be constant when what state is attained?" ] }, { "id": "task594-63d19c4f68a140f1a18ae9aee6c7f842", "input": "Passage: Negative electrons are attracted to positive protons, and this electric force keeps electrons moving about the nucleus. The force of attraction between protons and neutrons, called the strong force, holds the nucleus together. Answer: positive protons", "output": [ "What are negative electrons attracted to?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c37dd8323d1e405d8d2140af408ea7fb", "input": "Passage: Modern plants have three different types of tissues. They are called dermal, ground, and vascular tissues. Each type of tissue has a different function. Answer: dermal, ground, and vascular", "output": [ "What are the 3 types of tissues that modern plants have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b4ee3423f65c42ad9298d1750ef861b9", "input": "Passage: Arthropods are the largest phylum in the animal kingdom. Answer: arthropods", "output": [ "What are the largest phylum in the animal kingdom?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4cd9837fc9c84daaa010012b5b2ae715", "input": "Passage: The galaxies at the edge of the Universe are a great distance away. But they are something else that is distant. Because it takes so long for light from so far away to reach us, they are also very far back in time ( Figure below ). Answer: time", "output": [ "Due to the time it takes for light to reach us, galaxies at the edge of the universe are distant in terms of space and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8bc8aafc950c440293d4f4e5f669b262", "input": "Passage: The amount of kinetic energy in a moving object depends directly on its mass and velocity. It can be calculated with the equation: . Answer: mass and velocity", "output": [ "The amount of kinetic energy in a moving object depends directly on what two factors?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a32722adbbee4575acacd65cd96ef4d0", "input": "Passage: Figure 7.8 Following meiosis, each gamete has one copy of each chromosome. Nondisjunction occurs when homologous chromosomes (meiosis I) or sister chromatids (meiosis II) fail to separate during meiosis. Answer: meiosis", "output": [ "Each gamete will have one copy of each chromosome following which process involving cell division?" ] }, { "id": "task594-143c3082446b46e287ad868b760e776a", "input": "Passage: structure in angiosperms consisting of male and female reproductive structures that attracts animal pollinators. Answer: pollination", "output": [ "Angiosperms possess reproductive structures that attract animals that perform what role?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2cc13da25bda4f1190b6199fb448d52d", "input": "Passage: Poor air quality started to become a serious problem after the Industrial Revolution. The machines in factories burned coal. This released a lot of pollutants into the air. After 1900, motor vehicles became common. Cars and trucks burn gasoline, which adds greatly to air pollution. Answer: industrial revolution", "output": [ "During what time period did poor air quality become a problem?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d1f3ede685444935b69e06fdf861e6b1", "input": "Passage: Many common electric devices, such as doorbells, contain electromagnets. If they have moving parts, they are likely to have an electric motor. An electric motor is a device that uses an electromagnet to change electrical energy to kinetic energy. Answer: electromagnets", "output": [ "What do electric motors use to change electrical energy into kinetic?" ] }, { "id": "task594-661805c74b494b3f8f4ad6f81cbd5a31", "input": "Passage: Hydrogen chloride contains one atom of hydrogen and one atom of chlorine. Because the. Answer: chlorine", "output": [ "Hydrogen chloride contains one atom of hydrogen and one atom of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-02936c8b9de6477b808c108845fa09de", "input": "Passage: One way to keep iron from corroding is to keep it painted. The layer of paint prevents the water and oxygen necessary for rust formation from coming into contact with the iron. As long as the paint remains intact, the iron is protected from corrosion. Other strategies include alloying the iron with other metals. For example, stainless steel is mostly iron with a bit of chromium. The chromium tends to collect near the surface, where it forms an oxide layer that protects the iron. Zinc-plated or galvanized iron uses a different strategy. Zinc is more easily oxidized than iron because zinc has a lower reduction potential. Since zinc has a lower reduction potential, it is a more active metal. Thus, even if the zinc coating is scratched, the zinc will still oxidize before the iron. This suggests that this approach should work with other active metals. Another important way to protect metal is to make it the cathode in a galvanic cell. This is cathodic protection and can be used for metals other than just iron. For example, the rusting of underground iron storage tanks and pipes can be prevented or greatly reduced by connecting them to a more active metal such as zinc or magnesium (Figure 17.18). This is also used to protect the metal parts in water heaters. The more active metals (lower reduction potential) are called sacrificial anodes because as they get used up as they corrode (oxidize) at the anode. The metal being protected serves as the cathode, and so does not oxidize (corrode). When the anodes are properly monitored and periodically replaced, the useful lifetime of the iron storage tank can be greatly extended. Answer: active metal", "output": [ "Zinc is more easily oxidized than iron because zinc has a lower reduction potential. since zinc has a lower reduction potential, it is a more what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7ec8526a67ec4963b285eaba525f9eae", "input": "Passage: Secretory Vesicles contain materials that are to be excreted from the cell, such as wastes or hormones . Secretory vesicles include synaptic vesicles and vesicles in endocrine tissues. Synaptic vesicles store neurotransmitters. They are located at presynaptic terminals in neurons. When a signal reaches the end of an axon, the synaptic vesicles fuse with the cell membrane and release the neurotransmitter. The neurotransmitter crosses the synaptic junction, and binds to a receptor on the next cell. Some cells also produce molecules, such as hormones produced by endocrine tissues, needed by other cells. These molecules are stored in secretory vesicles and released when needed. Secretory vesicles also hold enzymes needed to make extracellular structures, such as the extracellular matrix of animal cells. Answer: synaptic", "output": [ "What vesicles store neurotransmitters?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8d4f573693d544cfa9ed87956d441776", "input": "Passage: Old Faithful ( Figure below ) is the best-known geyser in the world. The geyser erupts faithfully every 90 minutes, day after day. During each eruption, it may release as much as 30,000 liters of water!. Answer: old faithful", "output": [ "What is the nickname of the best-known geyser in the world, which erupts reliably every 90 minutes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6a382ba7dbc44aa89e91563ff90f3a8f", "input": "Passage: You may think that your blood vessels have thick walls without any leaks, but that's not true. Blood vessels can leak just like any other pipe. The lymphatic system makes sure leaked blood returns back to the bloodstream. Answer: lymphatic", "output": [ "What system makes sure leaked blood returns back to the bloodstream?" ] }, { "id": "task594-09bbf74bf8e140a9bb07e1993b7de4a1", "input": "Passage: Now the hydrogen atoms need to be balanced. In an acidic medium, add hydrogen ions to balance . In this example, fourteen H + ions will be added to the reactant side. Answer: hydrogen", "output": [ "In an acidic medium, add which ions to balance?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d0bfadcaadb34a6dbe2b524e4e2b7e2c", "input": "Passage: Autoimmune diseases occur when the immune system fails to recognize the body’s own molecules as “self,” or belonging to the person. Instead, it attacks body cells as though they were dangerous pathogens. There are more than 80 known autoimmune diseases. Recall that regulatory T cells help regulate the immune system. When autoimmune disorders occur, these regulatory T cells fail in their function. This results in damage to various organs and tissues. The type of autoimmune disorder depends on the type of body tissue that is affected. Answer: autoimmune", "output": [ "What type of disease occurs when the immune system fails to recognize the body's own molecules?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2ace157a699047c782c2f94a80bf1c6d", "input": "Passage: Stage 1: Initiation. The two complementary strands are separated, much like unzipping a zipper. Special enzymes, including helicase, untwist and separate the two strands of DNA. Stage 2: Elongation. Each strand becomes a template along which a new complementary strand is built. DNA polymerase brings in the correct bases to complement the template strand, synthesizing a new strand base by base. A DNA polymerase is an enzyme that adds free nucleotides to the end of a chain of DNA, making a new double strand. This growing strand continues to be built until it has fully complemented the template strand. Stage 3: Termination. Once the two original strands are bound to their own, finished, complementary strands, DNA replication is stopped and the two new identical DNA molecules are complete. Each new DNA molecule contains one strand from the original molecule and one newly synthesized strand. The term for this mode of replication is “semiconservative,” because half of the original DNA molecule is conserved in each new DNA molecule. This process continues until the cell’s entire genome, the entire complement of an organism’s DNA, is replicated. As you might imagine, it is very important that DNA replication take place precisely so that new cells in the body contain the exact same genetic material as their parent cells. Mistakes made during DNA replication, such as the accidental addition of an inappropriate nucleotide, have the potential to render a gene dysfunctional or useless. Fortunately, there are mechanisms in place to minimize such mistakes. A DNA proofreading process enlists the help of special enzymes that scan the newly synthesized molecule for mistakes and corrects them. Once the process of DNA replication is complete, the cell is ready to divide. You will explore the process of cell division later in the chapter. Answer: dna", "output": [ "The two complementary strands of what are separated, much like unzipping a zipper, in the initiation phase?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3179cebba0ff4481b1374f4201a73199", "input": "Passage: The Table below compares the specific heat of four different substances. Metals such as iron have low specific heat. It doesn’t take much energy to raise their temperature. That’s why a metal spoon heats up quickly when placed in a cup of hot coffee. Sand also has a relatively low specific heat. Water, on the other hand, has a very high specific heat. It takes a lot more energy to increase the temperature of water than sand. This explains why the sand on a beach gets hot while the water stays cool. Differences in the specific heat of water and land even affect climate. To learn how, watch the video at this URL: http://www. youtube. com/watch?v=dkBStF2Rnu4. Answer: low specific heat", "output": [ "Why does a metal spoon heat up quickly when placed in a hot drink?" ] }, { "id": "task594-38f63083f4304f3d80a0909b92d420ea", "input": "Passage: Tornadoes may also come from hurricanes. A hurricane ( Figure below ) is an enormous storm with high winds and heavy rains. Hurricanes may be hundreds of kilometers wide. They may travel for thousands of kilometers. The storm's wind speeds may be greater than 251 kilometers (156 miles) per hour. Hurricanes develop from tropical cyclones. Hurricanes are called typhoons in the Pacific. Answer: typhoons", "output": [ "What are hurricanes called in the pacific?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d7efa8849ddd4d448317fab9a6fde387", "input": "Passage: Climate is the average weather in an area over a long period of time. Weather refers to the conditions of the atmosphere from day to day. Climate is generally described in terms of temperature and moisture. Answer: weather", "output": [ "What term refers to the conditions of the atmosphere from day to day?" ] }, { "id": "task594-825d3aec5b11424db62114662c4873d5", "input": "Passage: Scientists think that Europa is a good place to look for extraterrestrial life. Europa is the smallest of the Galilean moons. The moon's surface is a smooth layer of ice. Scientists think that the ice may sit on top of an ocean of liquid water. How could Europa have liquid water when it is so far from the Sun? Europa is heated by Jupiter. Jupiter's tidal forces are so great that they stretch and squash its moon. This could produce enough heat for there to be liquid water. Numerous missions have been planned to explore Europa, including plans to drill through the ice and send a probe into the ocean. However, no such mission has yet been attempted. Answer: europa", "output": [ "What is the smallest of the galilean moons?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a29f00cf14f642aba8a058555a3a1563", "input": "Passage: In nature, elements rarely occur alone. Instead, they combine to form compounds. A compound is a substance composed of two or more elements joined by chemical bonds. For example, the compound glucose is an important body fuel. It is always composed of the same three elements: carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Moreover, the elements that make up any given compound always occur in the same relative amounts. In glucose, there are always six carbon and six oxygen units for every twelve hydrogen units. But what, exactly, are these “units” of elements?. Answer: compound", "output": [ "What refers to a substance made from two or more elements joined by chemical bonds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0de74ca958854c8bb9d99233fdbb6b78", "input": "Passage: Transition-metal fluorides usually have higher oxidation states than their iodides. For a given metal, the lowest-oxidation-state oxide is basic and the highest-oxidation-state oxide is acidic. Halides of the transition metals become more covalent with increasing oxidation state and are more prone to hydrolysis. Propose a method to prepare each of the following compounds: TiCl 4[(CH3)2O]2, Na2TiO3, V2O5, and Na2Cr2O7. Of the group 5 elements, which. Answer: hydrolysis", "output": [ "Halides of the transition metals become more covalent with increasing oxidation state and are more prone to what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6dec6377385c41b2ad6689092991e102", "input": "Passage: A: Humidity is a measure of the amount of water vapor in the air. When humidity is high, sweat evaporates more slowly because there is already a lot of water vapor in the air. The slower evaporation rate reduces the potential for evaporative cooling. Answer: humidity", "output": [ "What is the measurement for the amount of water vapor in the air?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1bffb491be364c129fce6e50b8824f2d", "input": "Passage: We see about six colors in a rainbow—red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet; sometimes indigo is listed, too. Those colors are associated with different wavelengths of light, as shown in Figure 25.22. When our eye receives pure-wavelength light, we tend to see only one of the six colors, depending on wavelength. The thousands of other hues we can sense in other situations are our eye’s response to various mixtures of wavelengths. White light, in particular, is a fairly uniform mixture of all visible wavelengths. Sunlight, considered to be white, actually appears to be a bit yellow because of its mixture of wavelengths, but it does contain all visible wavelengths. The sequence of colors in rainbows is the same sequence as the colors plotted versus wavelength in Figure 25.22. What this implies is that white light is spread out according to wavelength in a rainbow. Dispersion is defined as the spreading of white light into its full spectrum of wavelengths. More technically, dispersion occurs whenever there is a process that changes the direction of light in a manner that depends on wavelength. Dispersion, as a general phenomenon, can occur for any type of wave and always involves wavelength-dependent processes. Dispersion Dispersion is defined to be the spreading of white light into its full spectrum of wavelengths. Answer: dispersion", "output": [ "What is defined as the spreading of white light into its full spectrum of wavelengths?" ] }, { "id": "task594-687de35429794578b2aa201c740a790d", "input": "Passage: Tremetol, a metabolic poison found in the white snake root plant, prevents the metabolism of lactate. When cows eat this plant, it is concentrated in the milk they produce. Humans who consume the milk become ill. Symptoms of this disease, which include vomiting, abdominal pain, and tremors, become worse after exercise. Why do you think this is the case? Alcohol Fermentation Another familiar fermentation process is alcohol fermentation ( Figure 7.15) that produces ethanol, an alcohol. The first chemical reaction of alcohol fermentation is the following (CO2 does not participate in the second reaction):. Answer: lactate", "output": [ "Tremetol, a metabolic poison found in the white snake root plant, prevents the metabolism of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1d4702bd018644f5a4cb412494690b31", "input": "Passage: Many people have problems with their vision , or ability to see. Often, the problem is due to the shape of the eyes and how they focus light. Two of the most common vision problems are nearsightedness and farsightedness, which you can read about below. You may even have one of these vision problems yourself. Usually, the problems can be corrected with contact lenses or lenses in eyeglasses. In many people, they can also be corrected with laser surgery, which reshapes the outer layer of the eye. For a video about vision problems, go to this URL: http://www. youtube. com/watch?v=ekSGbXt4XdI. Answer: nearsightedness and farsightedness", "output": [ "What are the two most common vision problems?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7c73e87a9fc74ec4915fc098c0562fff", "input": "Passage: Life Cycles of Algae: Zygotic Meiosis (A), Gametic Meiosis (B) and Sporic Meiosis (C). In life cycle A (left), diploid (2n) zygotes result from fertilization and then undergo meiosis to produce haploid (n) gametes. The gametes undergo mitosis and produce many additional copies of themselves. How are life cycles B and C different from life cycle A?. Answer: mitosis", "output": [ "What do gametes undergo to produce many additional copies of themselves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-01afd7cd389b4637a1a6fc1af5c5a5b4", "input": "Passage: Unlike nonvascular plants, all vascular plants—including seedless vascular plants—have a dominant sporophyte generation. Seedless vascular plants include clubmosses and ferns. Figure below shows a typical fern life cycle. Answer: vascular", "output": [ "Do nonvascular or vascular plants have a dominant sporophyte generation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d622ba36235143cd912186cadbfa2e37", "input": "Passage: Insight learning is learning from past experiences and reasoning. It usually involves coming up with new ways to solve problems. Insight learning generally happens quickly. An animal has a sudden flash of insight. Insight learning requires relatively great intelligence. Human beings use insight learning more than any other species. They have used their intelligence to solve problems ranging from inventing the wheel to flying rockets into space. Answer: insight learning", "output": [ "What type of learning is done from past experiences and reasoning?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2886d3ed0ce04e3fbaabc40602cc20f0", "input": "Passage: Many animal behaviors are ways that animals act, naturally. They don’t have to learn how to behave in these ways. Cats are natural-born hunters. They don’t need to learn how to hunt. Spiders spin their complex webs without learning how to do it from other spiders. Birds and wasps know how to build nests without being taught. These behaviors are called innate. Answer: innate", "output": [ "Behaviors that occur naturally and are not learned are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cf8fed914a134f588dfd453feac683c6", "input": "Passage: The respiratory and circulatory systems work together to provide cells with the oxygen they need for cellular respiration. Cells also need glucose for cellular respiration. Glucose is a simple sugar that comes from the food we eat. To get glucose from food, digestion must occur. This process is carried out by the digestive system. Answer: respiratory and circulatory systems", "output": [ "Which systems work together to provide cells with the oxygen they need for cellular respiration?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bb6c3af0f55a4e29ad33a888c8ef6a2c", "input": "Passage: To return to the first image, these cars travel a distance of 500 miles over the course of the race. However, they are traveling in a circle, and the start and finish line are the same. Therefore, when the car finishes the race, it is in essentially the same position it was when it started. The car's total displacement is only a few feet. Answer: total displacement", "output": [ "In a car race on a circular track, where the start and finish line are the same, what quantity is neglible?" ] }, { "id": "task594-761e3aa21cf74f82be44491e288ce255", "input": "Passage: Overcoming Density-Dependent Regulation Humans are unique in their ability to alter their environment with the conscious purpose of increasing its carrying capacity. This ability is a major factor responsible for human population growth and a way of overcoming density-dependent growth regulation. Much of this ability is related to human intelligence, society, and communication. Humans can construct shelter to protect them from the elements and have developed agriculture and domesticated animals to increase their food supplies. In addition, humans use language to communicate this technology to new generations, allowing them to improve upon previous accomplishments. Other factors in human population growth are migration and public health. Humans originated in Africa, but have since migrated to nearly all inhabitable land on the Earth. Public health, sanitation, and the use of antibiotics and vaccines have decreased the ability of infectious disease to limit human population growth. In the past, diseases such as the bubonic plaque of the fourteenth century killed between 30 and 60 percent of Europe’s population and reduced the overall world population by as many as 100 million people. Today, the threat of infectious disease, while not gone, is certainly less severe. According to the World Health Organization, global death from infectious disease declined from 16.4 million in 1993 to 14.7 million in 1992. To compare to some of the epidemics of the past, the percentage of the world's population killed between 1993 and 2002 decreased from 0.30 percent of the world's population to 0.24 percent. Thus, it appears that the influence of infectious disease on human population growth is becoming less significant. Answer: carrying capacity", "output": [ "Humans are unique in their ability to alter their environment with the conscious purpose of increasing what, which acts as a limiting factor on populations in general?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e8988c87f1324f31b02dc0fba366755c", "input": "Passage: Complex Tissue Structure A hallmark trait of animals is specialized structures that are differentiated to perform unique functions. As multicellular organisms, most animals develop specialized cells that group together into tissues with specialized functions. A tissue is a collection of similar cells that had a common embryonic origin. There are four main types of animal tissues: nervous, muscle, connective, and epithelial. Nervous tissue contains neurons, or nerve cells, which transmit nerve impulses. Muscle tissue contracts to cause all types of body movement from locomotion of the organism to movements within the body itself. Animals also have specialized connective tissues that provide many functions, including transport and structural support. Examples of connective tissues include blood and bone. Connective tissue is comprised of cells separated by extracellular material made of organic and inorganic materials, such as the protein and mineral deposits of bone. Epithelial tissue covers the internal and external surfaces of organs inside the animal body and the external surface of the body of the organism. Answer: tissue", "output": [ "What term describes a collection of similar cells that had a common embryonic origin?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ade55985ffaa4734b3824e17bd5ee1cf", "input": "Passage: As you can see in Figure above , the electric and magnetic fields that make up an electromagnetic wave occur are at right angles to each other. Both fields are also at right angles to the direction that the wave travels. Therefore, an electromagnetic wave is a transverse wave. Answer: transverse wave", "output": [ "Because the fields that make up an electromagnetic wave are at right angles to each other and to the direction that the wave travels, an electromagnetic wave is considered what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cf6ace298c38405eabdab2ab11a85ca4", "input": "Passage: 21.6 Comparing genome sequences provides clues to evolution and development. Answer: genome", "output": [ "Comparing what sequences provides clues to evolution and development?" ] }, { "id": "task594-42704155df6a43f59c62fa1cbf996834", "input": "Passage: Chymotrypsin is found in the small intestine and catalyzes the hydrolysis of peptide bonds following aromatic amino acids. Lactase is found in the small intestine and catalyzes the hydrolysis of lactose. Pepsin is found in the stomach and catalyzes the hydrolysis of peptide bonds, primarily those that occur after aromatic amino acids. Maltase is found in the small intestine and catalyzes the hydrolysis of maltose. Answer: lactase", "output": [ "What enzyme is found in the small intestine catalyzes the hydrolysis of lactose?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9eda5507d1c94f0aae46f8628cd07476", "input": "Passage: After you eat and digest a sugary snack, the level of sugar in your blood quickly rises. In response, the endocrine system secretes the hormone insulin. Insulin helps cells absorb sugar from the blood. This causes the level of sugar in the blood to fall back to its normal level. Answer: insulin", "output": [ "What hormone does the endocrine system secrete to help cells absorb blood sugar?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d9393d53c2624c3bbad686fbb476bf25", "input": "Passage: Only weak London dispersion forces hold molecules of nonpolar alkanes together in the liquid phase. Consequently, less energy is required to break these molecules away from the surface of the liquid and turn them into a vapor. The stronger hydrogen bonding between alcohol molecules means that more energy is required to convert the liquid to vapor, and boiling points are therefore high. Answer: stronger hydrogen bonding", "output": [ "What kind of bonding between alcohol molecules means that more energy is required to convert the liquid to vapor, and boiling points are therefore high?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f7d7fbf009d740bdac1cb4eaaee35e53", "input": "Passage: Alpha particles can travel only a few centimeters through air. They can burn the skin but not penetrate it. Beta particles can travel up to a meter through air. They can penetrate and damage skin. Gamma rays can travel thousands of meters through air. They can penetrate and damage cells deep inside the body. Answer: gamma rays", "output": [ "What kind of rays can travel thousands of meters through air and can penetrate and damage cells deep inside the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-aa2b96945809467f965a7aeede5f8aba", "input": "Passage: Courtesy of the U. S. National Cancer Institute's Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) Program. Lymph capillaries collect the flood the leaks from blood capillaries and is slowly returned to the cardiovascular system . Answer: cardiovascular", "output": [ "Lymph capillaries collect the fluid that leaks from blood capillaries and slowly return it to what system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-56bb39b48f554bb28479c9dce7d23eed", "input": "Passage: A chemical reaction occurs when some substances change chemically to other substances. Chemical reactions are represented by chemical equations. Answer: chemical reaction", "output": [ "What occurs when some substances change chemically to other substances?" ] }, { "id": "task594-de691373e5f146a68810eac7eae79efb", "input": "Passage: Plants alternate between haploid and diploid generations. Haploid cells have one of each pair of chromosomes. Diploid cells have two of each pair. Answer: diploid", "output": [ "Plants alternate between haploid and what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c8598cf0f5a24b4e9e390b189cd94cac", "input": "Passage: Blood from the body enters the right atrium of the heart. The right atrium pumps the blood to the right ventricle, which pumps it to the lungs. This loop is represented by the blue arrows in Figure above . Answer: right atrium", "output": [ "Blood from the body enters what chamber of the heart before it is pumped to the right ventricle and then to the lungs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-485d2a5fd617436bac2a1ad932e1a2f1", "input": "Passage: The cell is the basic unit of structure and function of all organisms. The Cell Theory states that all living things are made of one or more cells, or the secretions of those cells, such as the organisms shown in Figure below . For example, shell and bone are built by cells from substances that they secrete into their surroundings. Cells come from cells that already exist, that is, they do not suddenly appear from nowhere. In organisms that are made of many cells (called multicellular organisms), every cell in the organism's body derives from the single cell that results from a fertilized egg. You will learn more about cells and the Cell Theory in Cells: The Cell Theory (Advanced) concept. Answer: the cell", "output": [ "What is the basic unit of structure and function in all organisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-400d2bba66cd4e5589a9ffe934ecbbfb", "input": "Passage: The ideal gas law can also be used to determine the densities of gases. Density, recall, is defined as the mass of a substance divided by its volume:. Answer: density", "output": [ "What is idefined as the mass of a substance divided by its volume?" ] }, { "id": "task594-00b5602782f74422960140836a1dba1c", "input": "Passage: If you were to filter out all the cells in blood, a golden-yellow liquid would be left behind. Plasma is this fluid part of the blood. Plasma is about 90% water and about 10% dissolved proteins, glucose, ions, hormones, and gases. Blood is made up mostly of plasma. Answer: plasma", "output": [ "If you were to filter out all the cells in blood, you would be left with what golden-yellow liquid?" ] }, { "id": "task594-da4239529bf249e9a057cb36864e35cb", "input": "Passage: Volcanoes occur most often along plate boundaries. Answer: volcanoes", "output": [ "What landform occurs most often along plate boundaries?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d8275883cc1c48ec88121db47604a2a4", "input": "Passage: Reptiles are a class of tetrapod vertebrates that produce amniotic eggs. They include crocodiles, alligators, lizards, snakes, and turtles. The reptile class is one of the largest classes of vertebrates. It consists of all amniotes except birds and mammals. Reptiles have several adaptations for living on dry land that amphibians lack. For example, as shown in Figure below , the skin of most reptiles is covered with scales. The scales, which are made of very tough keratin , protect reptiles from injury and prevent them from losing water. Answer: scales", "output": [ "What protective substance covers the skin of most reptiles?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d63e5db681354d438a8f761d283bc121", "input": "Passage: Reconnection After speciation, two species may recombine or even continue interacting indefinitely. Individual organisms will mate with any nearby individual who they are capable of breeding with. An area where two closely related species continue to interact and reproduce, forming hybrids, is called a hybrid zone. Over time, the hybrid zone may change depending on the fitness of the hybrids and the reproductive barriers (Figure 18.22). If the hybrids are less fit than the parents, reinforcement of speciation occurs, and the species continue to diverge until they can no longer mate and produce viable offspring. If reproductive barriers weaken, fusion occurs and the two species become one. Barriers remain the same if hybrids are fit and reproductive: stability may occur and hybridization continues. Answer: hybrid zone", "output": [ "What term means an area where two closely related species continue to interact and reproduce?" ] }, { "id": "task594-66c40f38ce3d47c8817f430764e630a3", "input": "Passage: Algae play significant roles as producers in aquatic ecosystems. Microscopic forms live suspended in the water column. They are the main component of phytoplankton. As such, they contribute to the food base of most marine ecosystems. Answer: algae", "output": [ "What is the main component of phytoplankton?" ] }, { "id": "task594-832fda5944fb4bdf96e400406bd40bfa", "input": "Passage: Low yields of nitric oxide, NO, form when heating nitrogen and oxygen together. NO also forms when lightning passes through air during thunderstorms. Burning ammonia is the commercial method of preparing nitric oxide. In the laboratory, the reduction of nitric acid is the best method for preparing nitric oxide. When copper reacts with dilute nitric acid, nitric oxide is the principal reduction product: 3Cu(s) + 8HNO 3(aq) ⟶ 2NO(g) + 3Cu(NO 3) 2(aq) + 4H 2 O(l) Gaseous nitric oxide is the most thermally stable of the nitrogen oxides and is the simplest known thermally stable molecule with an unpaired electron. It is one of the air pollutants generated by internal combustion engines, resulting from the reaction of atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen during the combustion process. At room temperature, nitric oxide is a colorless gas consisting of diatomic molecules. As is often the case with molecules that contain an unpaired electron, two molecules combine to form a dimer by pairing their unpaired electrons to form a bond. Liquid and solid NO both contain N2O2 dimers, like that shown in Figure 18.34. Most substances with unpaired electrons exhibit color by absorbing visible light; however, NO is colorless because the absorption of light is not in the visible region of the spectrum. Answer: thunderstorms", "output": [ "Low yields of nitric oxide, no, form when heating nitrogen and oxygen together. no also forms when lightning passes through air during this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ae7cd47aea2647cb85a896542b51db66", "input": "Passage: Living things need nonliving matter as well as energy. What do you think matter is used for? It's used to build bodies. It's also needed to carry out the processes of life. Any nonliving matter that living things need is called a nutrient . Carbon and nitrogen are examples of nutrients. Unlike energy, matter is recycled in ecosystems. In the figure below, you can see how ( Figure below ). Answer: it is recycled", "output": [ "Unlike energy, what happens to matter in ecosystems?" ] }, { "id": "task594-441bd9d47c5e4135a6794f28d3b75973", "input": "Passage: A car’s gas pedal, like the one in Figure below , is sometimes called the accelerator. That’s because it controls the acceleration of the car. Pressing down on the gas pedal gives the car more gas and causes the car to speed up. Letting up on the gas pedal gives the car less gas and causes the car to slow down. Whenever an object speeds up, slows down, or changes direction, it accelerates. Acceleration is a measure of the change in velocity of a moving object. Acceleration occurs whenever an object is acted upon by an unbalanced force. Answer: acceleration", "output": [ "What is the measure of the change in the velocity of a moving object called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5a8281a5ebaf425294d180771fa2d763", "input": "Passage: People have probably wondered about the natural world for as long as there have been people. So it’s no surprise that science has roots that go back thousands of years. Some of the earliest contributions to science were made by Greek philosophers more than two thousand years ago. It wasn’t until many centuries later, however, that the scientific method and experimentation were introduced. The dawn of modern science occurred even more recently. It is generally traced back to the scientific revolution, which took place in Europe starting in the 1500s. Answer: europe", "output": [ "The scientific revolution took place where starting in the 1500s?" ] }, { "id": "task594-20d856482d9149bb903637549ef2b039", "input": "Passage: Unfortunately, the layer of good ozone is being destroyed by air pollution. The chief culprits are chlorine and bromine gases. They are released in aerosol sprays, coolants, and other products. Loss of ozone has created an ozone hole over Antarctica. Ozone depletion results in higher levels of UV radiation reaching Earth. In humans, this increases skin cancers and eye cataracts. It also disturbs the nitrogen cycle, kills plankton, and disrupts ocean food webs. The total loss of the ozone layer would be devastating to most life. It’s rate of loss has slowed with restrictions on pollutants, but it is still at risk. Answer: air pollution", "output": [ "What is destroying the layer of good ozone?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8a561aa6b11749a18d691ccdad67d9e2", "input": "Passage: 26.3 Color and Color Vision • The eye has four types of light receptors—rods and three types of color-sensitive cones. • The rods are good for night vision, peripheral vision, and motion changes, while the cones are responsible for central vision and color. • We perceive many hues, from light having mixtures of wavelengths. • A simplified theory of color vision states that there are three primary colors, which correspond to the three types of cones, and that various combinations of the primary colors produce all the hues. • The true color of an object is related to its relative absorption of various wavelengths of light. The color of a light source is related to the wavelengths it produces. • Color constancy is the ability of the eye-brain system to discern the true color of an object illuminated by various light sources. • The retinex theory of color vision explains color constancy by postulating the existence of three retinexes or image systems, associated with the three types of cones that are compared to obtain sophisticated information. Answer: rods", "output": [ "The four types of light receptors include different types of cones and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0b9de33425c34773a1bc9d8c1bac0630", "input": "Passage: Epithelial tissue from epithelium. Below this is dermis, thicker and with blood vessels. Two specialized epithelia: • pseudostratified • transitional Pseudostratified epithelia lines the trachea (where it is ciliated)and the male urethra (where it is non ciliated), looks stratified but not. Transitional epithelia found only in bladder and urinary system. As it stretches it appears to go from 6 to 3 cell layers deep. Glandular epithelia (gland: group of cells that excretes something. mostly derived from epithelium. Glands are classified into endocrine and exocrine by where they excrete. Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the blood without use of ducts. Exocrine glands secrete onto the body surface or into a cavity, thru a duct. Exocrine substances include sweat, mucous, oil, and saliva. An exocrine gland is the liver, which secretes bile. Answer: exocrine", "output": [ "Is sweat an exocrine or endocrine substance?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e1ef15b019ee4b09aedee259512cd7a1", "input": "Passage: The Chromosome 18 Inversion Not all structural rearrangements of chromosomes produce nonviable, impaired, or infertile individuals. In rare instances, such a change can result in the evolution of a new species. In fact, a pericentric inversion in chromosome 18 appears to have contributed to the evolution of humans. This inversion is not present in our closest genetic relatives, the chimpanzees. Humans and chimpanzees differ cytogenetically by pericentric inversions on several chromosomes and by the fusion of two separate chromosomes in chimpanzees that correspond to chromosome two in humans. The pericentric chromosome 18 inversion is believed to have occurred in early humans following their divergence from a common ancestor with chimpanzees approximately five million years ago. Researchers characterizing this inversion have suggested that approximately 19,000 nucleotide bases were duplicated on 18p, and the duplicated region inverted and reinserted on chromosome 18 of an ancestral human. A comparison of human and chimpanzee genes in the region of this inversion indicates that two genes—ROCK1 and USP14—that are adjacent on chimpanzee chromosome 17 (which corresponds to human chromosome 18) are more distantly positioned on human chromosome 18. This suggests that one of the inversion breakpoints occurred between these two genes. Interestingly, humans and chimpanzees express USP14 at distinct levels in specific cell types, including cortical cells and fibroblasts. Perhaps the chromosome 18 inversion in an ancestral human repositioned specific genes and reset their expression levels in a useful way. Because both ROCK1 and USP14 encode cellular enzymes, a change in their expression could alter cellular function. It is not known how this inversion contributed to hominid evolution, [1] but it appears to be a significant factor in the divergence of humans from other primates. Translocations A translocation occurs when a segment of a chromosome dissociates and reattaches to a different, nonhomologous chromosome. Translocations can be benign or have devastating effects depending on how the positions of genes are altered with respect to regulatory sequences. Notably, specific translocations have been associated with several cancers and with schizophrenia. Reciprocal translocations result from the exchange of chromosome segments between two nonhomologous chromosomes such that there is no gain or loss of genetic information (Figure 13.13). Answer: new species", "output": [ "Not all structural rearrangements of chromosomes produce nonviable, impaired, or infertile individuals. in rare instances, such a change can result in the evolution of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-34b495d10fc14c32a6bf8ae105be4431", "input": "Passage: Figure 3.5 Glucose, galactose, and fructose are all hexoses. They are structural isomers, meaning they have the same chemical formula (C6H12O6) but a different arrangement of atoms. Answer: hexoses", "output": [ "Glucose, galactose, and fructose are all what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2748005e775345339b7acecdda960d5d", "input": "Passage: Chapter 42 1 Figure 42.11 C 3 Figure 42.16 If the blood of the mother and fetus mixes, memory cells that recognize the Rh antigen can form late in the first pregnancy. During subsequent pregnancies, these memory cells launch an immune attack on the fetal blood cells. Injection of anti-Rh antibody during the first pregnancy prevents the immune response from occurring. 4 D 6 A 8 D 10 B 12 D 14 C 16 C 18 D 20 C 22 If the MHC I molecules expressed on donor cells differ from the MHC I molecules expressed on recipient cells, NK cells may identify the donor cells as “non-self” and produce perforin and granzymes to induce the donor cells to undergo apoptosis, which would destroy the transplanted organ. 24 An antigen is a molecule that reacts with some component of the immune response (antibody, B cell receptor, T cell receptor). An epitope is the region on the antigen through which binding with the immune component actually occurs. 26 The TH1 response involves the secretion of cytokines to stimulate macrophages and CTLs and improve their destruction of intracellular pathogens and tumor cells. It is associated with inflammation. The TH2 response is involved in the stimulation of B cells into plasma cells that synthesize and secrete antibodies. 28 T cells bind antigens that have been digested and embedded in MHC molecules by APCs. In contrast, B cells function themselves as APCs to bind intact, unprocessed antigens. 30 Cross reactivity of antibodies can be beneficial when it allows an individual's immune system to respond to an array of similar pathogens after being exposed to just one of them. A potential cost of cross reactivity is an antibody response to parts of the body (self) in addition to the appropriate antigen. Answer: immune", "output": [ "An antigen is a molecule that reacts with some component of the what response?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0147e118a93e4a2f8a426b9acd8113f9", "input": "Passage: Visible light is light that has wavelengths that can be detected by the human eye. The wavelength of visible light determines the color that the light appears. As you can see in the Figure below , light with the longest wavelength appears red, and light with the shortest wavelength appears violet. In between are all the other colors of light that we can see. Only seven main colors of light are actually represented in the diagram. Answer: wavelengths", "output": [ "Visible light has what that can be detected by the human eye?" ] }, { "id": "task594-71d50e5ad0aa4ced8dc7588c09267366", "input": "Passage: Power is the rate that energy is released. The units for power are watts (W), which equal joules per second . For example, a 60 W light bulb transforms 60 joules of electrical energy into light and heat energy every second. Answer: power", "output": [ "The rate that energy is released is known as" ] }, { "id": "task594-ed547607c257416ab33bb84e5fb2283b", "input": "Passage: Some chemical reactions can occur in only one direction. These reactions are called irreversible reactions. The reactants can change to the products, but the products cannot change back to the reactants. These reactions are like making a cake. The ingredients of a cake—such as eggs and flour—are the reactants. They are mixed together and baked to form the cake, which is the product (see Figure below ). The cake can’t be “unbaked” and “unmixed” to change it back to the raw eggs, flour, and other ingredients. So making a cake is irreversible. Answer: irreversible", "output": [ "What are reactions that can occur only in one direction called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-807cb9fc6abc4d768dae5827632fc3fe", "input": "Passage: From a human point of view, natural resources can be classified as either renewable or nonrenewable. Answer: renewable or nonrenewable", "output": [ "How can natural resources be classified from a human point of view?" ] }, { "id": "task594-11c86e39228f4b1aa4587fb32a8fdc98", "input": "Passage: Coal is a black or brownish-black rock that burns easily ( Figure below ). Most coal is sedimentary rock. The hardest type of coal, anthracite, is a metamorphic rock. That is because it is exposed to higher temperature and pressure as it forms. Coal is mostly carbon, but some other elements can be found in coal, including sulfur. Answer: carbon", "output": [ "What element makes up the majority of coal?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f8374a20154e43db987cb45d114a8716", "input": "Passage: Most chemical reactions reach equilibrium at which point there is no net change. Answer: equilibrium", "output": [ "At what point during a chemical reaction is there no net change?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a221260d67494b7f8a0dd2e1eab1ee73", "input": "Passage: Vertebrates evolved from primitive chordates. This occurred about 550 million years ago. The earliest vertebrates may have been jawless fish, like the hagfish in Figure below . Vertebrates evolved a backbone to replace the notochord after the embryo stage. They also evolved a cranium , or bony skull, to enclose and protect the brain. Answer: chordates", "output": [ "Vertebrates evolved from primitive forms of which creature?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ce5574a2372e4dab8b779c9cba8a7824", "input": "Passage: Cnidarians in the polyp form usually reproduce asexually. One type of asexual reproduction in polyps leads to the formation of new medusae. Medusae usually reproduce sexually with sperm and eggs. Fertilization forms a zygote. The zygote develops into a larva, and the larva develops into a polyp. There are many variations on this general life cycle. Obviously, species that exist only as polyps or medusae have a life cycle without the other form. Answer: larva", "output": [ "What is the stage between a zygote and polyp?" ] }, { "id": "task594-338e91edb18b4b59a1af5a907345a49b", "input": "Passage: Translucent matter is matter that transmits but scatters light. Light passes through a translucent object but you cannot see clearly through the object because the light is scattered in all directions. The frosted glass doors in the figure are translucent. Answer: scatters", "output": [ "Translucent matter is matter that transmits and does what else to light?" ] }, { "id": "task594-57cc411b282844b593bd7e5ddb0a65eb", "input": "Passage: If only one atom of a specific type is present, no subscript is used. Answer: subscript", "output": [ "If only one atom of a specific type is present what is not used?" ] }, { "id": "task594-32093a0bc1c9466196972870e735729c", "input": "Passage: Arthropods are the largest phylum in the animal kingdom. Most arthropods are insects. The phylum also includes spiders, centipedes, and crustaceans. The arthropod body consists of three segments with a hard exoskeleton and jointed appendages. Terrestrial arthropods have adaptations for life on land, such as trachea or book lungs for breathing air. The earliest arthropods were trilobites. The earliest land arthropods were millipedes. Answer: insects", "output": [ "The largest phylum in the animal kingdom, arthropod, is primarily comprised of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6e1d15d9873e44c9bf850d36af5851bc", "input": "Passage: A natural resource is anything in nature that humans need. Metals and fossil fuels are natural resources. But so are water, sunlight, soil, and wind. Even living things are natural resources. Answer: natural resources", "output": [ "Metals, fossil fuels, and water are all examples of what type of resource?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5d877086a3ae4a368fb28bad435dc7a9", "input": "Passage: The physical state and properties of a particular compound depend in large part on the type of chemical bonding it displays. Molecular compounds , sometimes called covalent compounds, display a wide range of physical properties due to the different types of intermolecular attractions such as different kinds of polar interactions. The melting and boiling points of molecular compounds are generally quite low compared to those of ionic compounds . This is because the energy required to disrupt the intermolecular forces between molecules is far less than the energy required to break the ionic bonds in a crystalline ionic compound. Since molecular compounds are composed of neutral molecules, their electrical conductivity is generally quite poor, whether in the solid or liquid state. Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity in the solid state because of their rigid structure, but conduct well when either molten or dissolved into a solution. The water solubility of molecular compounds is variable and depends primarily on the type of intermolecular forces involved. Substances that exhibit hydrogen bonding or dipole-dipole forces are generally water soluble, whereas those that exhibit only London dispersion forces are generally insoluble. Most, but not all, ionic compounds are quite soluble in water. Table below summarizes some of the differences between ionic and molecular compounds. Answer: covalent compounds", "output": [ "What is another name for molecular compounds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d532c3cff71945e7baab224991e21ef5", "input": "Passage: Asthma is a disease in which bronchioles in the lungs periodically swell and fill with mucus. Symptoms of asthma may include difficulty breathing, wheezing, coughing, and chest tightness. An asthma attack may be triggered by allergies, strenuous exercise, stress, or another respiratory illness such as a cold. Answer: asthma", "output": [ "What is the disease in which bronchioles in the lungs periodically swell and fill with mucus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9ddbe1035cf746169a89dfe92328e382", "input": "Passage: Nuclear chemistry is the study of reactions that involve changes in nuclear structure. The chapter on atoms, molecules, and ions introduced the basic idea of nuclear structure, that the nucleus of an atom is composed of protons and, with the exception of 11 H, neutrons. Recall that the number of protons in the nucleus is called the atomic number (Z) of the element, and the sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons is the mass number (A). Atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers are isotopes of the same element. When referring to a single type of nucleus, we often use the term nuclide and identify it by the notation A where X is the symbol Z X, 14 ⎞ Often a nuclide is referenced 6 C⎠. example, 146 C is called “carbon-14. Answer: isotopes", "output": [ "Atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ff8662772e6e4cc58a16658b38b5f6cb", "input": "Passage: Acid rain is rain that has a pH less than 5 (see Figure below ). The pH of normal rain is 5.6. It’s slightly acidic because carbon dioxide in the air dissolves in rain. This forms carbonic acid, a weak acid. Answer: acid rain", "output": [ "What is the term for rain that has a ph less than 5, due to carbon dioxide dissolving?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6b7ee4027fbe4d84bf1514c0e45b8f41", "input": "Passage: Reflecting surfaces do not have to be flat. The most common curved mirrors are spherical. A spherical mirror is called a concave mirror if the center of the mirror is further from the viewer than the edges are. A spherical mirror is called a convex mirror if the center of the mirror is closer to the viewer than the edges are. Answer: spherical", "output": [ "The most common curved mirrors are what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d1588d4cfad445f0b2787bdc20de480d", "input": "Passage: Raptors such as hawks and owls are carnivores. They hunt and eat mammals and other birds. Vultures are scavengers . They eat the remains of dead animals, such as roadkill. Aquatic birds generally eat fish or water plants. Perching birds may eat insects, fruit, honey, or nectar. Many fruit-eating birds play a key role in seed dispersal, and some nectar-feeding birds are important pollinators . Answer: carnivorous", "output": [ "What kind of diet is typical for raptors, such as hawks and owls?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ebcaa3fc3d204b0f949c2ee1d53dc263", "input": "Passage: Cytoplasm is one component of cells that is common to all cells. Cytoplasm is the gel-like material between the cell membrane and the nucleus. The cytoplasm plays an important role in a cell, serving as a \"jelly\" in which organelles are suspended and held together by the cell membrane. Though prokaryotic cells do not have organelles (though they do have ribosomes), they still have cytoplasm. It is within the cytoplasm that most cellular activities occur, including the many metabolic pathways that occur within organelles, such as photosynthesis and aerobic respiration. Answer: cytoplasm", "output": [ "What is the gel-like material between the cell membrane and the nucleus called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8ce7c5981f9d403bbae6348da514a921", "input": "Passage: 16.2 Prokaryotic Gene Regulation The regulation of gene expression in prokaryotic cells occurs at the transcriptional level. There are three ways to control the transcription of an operon: repressive control, activator control, and inducible control. Repressive control, typified by the trp operon, uses proteins bound to the operator sequence to physically prevent the binding of RNA polymerase and the activation of transcription. Therefore, if tryptophan is not needed, the repressor is bound to the operator and transcription remains off. Activator control, typified by the action of CAP, increases the binding ability of RNA polymerase to the promoter when CAP is bound. In this case, low levels of glucose result in the binding of cAMP to CAP. CAP then binds the promoter, which allows RNA polymerase to bind to the promoter better. In the last example—the lac operon—two conditions must be met to initiate transcription. Glucose must not be present, and lactose must be available for the lac operon to be transcribed. If glucose is absent, CAP binds to the operator. If lactose is present, the repressor protein does not bind to its operator. Only when both conditions are met will RNA polymerase bind to the promoter to induce transcription. Answer: repressive, activator, inducible", "output": [ "What are the three ways to control the transcription of an operon?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3a35262250fe4327843238516b14ef14", "input": "Passage: Scientists refer to the vertical extent of ocean water as the water column . Two main zones based on depth of water are the photic zone and aphotic zone. The photic zone is the top 200 meters of water. The aphotic zone is water deeper than 200 meters. The deeper you go, the darker the water gets. That’s because sunlight cannot penetrate very far under water. Sunlight is needed for photosynthesis. So the depth of water determines whether photosynthesis is possible. There is enough sunlight for photosynthesis only in the photic zone. Answer: water column", "output": [ "What is the vertical extent of ocean water called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a0ea5008867847f18352033623286dbb", "input": "Passage: Your sense of taste is controlled by sensory neurons , or nerve cells, on your tongue that sense the chemicals in food. The neurons are grouped in bundles within taste buds . Each taste bud actually has a pore that opens out to the surface of the tongue enabling molecules and ions taken into the mouth to reach the receptor cells inside. There are five different types of taste neurons on the tongue. Each type detects a different taste. The tastes are:. Answer: five", "output": [ "How many different types of taste neurons does the tongue contain?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7f5103a37d4f44a08ffb4b489dccfdcc", "input": "Passage: The lungs are the main organs of the respiratory system. This is where gases are exchanged between the air and the blood. Gases are also transported by the blood and exchanged between the blood and all the cells of the body. Answer: lungs", "output": [ "What are the main organs of the respiratory system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6eaa2f27eced473cac528fb919e920f8", "input": "Passage: Ocean currents transfer heat from the Equator toward the poles. This moderates Earth's temperature. Answer: poles", "output": [ "Ocean currents transfer heat from the equator towards what locations?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cc71238aaed1460aa3a4b6928d183962", "input": "Passage: Birds are endothermic tetrapod vertebrates. They are bipedal, which means they walk on two legs. Birds also lay amniotic eggs, and the eggs have hard, calcium carbonate shells. Although birds are the most recent class of vertebrates to evolve, they are now the most numerous vertebrates on Earth. Why have birds been so successful? What traits allowed them to increase and diversify so rapidly?. Answer: endothermic tetrapod", "output": [ "What type of vertebrates are birds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-747583111004418f893009a1f35afa67", "input": "Passage: The same agents that erode landscapes also erode soil. They are water, wind, ice, or gravity. Running water is the leading cause of soil erosion. Water is abundant and has a lot of power. Wind is also a leading cause of soil erosion. Wind can pick up soil and blow it far away. Answer: running water", "output": [ "What is the leading cause of soil erosion?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e06ee5c767e04806a2c57bc1535fe9b9", "input": "Passage: The distance between the Earth and the Sun is about 93 million miles, or 150 million kilometers. Earth revolves around the Sun at an average speed of about 27 kilometers (17 miles) per second. Mercury and Venus are closer to the Sun, so they take shorter times to make one orbit. Mercury takes only about 88 Earth days to make one trip around the Sun. All of the other planets take longer amounts of time. The exact amount depends on the planet's distance from the Sun. Saturn takes more than 29 Earth years to make one revolution around the Sun. How old would you be if you were on Jupiter?. Answer: 93", "output": [ "How many miles is the distance between the earth and sun?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fc621a20e5f44d6081fc71f53db5bbee", "input": "Passage: the radicle is also growing and producing the primary root. As it grows downward to form the tap root, lateral roots branch off to all sides, producing the typical dicot tap root system. In monocot seeds (Figure 32.21), the testa and tegmen of the seed coat are fused. As the seed germinates, the primary root emerges, protected by the root-tip covering: the coleorhiza. Next, the primary shoot emerges, protected by the coleoptile: the covering of the shoot tip. Upon exposure to light (i. when the plumule has exited the soil and the protective coleoptile is no longer needed), elongation of the coleoptile ceases and the leaves expand and unfold. At the other end of the embryonic axis, the primary root soon dies, while other, adventitious roots (roots that do not arise from the usual place – i. the root) emerge from the base of the stem. This gives the monocot a fibrous root system. Answer: adventitious", "output": [ "What is root that does not arise from a usual place?" ] }, { "id": "task594-91f9987376844a8c8ba2ee864ba3cab5", "input": "Passage: Vectors that are perpendicular to each other have no effect on each other. Answer: no effect", "output": [ "What change can you expect in vectors that are perpendicular to each other?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bff10a5764554d37b2f557c43d0cec9f", "input": "Passage: Osteoporosis is a common age-related bone disease in which bone density and strength is decreased. Watch this video (http://openstaxcollege. org/l/osteoporosis) to get a better understanding of how thoracic vertebrae may become weakened and may fracture due to this disease. How may vertebral osteoporosis contribute to kyphosis?. Answer: osteoporosis", "output": [ "A common age-related bone disease in which bone density and strength is decreased is know as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-abe5cc2fac0840589f076557e076f7c9", "input": "Passage: http://www. kentchemistry. com/links/Kinetics/entropy. htm. Answer: ligand", "output": [ "A small molecule that binds to a larger molecule is known as a?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7d3b2aa31a57467fbb81b7f77d6aa744", "input": "Passage: 3. Name and describe the division of gymnosperms. Answer: organism", "output": [ "The regulation of gene expression is extremely important during the development of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-89136c7f20e94a9e9ec4231c25296166", "input": "Passage: Figure 43.17 Rising and falling hormone levels result in progression of the ovarian and menstrual cycles. (credit: modification of work by Mikael Häggström). Answer: hormones", "output": [ "Rising and falling levels of what will result in progression of the ovarian and menstrual cycles?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8f56331811304ab2abce042ecbb62804", "input": "Passage: Metalloids are elements that fall between metals and nonmetals in the periodic table. Just seven elements are metalloids, so they are the smallest class of elements. In Figure above , they are color-coded orange. Examples of metalloids include boron (B), silicon (Si), and germanium (Ge). Answer: metalloids", "output": [ "Which elements fall between metals and nonmetals in the periodic table?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1956eeea652a4b2e81e76e62288badc3", "input": "Passage: Some regions of the electron cloud are denser than others. The denser regions are areas where electrons are most likely to be. These regions are called orbitals . Each orbital has a maximum of just two electrons. Different energy levels in the cloud have different numbers of orbitals. Therefore, different energy levels have different maximum numbers of electrons. Table below lists the number of orbitals and electrons for the first four energy levels. Energy levels farther from the nucleus have more orbitals. Therefore, these levels can hold more electrons. Answer: orbitals", "output": [ "The denser regions of the electron cloud are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a40b0e727ed843469ec1bce67e854c35", "input": "Passage: Every object has a center of gravity . The center of gravity is the point at which the entire weight of a body may be considered to be concentrated; if supported at this point, the body would remain in equilibrium in any position. For example, if we were discussing a 12-inch ruler, the center of gravity for the ruler would be at the center of the 6-inch line. You could put your finger directly under the 6-inch line to hold the ruler and it would not fall either left or right. If you placed your finger underneath any other place on the ruler, it would fall off to one side or the other. Answer: center of gravity", "output": [ "What do you call the point at which the entire weight of a body may be considered to be concentrated?" ] }, { "id": "task594-105f1d6c0062474c9e54d093e41ce18b", "input": "Passage: Evaporation occurs when water on the surface changes to water vapor. The sun heats the water and gives water molecules enough energy to escape into the atmosphere. Answer: evaporation", "output": [ "What occurs when water on the surface changes to water vapor?" ] }, { "id": "task594-830a9a1ce9eb41a9b094f60b4c533515", "input": "Passage: Organisms are not independent, they are interdependent . They cannot live alone; they need other organisms to survive. The same is true for species. All species need other species to survive. Answer: interdependence", "output": [ "Organisms cannot live alone, needing other organisms to survive; what is this relationship called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-650d439becf14fa1874729cfe2e533b2", "input": "Passage: After leaves turn color in the fall, they may all fall off the plant for the winter. Plants that shed their leaves seasonally each year are called deciduous plants . Shedding leaves is a strategy for reducing water loss during seasons of extreme dryness. On the downside, the plant must grow new leaves in the spring, and that takes a lot of energy and matter. Some plants may “bank” energy over the winter by storing food. That way, they are ready to grow new leaves as soon as spring arrives. Answer: deciduous plants", "output": [ "What do we call plants that shed their leaves seasonally each year?" ] }, { "id": "task594-863ed7d76ad04e1d98176fdc0e45eb4b", "input": "Passage: Mutations are the key to species evolving. Lets say an organism \"mutates\" due to a new allele for a gene that determines coat color. There are, theoretically, only three outcomes of that mutation:. Answer: mutations", "output": [ "What are the key to species evolving?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9fbba8b879494556a29bd2989378d8a6", "input": "Passage: Another scientist, who worked with Becquerel, actually came up with the term radioactivity . The other scientist was the French chemist Marie Curie. She went on to discover the radioactive elements polonium and radium. She won two Nobel Prizes for her discoveries. You can learn more about Marie Curie at this URL: http://nobelprize. org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1903/marie-curie-bio. html. Answer: marie curie", "output": [ "What french chemist discovered the radioactive elements polonium and radium?" ] }, { "id": "task594-58a91ae8c456450895c31e009afc0d46", "input": "Passage: Lenses can be used to make visual representations, called images . Answer: visual representations", "output": [ "What can lenses be used to make?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bd6067258688420aadc9d5f86ec5b906", "input": "Passage: Absorption of light by a hydrogen atom. (a) When a hydrogen atom absorbs a photon of light, an electron is excited to an orbit that has a higher energy and larger value of n. (b) Images of the emission and absorption spectra of hydrogen are shown here. Emission and absorption spectra form the basis of spectroscopy, which uses spectra to provide information about the structure and the composition of a substance or an object. In particular, astronomers use emission and absorption spectra to determine the composition of stars and interstellar matter. As an example, consider the spectrum of sunlight shown in Figure 6.14 \"The Visible Spectrum of Sunlight\". Because the sun is very hot, the light it emits is in. Answer: composition", "output": [ "What are scientists able to determine about stars using emission and absorption spectra?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e1f8dba7ae25459d9a4fece55483ef2d", "input": "Passage: Prokaryotic cells are extremely small and have a variety of shapes. Most have flagella and a cell wall. They have several other cell structures as well. Their DNA exists as large and small loops. Some prokaryotes form biofilms, which are colonies of cells stuck to a surface. Answer: biofilms", "output": [ "What are colonies of cells stuck to a surface called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8256a1d473b241b8a3a9203470237cfe", "input": "Passage: Alkanes are nonpolar; they do not attract ions. Answer: ions", "output": [ "Alkanes are nonpolar and therefore do not attract what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b0b8f0db7e4348fcbc71cddbcdd04cb1", "input": "Passage: Stratus clouds occur low in the troposphere. They form in layers that spread horizontally and may cover the entire sky like a thick blanket. Stratus clouds that produce precipitation are called nimbostratus. The prefix nimbo- means “rain. ”. Answer: low", "output": [ "Where do stratus clouds occur in the troposphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-85efc4c70b164467b5e6cff7422b64dc", "input": "Passage: There are many layers of rock in the Earth's surface. Newer layers form on top of the older layers; the deepest rock layers are the oldest. Therefore, you can tell how old a fossil is by observing in which layer of rock it was found. The fossils and the order in which fossils appear is called the fossil record . The fossil record provides evidence for when organisms lived on Earth, how species evolved, and how some species have gone extinct. Geologists use a method called radiometric dating to determine the exact age of rocks and fossils in each layer of rock. This technique, which is possible because radioactive materials decay at a known rate, measures how much of the radioactive materials in each rock layer have broken down ( Figure below ). Answer: fossil record", "output": [ "Fossils themselves and the order in which they appear in are generally collectively called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8b5ebb9d2cef4a16aef746b618038109", "input": "Passage: Glia While glia are often thought of as the supporting cast of the nervous system, the number of glial cells in the brain actually outnumbers the number of neurons by a factor of ten. Neurons would be unable to function without the vital roles that are fulfilled by these glial cells. Glia guide developing neurons to their destinations, buffer ions and chemicals that would otherwise harm neurons, and provide myelin sheaths around axons. Scientists have recently discovered that they also play a role in responding to nerve activity and modulating communication between nerve cells. When glia do not function properly, the result can be disastrous—most brain tumors are caused by mutations in glia. Types of Glia There are several different types of glia with different functions, two of which are shown in Figure 35.7. Astrocytes, shown in Figure 35.8a make contact with both capillaries and neurons in the CNS. They provide nutrients and other substances to neurons, regulate the concentrations of ions and chemicals in the extracellular fluid, and provide structural support for synapses. Astrocytes also form the blood-brain barrier—a structure that blocks entrance of toxic substances into the brain. Astrocytes, in particular, have been shown through calcium imaging experiments to become active in response to nerve activity, transmit calcium waves between astrocytes, and modulate the activity of surrounding synapses. Satellite glia provide nutrients and structural support for neurons in the PNS. Microglia scavenge and degrade dead cells and protect the brain from invading microorganisms. Oligodendrocytes, shown in Figure 35.8b form myelin sheaths around axons in the CNS. One axon can be myelinated by several oligodendrocytes, and one oligodendrocyte can provide myelin for multiple neurons. This is distinctive from the PNS where a single Schwann cell provides myelin for only one axon as the entire Schwann cell surrounds the axon. Radial glia serve as scaffolds for developing neurons as they migrate to their end destinations. Ependymal cells line fluid-filled ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord. They are involved in the production of cerebrospinal fluid, which serves as a cushion for the brain, moves the fluid between the spinal cord and the brain, and is a component for the choroid plexus. Answer: neurons", "output": [ "Though often regarded as the supporting cast of the nervous system, glial cells in the brain actually outnumber what by a factor of ten?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c0eb627c1ede4133b5423674b50819fd", "input": "Passage: Kinetic and potential energy add up to mechanical energy. Answer: potential energy", "output": [ "Mechanical energy can also usually be expressed as the sum of kinetic energy and what other kind of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-398230529f854643a68ecbffec29406d", "input": "Passage: Group 16 is called the oxygen group. Tellurium is the only metalloid in this group, which also contains three nonmetals and one metal. Answer: tellurium", "output": [ "Group 16 is called the oxygen group. what is the only metalloid in this group?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a8a4213ab62b42a0938e179b16df73dc", "input": "Passage: A: Acid rain dissolves and damages stone buildings and statues. The Figure below shows a statue that has been damaged by acid rain. Answer: acid rain", "output": [ "What type of rain dissolves and damages stone buildings and statues?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cd83b8e683f0490b828d6747a442801d", "input": "Passage: The deadly nerve gas Sarin irreversibly inhibits acetycholinesterase. What effect would Sarin have on muscle contraction? After depolarization, the membrane returns to its resting state. This is called repolarization, during which voltagegated sodium channels close. Potassium channels continue at 90% conductance. Because the plasma membrane sodium–potassium ATPase always transports ions, the resting state (negatively charged inside relative to the outside) is restored. The period immediately following the transmission of an impulse in a nerve or muscle, in which a neuron or muscle cell regains its ability to transmit another impulse, is called the refractory period. During the refractory period, the membrane cannot generate another action potential. The refractory period allows the voltage-sensitive ion channels to return to their resting configurations. The sodium potassium ATPase continually moves Na+ back out of the cell and K+ back into the cell, and the K+ leaks out leaving negative charge behind. Very quickly, the membrane repolarizes, so that it can again be depolarized. Answer: refractory", "output": [ "The period immediately following the transmission of an impulse in a nerve or muscle, in which a neuron or muscle cell regains its ability to transmit another impulse, is called the ______ period." ] }, { "id": "task594-32fe56409ec845cb97666c618c8c2d37", "input": "Passage: Ovovivipary refers to the development of an embryo inside an egg within the mother’s body until it hatches. The mother provides no nourishment to the developing embryo inside the egg. This occurs in some species of fish and reptiles. Answer: ovovivipary", "output": [ "What is the term for the development of an embryo inside an egg within the mother’s body until it hatches?" ] }, { "id": "task594-744955d5248846fcbc172904dc01ffc5", "input": "Passage: Determine the total number of valence (outer shell) electrons. For cations, subtract one electron for each. Answer: valence", "output": [ "Electrons in the \"outer shell\" are also known as what kind of electrons?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6ad8eb51abf94cb6b0ca1f82fa16a7dc", "input": "Passage: Figure 4.13 Ribosomes are made up of a large subunit (top) and a small subunit (bottom). During protein synthesis, ribosomes assemble amino acids into proteins. Answer: amino acids", "output": [ "During protein synthesis, ribosomes assemble what into proteins?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6ad62f3aebce46fca8619d63682f39a6", "input": "Passage: Continuous Capillaries The most common type of capillary, the continuous capillary, is found in almost all vascularized tissues. Continuous capillaries are characterized by a complete endothelial lining with tight junctions between endothelial cells. Although a tight junction is usually impermeable and only allows for the passage of water and ions, they are often incomplete in capillaries, leaving intercellular clefts that allow for exchange of water and other very small molecules between the blood plasma and. Answer: continuous", "output": [ "What is the most common type of capillary?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7904da0151764993b4a214f241d48033", "input": "Passage: 23.25 Fungal Reproduction Fungi can reproduce in two ways. Firstly, they make asexually produce through fragmentation. This occurs when pieces of hyphae are broken off, which then grow into new mycelia. The second method is by spores. Spores are lightweight structures and windblown designed to be transported over long distances and by many mediums, such as on the bodies of insects and birds. They are additionally light enough to be blown away for hundreds of kilometers. Spores may be asexual and sexual. Their sexual properties can be analysed to classify the four phylla of fungi. Answer: spores", "output": [ "Fungi reproduce asexually by fragmentation and either sexually or asexually via what lightweight, windblown structures?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fa96b5f018b44e81ae36f3774a70463c", "input": "Passage: Microwave ovens operate by emitting microwave radiation, which is primarily absorbed by water molecules in food. The absorbed radiation is converted to heat through rapid oscillations of polar water molecules, 28. Answer: heat", "output": [ "Microwave ovens use radiation to provide food with what kind of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eeb3157968a14fea887fc1dc8b8acb76", "input": "Passage: (a) A jet airplane flying from Darwin, Australia, has an air speed of 260 m/s in a direction 5.0º south of west. It is in the jet stream, which is blowing at 35.0 m/s in a direction 15º south of east. What is the velocity of the airplane relative to the Earth? (b) Discuss whether your answers are consistent with your expectations for the effect of the wind on the plane’s path. (a) In what direction would the ship in Exercise 3.57 have to travel in order to have a velocity straight north relative to the Earth, assuming its speed relative to the water remains 7.00 m/s ? (b) What would its speed be relative to the Earth? 60. (a) Another airplane is flying in a jet stream that is blowing at 45.0 m/s in a direction 20º south of east (as in Exercise 3.58). Its direction of motion relative to the Earth is 45.0º south of west, while its direction of travel relative to the air is 5.00º south of west. What is the airplane’s speed relative to the air mass? (b) What is the airplane’s speed relative to the Earth? 61. A sandal is dropped from the top of a 15.0-m-high mast on a ship moving at 1.75 m/s due south. Calculate the velocity of the sandal when it hits the deck of the ship: (a) relative to the ship and (b) relative to a stationary observer on shore. (c) Discuss how the answers give a consistent result for the position at which the sandal hits the deck. The velocity of the wind relative to the water is crucial to sailboats. Suppose a sailboat is in an ocean current that has a velocity of 2.20 m/s in a direction 30.0º east of north relative to the Earth. It encounters a wind that has a velocity of 4.50 m/s in a direction of 50.0º south of west relative to the Earth. What is the velocity of the wind relative to the water? 63. The great astronomer Edwin Hubble discovered that all distant galaxies are receding from our Milky Way Galaxy with velocities proportional to their distances. It appears to an observer on the Earth that we are at the center of an expanding universe. Figure 3.64 illustrates this for five galaxies lying along a straight line, with the Milky Way Galaxy at the center. Using the data from the figure, calculate the velocities: (a) relative to galaxy 2 and (b) relative to galaxy 5. The results mean that observers on all galaxies will see themselves at the center of the expanding universe, and they would likely be aware of relative velocities, concluding that it is not possible to locate the center of expansion with the given information. Answer: distances", "output": [ "The great astronomer edwin hubble discovered that all distant galaxies are receding from our milky way galaxy with velocities proportional to their what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4d834762191c43c7942303d17fb70712", "input": "Passage: Some athletes attempt to boost their performance by using artificial hormones that enhance muscle performance. Anabolic steroids, a form of the male sex hormone testosterone, are one of the most widely known performance-enhancing drugs. Steroids are used to help build muscle mass. Other hormones that are used to enhance athletic performance include erythropoietin, which triggers the production of red blood cells, and human growth hormone, which can help in building muscle mass. Most performance enhancing drugs are illegal for non-medical purposes. They are also banned by national and international governing bodies including the International Olympic Committee, the U. Olympic Committee, the National Collegiate Athletic Association, the Major League Baseball, and the National Football League. The side effects of synthetic hormones are often significant and non-reversible, and in some cases, fatal. Androgens produce several complications such as liver dysfunctions and liver tumors, prostate gland enlargement, difficulty urinating, premature closure of epiphyseal cartilages, testicular atrophy, infertility, and immune system depression. The physiological strain caused by these substances is often greater than what the body can handle, leading to unpredictable and dangerous effects and linking their use to heart attacks, strokes, and impaired cardiac function. Regulation of the Female Reproductive System In females, FSH stimulates development of egg cells, called ova, which develop in structures called follicles. Follicle cells produce the hormone inhibin, which inhibits FSH production. LH also plays a role in the development of ova, induction of ovulation, and stimulation of estradiol and progesterone production by the ovaries, as illustrated in Figure 37.9. Estradiol and progesterone are steroid hormones that prepare the body for pregnancy. Estradiol produces secondary sex characteristics in females, while both estradiol and progesterone regulate the menstrual cycle. Answer: muscle mass", "output": [ "Anabolic steroids, a form of the male sex hormone testosterone, are one of the most widely known performance-enhancing drugs. steroids are used to help build what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d394b313f2064360ac845ede9730e923", "input": "Passage: Atoms are electrically neutral, but if they lose or gain electrons they become charged particles called ions. Answer: ions", "output": [ "What do atoms become if they lose or gain electrons?" ] }, { "id": "task594-32be3c8d6df54bf9b189bac7f163adc1", "input": "Passage: Collisions of gas particles are elastic, so no energy is lost. Answer: elastic", "output": [ "When gas particles collide, what kinds of collisions are these considered?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6c7cd1d29d724a259a2a0dbdeeebec21", "input": "Passage: Mars is a lot like Earth. Mars is rocky and has an atmosphere. Mars even has water! But Mars (and Mercury, Venus, the Moon, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune) does not have any evidence of life. Life is what makes Earth unique. It is also part of Earth's dynamic nature. Life is part of many Earth processes. Life is also dynamic in itself. Constantly adapting and evolving, life forms are always changing. Except those that are so well adapted to their environment, they haven't changed in hundreds of millions of years. Answer: earth", "output": [ "What is the only planet that is known to support life?" ] }, { "id": "task594-86aab7615ed6424d86e2e3164c7a2473", "input": "Passage: The smallest particle of an element that still has the properties of that element is the atom . Atoms actually consist of smaller particles, including protons and electrons, but these smaller particles are the same for all elements. All the atoms of an element are like one another, and are different from the atoms of all other elements. For example, the atoms of each element have a unique number of protons. Answer: atom", "output": [ "What is the smallest part of an element called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-64e10cdba0b34d9685dbbe17940f8231", "input": "Passage: There is a one problem when using food chains to accurately describe most ecosystems. Even when all organisms are grouped into appropriate trophic levels, some of these organisms can feed on species from more than one trophic level; likewise, some of these organisms can be eaten by species from multiple trophic levels. In other words, the linear model of ecosystems, the food chain, is not completely descriptive of ecosystem structure. A holistic model—which accounts for all the interactions between different species and their complex interconnected relationships with each other and with the environment—is a more accurate and descriptive model for ecosystems. A food web is a graphic representation of a holistic, non-linear web of primary producers, primary consumers, and higher-level consumers used to describe ecosystem structure and dynamics (Figure 46.6). Answer: trophic level", "output": [ "A problem with using food chains to describe ecosystems is that some organisms can feed on or be consumed by species from more than one of what level?" ] }, { "id": "task594-05f73082157b452ca2a706b8208e4e22", "input": "Passage: yellow liquid used in the production of synthetic rubber. Its condensed structural formula is ClSSCl. Ethylene glycol is the major ingredient in antifreeze. Its condensed structural formula is HOCH2CH2OH. Trimethylamine is one of the substances responsible for the smell of spoiled fish. Its condensed structural formula is (CH3)3N. Given: condensed structural formula Asked for: molecular formula Strategy: A Identify every element in the condensed structural formula and then determine whether the compound is organic or inorganic. B As appropriate, use either organic or inorganic convention to list the elements. Then add appropriate subscripts to indicate the number of atoms of each element present in the molecular formula. Solution: The molecular formula lists the elements in the molecule and the number of atoms of each. Answer: smell", "output": [ "Trimethylamine is one of the substances responsible for the what of spoiled fish?" ] }, { "id": "task594-61bf768080e84004a4aba95a766babc6", "input": "Passage: 5. Quartz is made of one silicon atom and two oxygen atoms. If you find a mineral and find that it is made of one silicon atom and one oxygen atom is it quartz?. Answer: quartz", "output": [ "What mineral is made of one silicon atom and two oxygen atoms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-32e4a031e5a643a5a3ff083f0c8664f9", "input": "Passage: Electrons have virtually no mass, but protons and neutrons have a lot of mass for their size. As a result, the nucleus has virtually all the mass of an atom. Given its great mass and tiny size, the nucleus is very dense. If an object the size of a penny had the same density as the nucleus of an atom, its mass would be greater than 30 million tons! You can learn more about the size and mass of the nucleus at this URL:. Answer: nucleus", "output": [ "Where does most of the mass for an atom reside?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8a5caba8f3d74674a0693ad6796e6245", "input": "Passage: Explain why the fission of heavy nuclei releases energy. Similarly, why is it that energy input is required to fission light nuclei? 19. Explain, in terms of conservation of momentum and energy, why collisions of neutrons with protons will thermalize neutrons better than collisions with oxygen. The ruins of the Chernobyl reactor are enclosed in a huge concrete structure built around it after the accident. Some rain penetrates the building in winter, and radioactivity from the building increases. What does this imply is happening inside? 21. Since the uranium or plutonium nucleus fissions into several fission fragments whose mass distribution covers a wide range of pieces, would you expect more residual radioactivity from fission than fusion? Explain. The core of a nuclear reactor generates a large amount of thermal energy from the decay of fission products, even when the power-producing fission chain reaction is turned off. Would this residual heat be greatest after the reactor has run for a long time or short time? What if the reactor has been shut down for months? 23. How can a nuclear reactor contain many critical masses and not go supercritical? What methods are used to control the fission in the reactor? 24. Why can heavy nuclei with odd numbers of neutrons be induced to fission with thermal neutrons, whereas those with even numbers of neutrons require more energy input to induce fission? 25. Why is a conventional fission nuclear reactor not able to explode as a bomb?. Answer: thermal", "output": [ "The core of a nuclear reactor generates a large amount of what type of energy from the decay of fission products, even when the power-producing fission chain reaction is turned off?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d012b169ca9749bb8f8798e2f0a3e488", "input": "Passage: The smallest and lightest alcohols (methanol, ethanol, propanol) are completely soluble in water in all proportions. In a solution, the hydroxyl groups of alcohol molecules and the water molecules form hydrogen bonds with each other, resulting in complete miscibility. However, as the length of the carbon chain increases, the solubility decreases. The solubility of 1-butanol is 7.4 g per 100 g of water, while that of 1-pentanol is 2.7 g per 100 g water, and 1-octanol is 0.06 g per 100 g water. The carbon chain portion of the larger alcohol molecule is nonpolar and leads to the decreased solubility of the overall compound. Answer: water", "output": [ "The smallest and lightest alcohols (methanol, ethanol, propanol) are completely soluble in?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b3f7fe7a325e42a28e6fa1d8cd3d6a2f", "input": "Passage: groups of angiosperms: the monocots and the eudicots. Seed food reserves are stored outside the embryo, in the form of complex carbohydrates, lipids or proteins. The cotyledons serve as conduits to transmit the broken-down food reserves from their storage site inside the seed to the developing embryo. The seed consists of a toughened layer of integuments forming the coat, the endosperm with food reserves, and at the center, the well-protected embryo. Most flowers are monoecious or bisexual, which means that they carry both stamens and carpels; only a few species selfpollinate. Monoecious flowers are also known as “perfect” flowers because they contain both types of sex organs (Figure 26.14). Both anatomical and environmental barriers promote cross-pollination mediated by a physical agent (wind or water), or an animal, such as an insect or bird. Cross-pollination increases genetic diversity in a species. Answer: sex organ", "output": [ "Monoecious flowers are also known as “perfect” flowers because they contain both types of what organ?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3fb137f8dd8d4215bec22dcd50d77401", "input": "Passage: A snowflake is made of ice, or water in the solid state. A solid is one of four well-known states of matter. The other three states are liquid, gas, and plasma. Compared with these other states of matter, solids have particles that are much more tightly packed together. The particles are held rigidly in place by all the other particles around them so they can’t slip past one another or move apart. This gives solids a fixed shape and a fixed volume. Answer: plasma", "output": [ "What state of matter completes the list: solid, liquid, gas?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0d0e802ea0f14c21925fe14f69299935", "input": "Passage: A seed is a reproductive structure that contains an embryo and a food supply, called endosperm. Both the embryo and endosperm are enclosed within a tough outer coating, called a hull (or shell). You can see these parts of a seed in Figure below . An embryo is a zygote that has already started to develop and grow. Early growth and development of a plant embryo inside a seed is called germination . The seed protects and nourishes the embryo and gives it a huge head start in the \"race\" of life. Answer: germination", "output": [ "What is the term for the early growth and development of a plant embryo inside a seed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4972d15fb9cf4adb8a8619ed9e17f2c1", "input": "Passage: Chytridiomycota: The Chytrids The only class in the Phylum Chytridiomycota is the Chytridiomycetes. The chytrids are the simplest and most primitive Eumycota, or true fungi. The evolutionary record shows that the first recognizable chytrids appeared during the late preCambrian period, more than 500 million years ago. Like all fungi, chytrids have chitin in their cell walls, but one group of chytrids has both cellulose and chitin in the cell wall. Most chytrids are unicellular; a few form multicellular organisms and hyphae, which have no septa between cells (coenocytic). They produce gametes and diploid zoospores that swim with the help of a single flagellum. The ecological habitat and cell structure of chytrids have much in common with protists. Chytrids usually live in aquatic environments, although some species live on land. Some species thrive as parasites on plants, insects, or amphibians (Figure 24.10), while others are saprobes. The chytrid species Allomyces is well characterized as an experimental organism. Its reproductive cycle includes both asexual and sexual phases. Allomyces produces diploid or haploid flagellated zoospores in a sporangium. Answer: fungi", "output": [ "The chytrids the only class in the phylum chytridiomycota is the chytridiomycetes. the chytrids are the simplest and most primitive eumycota, or true this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fa0ced4e6a4e4b0097a32ddc886f4daa", "input": "Passage: Analogous structures are structures that are similar in unrelated organisms. The structures are similar because they evolved to do the same job, not because they were inherited from a common ancestor. For example, the wings of bats and birds, shown in Figure below , look similar on the outside. They also have the same function. However, wings evolved independently in the two groups of animals. This is apparent when you compare the pattern of bones inside the wings. Answer: analogous", "output": [ "What term is used to describe structures that are similar in unrelated organisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9334f6bf8d874a548ed7e5ab062b8a43", "input": "Passage: 18.4 Leukocytes and Platelets Leukocytes function in body defenses. They squeeze out of the walls of blood vessels through emigration or diapedesis, then may move through tissue fluid or become attached to various organs where they fight against pathogenic organisms, diseased cells, or other threats to health. Granular leukocytes, which include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils, originate with myeloid stem cells, as do the agranular monocytes. The other agranular leukocytes, NK cells, B cells, and T cells, arise from the lymphoid stem cell line. The most abundant leukocytes are the neutrophils, which are first responders to infections, especially with bacteria. About 20–30 percent of all leukocytes are lymphocytes, which are critical to the body’s defense against specific threats. Leukemia and lymphoma are malignancies involving leukocytes. Platelets are fragments of cells known as megakaryocytes that dwell within the bone marrow. While many platelets are stored in the spleen, others enter the circulation and are essential for hemostasis; they also produce several growth factors important for repair and healing. Answer: neutrophils", "output": [ "Which leukocytes are first to respond to bacterial infections?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5f4b8d22a2804e7ca906c6098963b6ca", "input": "Passage: The most important way to keep your skin healthy is to protect it from ultraviolet light. Over-exposure to ultraviolet light can cause skin cancer. Keeping the skin clean can help prevent acne. Answer: ultraviolet light", "output": [ "What is one major cause of skin cancer?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8f7dccfd74964fbbbbbde8b518021439", "input": "Passage: where the (am) designation refers to an ammonia solution, analogous to (aq) used to indicate aqueous solutions. Without a catalyst, the reaction in Equation 21.20 tends to be rather slow. In many cases, the alkali metal amide salt (MNH2) is not very soluble in liquid ammonia and precipitates, but when dissolved, very concentrated solutions of the alkali metal are produced. One mole of Cs metal, for example, will dissolve in as little as 53 mL (40 g) of liquid ammonia. The pure metal is easily recovered when the ammonia evaporates. Solutions of alkali metals in liquid ammonia are intensely colored and good conductors of electricity due to the presence of solvated electrons (e−, NH3), which are not attached to single atoms. A solvated electron is loosely associated with a cavity in the ammonia solvent that is stabilized by hydrogen bonds. Alkali metal–liquid ammonia solutions of about 3 M or less are deep blue (Figure 21.11 \"Alkali Metal–Liquid Ammonia Solutions\") and conduct electricity about 10 times better than an aqueous NaCl solution because of the high mobility of the solvated electrons. As the concentration of the metal increases above 3 M, the color changes to metallic bronze or gold, and the conductivity increases to a value comparable with that of the pure liquid metals. Answer: precipitates", "output": [ "In many cases, the alkali metal amide salt (mnh2) is not very soluble in liquid ammonia and does what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-686e3027ce274c64979df4f2d911ec8a", "input": "Passage: One problem with current methods of aluminum production is the generation of environmental contaminants. Hydrogen fluoride gas is an extremely corrosive and toxic byproduct that must be trapped and neutralized. Other fluorides and metals contaminants can also pollute water, soil, and air if not carefully managed. Answer: environmental contaminants", "output": [ "What is one problem with current methods of aluminum production?" ] }, { "id": "task594-88d2a1b43da348b19073439ff4ade86d", "input": "Passage: For the hydrogen atom, there is no problem since there is only one electron in the H atom. However, when we get to helium we see that the first three quantum numbers for the two electrons are the same: same energy level, same spherical shape. What differentiates the two helium electrons is their spin. One of the electrons has spin while the other electron has spin. So the two electrons in the 1s orbital are each unique and distinct from one another because their spins are different. This observation leads to the Pauli exclusion principle , which states that no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers. The energy of the electron is specified by the principal, angular momentum, and magnetic quantum numbers. If those three numbers are identical for two electrons, the spin numbers must be different in order for the two electrons to be differentiated from one another. The two values of the spin quantum number allow each orbital to hold two electrons. The figure below shows how the electrons are indicated in a diagram. Answer: one", "output": [ "How many electrons are in the hydrogen atom?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5581a6a613164e6cb69191cd360e952d", "input": "Passage: prepared. A student measures the radioactivity of this source with a Geiger counter and observes 1500 counts per minute. She notices that the source was prepared 120 days before her lab. What fraction of the decays is she observing with her apparatus? (b) Identify some of the reasons that only a fraction of the α s emitted are observed by the detector. Armor-piercing shells with depleted uranium cores are fired by aircraft at tanks. (The high density of the uranium makes them effective. ) The uranium is called depleted because it has had its 235 U removed for reactor use and is. Answer: geiger counter", "output": [ "What 'counting' instrument is used to measure radioactivity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a5852b31bc7d451db7be8e7554e00daa", "input": "Passage: Conifers Conifers are the dominant phylum of gymnosperms, with the most variety of species. Most are tall trees that usually bear scale-like or needle-like leaves. The thin shape of the needles and their waxy cuticle limits water loss through transpiration. Snow slides easily off needle-shaped leaves, keeping the load light and decreasing breaking of branches. These adaptations to cold and dry weather explain the predominance of conifers at high altitudes and in cold climates. Conifers include familiar evergreen trees, such as pines, spruces, firs, cedars, sequoias, and yews (Figure 14.20). A few species are deciduous and lose their leaves all at once in fall. The European larch and the tamarack are examples of deciduous conifers. Many coniferous trees are harvested for paper pulp and timber. The wood of conifers is more primitive than the wood of angiosperms; it contains tracheids, but no vessel elements, and is referred to as “soft wood. Answer: transpiration", "output": [ "Conifers are the dominant phylum of gymnosperms, with the most variety of species. most are tall trees that usually bear scale-like or needle-like leaves. the thin shape of the needles and their waxy cuticle limits water loss through this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e98bcc61bb7b458db0c3a5445b7d32d2", "input": "Passage: years or more. During this time, a girl’s height can increase 3 inches a year. The next step in puberty is menarche, the start of menstruation. In boys, the growth of the testes is typically the first physical sign of the beginning of puberty, which is followed by growth and pigmentation of the scrotum and growth of the penis. The next step is the growth of hair, including armpit, pubic, chest, and facial hair. Testosterone stimulates the growth of the larynx and thickening and lengthening of the vocal folds, which causes the voice to drop in pitch. The first fertile ejaculations typically appear at approximately 15 years of age, but this age can vary widely across individual boys. Unlike the early growth spurt observed in females, the male growth spurt occurs toward the end of puberty, at approximately age 11 to 13, and a boy’s height can increase as much as 4 inches a year. In some males, pubertal development can continue through the early 20s. Answer: testosterone", "output": [ "In boys, what hormone stimulates the growth of the larynx and thickening and lengthening of the vocal folds, which causes the voice to drop in pitch during puberty?" ] }, { "id": "task594-85a2ba95f5294d8d977cbc1b3654215a", "input": "Passage: In a deciduous plant, leaves seasonally turn color and fall off the plant. They are replaced with new leaves later in the year. Answer: deciduous plant", "output": [ "What is the type of plant called when its leaves seasonally turn color and fall off?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2428a2d4cd244efebf06e1ca4ae03136", "input": "Passage: Phylogenetic Trees Scientists use a tool called a phylogenetic tree to show the evolutionary pathways and connections among organisms. A phylogenetic tree is a diagram used to reflect evolutionary relationships among organisms or groups of organisms. Scientists consider phylogenetic trees to be a hypothesis of the evolutionary past since one cannot go back to confirm the proposed relationships. In other words, a “tree of life” can be constructed to illustrate when different organisms evolved and to show the relationships among different organisms (Figure 20.2). Unlike a taxonomic classification diagram, a phylogenetic tree can be read like a map of evolutionary history. Many phylogenetic trees have a single lineage at the base representing a common ancestor. Scientists call such trees rooted, which means there is a single ancestral lineage (typically drawn from the bottom or left) to which all organisms represented in the diagram relate. Notice in the rooted phylogenetic tree that the three domains— Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya—diverge from a single point and branch off. The small branch that plants and animals (including humans) occupy in this diagram shows how recent and miniscule these groups are compared with other organisms. Unrooted trees don’t show a common ancestor but do show relationships among species. Answer: phylogenetic tree", "output": [ "What tool do scientist's use to show the evolutionary pathways and connections among organisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e71d5e9a9ad149bfbe2d87fef51d836a", "input": "Passage: When gas molecules bump into things, it creates pressure. Pressure is greater when gas molecules occupy a smaller space, because greater crowding results in more collisions. This explains why decreasing the volume of a gas increases its pressure. Answer: increase", "output": [ "Decreasing the volume of a gas and keeping everything else the same will cause its pressure to change in what way?" ] }, { "id": "task594-99654cb8501942e5b0ee0d0e507f057c", "input": "Passage: Eudicots Eudicots, or true dicots, are characterized by the presence of two cotyledons. Veins form a network in leaves. Flower parts come in four, five, or many whorls. Vascular tissue forms a ring in the stem. (In monocots, vascular tissue is scattered in the stem. ) Eudicots can be herbaceous (like dandelions or violets), or produce woody tissues. Most eudicots produce pollen that is trisulcate or triporate, with three furrows or pores. The root system is usually anchored by one main root developed from the embryonic radicle. Eudicots comprise two-thirds of all flowering plants. Many species seem to exhibit characteristics that belong to either group; therefore, the classification of a plant as a monocot or a eudicot is not always clearly evident (Table 14.1). Answer: embryonic radicle", "output": [ "The root system is usually anchored by one main root developed from what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-783f55d901eb41fca9af9e9c47a0bcdc", "input": "Passage: Research is being done into alternative crops for biofuels. A very promising alternative is algae. Algae appears to be a better biofuel than corn. Algae is much easier to convert to a usable fuel. Growing algae requires much less land and energy than crops. Algae can be grown in locations that are not used for other things. For example, they can be grown in desert areas where food crops are not often grown. Corn must be grown where food crops are grown. This can reduce the land and water available for growing food. Algae can be fed agricultural and other waste, so valuable resources are not used. Much research is being done to bring these alternative fuels to market. Answer: fuel", "output": [ "What is algae easier to covert into that corn is currently used for?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e368aafa65ad43b19763d621f79ebc13", "input": "Passage: Nonvascular plants include liverworts, hornworts, and mosses. They lack roots, stems, and leaves. Answer: roots, stems, leaves", "output": [ "Nonvascular plants such as liverworts, hornworts, and mosses lack what three typical plant features?" ] }, { "id": "task594-52be06f79d874dbb8622c492ea4fb14f", "input": "Passage: Each vertebral body has a large hole in the center through which the nerves of the spinal cord pass. There is also a notch on each side through which the spinal nerves, which serve the body at that level, can exit from the spinal cord. The vertebral column is approximately 71 cm (28 inches) in adult male humans and is curved, which can be seen from a side view. The names of the spinal curves correspond to the region of the spine in which they occur. The thoracic and sacral curves are concave (curve inwards relative to the front of the body) and the cervical and lumbar curves are convex (curve outwards relative to the front of the body). The arched curvature of the vertebral column increases its strength and flexibility, allowing it to absorb shocks like a spring (Figure 38.8). Intervertebral discs composed of fibrous cartilage lie between adjacent vertebral bodies from the second cervical vertebra to the sacrum. Each disc is part of a joint that allows for some movement of the spine and acts as a cushion to absorb shocks from movements such as walking and running. Intervertebral discs also act as ligaments to bind vertebrae together. The inner part of discs, the nucleus pulposus, hardens as people age and becomes less elastic. This loss of elasticity diminishes its ability to absorb shocks. The Thoracic Cage The thoracic cage, also known as the ribcage, is the skeleton of the chest, and consists of the ribs, sternum, thoracic vertebrae, and costal cartilages (Figure 38.9). The thoracic cage encloses and protects the organs of the thoracic cavity, including the heart and lungs. It also provides support for the shoulder girdles and upper limbs, and serves as the attachment point for the diaphragm, muscles of the back, chest, neck, and shoulders. Changes in the volume of the thorax enable breathing. The sternum, or breastbone, is a long, flat bone located at the anterior of the chest. It is formed from three bones that fuse in the adult. The ribs are 12 pairs of long, curved bones that attach to the thoracic vertebrae and curve toward the front of the body, forming the ribcage. Costal cartilages connect the anterior ends of the ribs to the sternum, with the exception of rib pairs 11 and 12, which are free-floating ribs. Answer: spinal cord", "output": [ "Each vertebral body has a large hole in the center through which the nerves of what pass?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5eb2383c24e64552a236babe37c5ed06", "input": "Passage: Biology has only a few over arching theories. One of these, the Cell Theory of Life, explains the historic continuity of organisms, while the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection (and other processes), explains both the diversity of organisms and how populations of organisms change over time. Finally, the Physicochemical Theory of Life explains how it is that organisms can display their remarkable properties without violating the laws that govern all physical and chemical systems.40 What is life, exactly? Clearly, if we are going to talk about biology, and organisms and cells and such, we have to define exactly what we mean by life. This raises a problem peculiar to biology as a science. We cannot define life generically because we know of only one type of life. We do not know whether this type of life is the only type of life possible or whether radically different forms of life exist elsewhere in the universe or even on Earth, in as yet to be recognized forms. While you might think that we know of many different types of life, from mushrooms to whales, from humans to the bacterial communities growing on the surfaces of our teeth (that is what dental plaque is, after all), we will discover that the closer we look the more these different “types of life” are in fact all versions of a common underlying motif, they represent versions of a single type of life. Based on their common chemistry, molecular composition, cellular structure, and the way that they encode, read, and use hereditary information in the form of molecules of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), all topics we will consider in depth later on, there is no reasonable doubt that all organisms are related, they are descended from a common ancestor. We cannot currently answer the question of whether the origin of life is a simple, likely, and predictable event given the conditions that existed on the Earth when life first arose, or whether it is an extremely rare and unlikely event. In the absence of empirical data, one can question whether scientists are acting scientifically or more as lobbyists for their own pet projects when they talk about doing astrobiology or speculating on when and where we will discover alien life forms. That said, asking seemingly silly questions, provided that empirically-based answers can be generated, has often been the critical driver of scientific progress. Consider, for example, current searches for life on Earth, almost all of which are based on what we already know about life. Specifically, most of the methods used rely on the fact that all known organisms use DNA to encode their genetic information; these methods would not be expected to recognize dramatically different types of life; they certainly would not detect organisms that used a non-DNA method to encode genetic information. If we could generate living systems de novo in the laboratory we would have a better understanding of what functions are necessary for life and how to look for possible “non-standard” organisms using better methods. It might even lead to the discovery of alternative forms of life right here on Earth, assuming they exist.41 That said, until someone manages to create or identify such non-standard forms of life, it seems quite reasonable to concentrate on the characteristics of life as we know them. Answer: natural selection", "output": [ "The theory of evolution by what (and other processes) explains both the diversity of organisms and how populations of organisms change over time?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b17b8b3d10a9465b98a09823a6503dcb", "input": "Passage: because of interactions between the electrons of the outermost shell of different atoms, called the valence shell electrons. Electrons in inner shells are called core electrons. Elements are grouped together by similar chemical properties into a chart called the periodic table. Vertical columns of elements are called groups or families. Some of the groups of elements have names, like the alkali metals, the alkaline earth metals, the halogens, and the noble gases. A horizontal row of elements is called a period. Periods and groups have differing numbers of elements in them. The periodic table separates elements into metals, nonmetals, andsemimetals. The periodic table is also separated into main group elements,transition metals, lanthanide elements, and actinide elements. The lanthanide and actinide elements are also referred to as inner transition metal elements. The shape of the periodic table reflects the sequential filling of shells and subshells in atoms. The periodic table helps us understand trends in some of the properties of atoms. One such property is the atomic radius of atoms. From top to bottom of the periodic table, atoms get bigger because electrons are occupying larger and bigger shells. From left to right across the periodic table, electrons are filling the same shell but are being attracted by an increasing positive charge from the nucleus, and thus the atoms get smaller. Answer: core electrons", "output": [ "Electrons in inner shells are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fba9d8ced1674eb6a97fa07a97e2f66a", "input": "Passage: As you will learn in the next module, animal viruses are associated with a variety of human diseases. Some of them follow the classic pattern of acute disease, where symptoms get increasingly worse for a short period followed by the elimination of the virus from the body by the immune system and eventual recovery from the infection. Examples of acute viral diseases are the common cold and influenza. Other viruses cause long-term chronic infections, such as the virus causing hepatitis C, whereas others, like herpes simplex virus, only cause intermittent symptoms. Still other viruses, such as human herpesviruses 6 and 7, which in some cases can cause the minor childhood disease roseola, often successfully cause productive infections without causing any symptoms at all in the host, and thus we say these patients have an asymptomatic infection. In hepatitis C infections, the virus grows and reproduces in liver cells, causing low levels of liver damage. The damage is so low that infected individuals are often unaware that they are infected, and many infections are detected only by routine blood work on patients with risk factors such as intravenous drug use. On the other hand, since many of the symptoms of viral diseases are caused by immune responses, a lack of symptoms is an indication of a weak immune response to the virus. This allows for the virus to escape elimination by the immune system and persist in individuals for years, all the while producing low levels of progeny virions in what is known as a chronic viral disease. Chronic infection of the liver by this virus leads to a much greater chance of developing liver cancer, sometimes as much as 30 years after the initial infection. As already discussed, herpes simplex virus can remain in a state of latency in nervous tissue for months, even years. As the virus “hides” in the tissue and makes few if any viral proteins, there is nothing for the immune response to act against, and immunity to the virus slowly declines. Under certain conditions, including various types of physical and psychological stress, the latent herpes simplex virus may be reactivated and undergo a lytic replication cycle in the skin, causing the lesions associated with the disease. Once virions are produced in the skin and viral proteins are synthesized, the immune response is again stimulated and resolves the skin lesions in a few days by destroying viruses in the skin. As a result of this type of replicative cycle, appearances of cold sores and genital herpes outbreaks only occur intermittently, even though the viruses remain in the nervous tissue for life. Latent infections are common with other herpesviruses as well, including the varicellazoster virus that causes chickenpox. After having a chickenpox infection in childhood, the varicella-zoster virus can remain latent for many years and reactivate in adults to cause the painful condition known as “shingles” (Figure 21.11ab). Answer: viral diseases", "output": [ "Examples of acute forms of what type of diseases include the common cold and influenza?" ] }, { "id": "task594-764debdb34374a8f803acc9a940cdb0b", "input": "Passage: Polychaetes live on the ocean floor. They may be sedentary filter feeders, active predators, or scavengers. Active species crawl along the ocean floor in search of food. Answer: ocean floor", "output": [ "Where do polychaetes live?" ] }, { "id": "task594-91f269042093476faa4cb96edf6f8521", "input": "Passage: Cellular respiration is the process in which cells break down glucose, release the stored energy, and use it to make ATP. The process begins in the cytoplasm and is completed in a mitochondrion. Answer: cellular respiration", "output": [ "What is the process in which cells break down glucose, release the stored energy, and use it to make atp" ] }, { "id": "task594-1cd4bff9eb7341fd9ec1c7e833e1183d", "input": "Passage: Getting the same result when an experiment is repeated is called replication. If research results can be replicated, it means they are more likely to be correct. Answer: replication", "output": [ "What is it called when you get the same result after repeating an experiment?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bab6380be0fe445e905d3fba6db9a807", "input": "Passage: Conservation of charge is the fourth of the five conservation laws in physics. There are two charges, positive and negative, and the conservation of electric charge indicates that the total charge in the universe remains the same. In any closed system charge can be transferred from one body to another or can move within the system but the total electric charge remains constant. Answer: positive and negative", "output": [ "What are the two types of charges?" ] }, { "id": "task594-52cd736da6e9428eb6324d65339b0815", "input": "Passage: E. coli bacteria are anaerobic bacteria that live in the human digestive tract. Answer: digestive system", "output": [ "In what human organ system would you find live e. coli bacteria?" ] }, { "id": "task594-265bbd3bba10450189201fe335f1e68c", "input": "Passage: behind the mirror. Convex mirrors diverge light rays and, thus, have a negative focal length. Answer: convex", "output": [ "What mirrors diverge light rays and, thus, have a negative focal length?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f1c3ace3321540d0903040a9152dbf52", "input": "Passage: Gram-negative bacteria have a cell wall made of peptidoglycan, whereas Gram-positive bacteria have a cell wall made of lipoteichoic acid. Figure 22.19 Which of the following statements about the nitrogen cycle is false? a. Nitrogen fixing bacteria exist on the root nodules of legumes and in the soil. Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates (NO3-) into nitrogen gas (N2). Ammonification is the process by which ammonium ion (NH4+) is released from decomposing organic compounds. Nitrification is the process by which nitrites (NO2-) are converted to ammonium ion (NH4+). Answer: lipoteichoic acid", "output": [ "Gram-negative bacteria have a cell wall made of peptidoglycan, whereas gram-positive bacteria have a cell wall made of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c6bac22682294af6b42b34d167e22584", "input": "Passage: Unlike other tetrapod vertebrates (reptiles, birds, and mammals), amphibians do not produce amniotic eggs. Therefore, they must lay their eggs in water so they won’t dry out. Their eggs are usually covered in a jelly-like substance, like the frog eggs shown in Figure below . The jelly helps keep the eggs moist and offers some protection from predators. Answer: amniotic", "output": [ "Unlike other tetrapod vertebrates (reptiles, birds, and mammals), amphibians do not produce what type of eggs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9add6b1b10e6436f81096a1f8cb55f44", "input": "Passage: Wakefulness is regulated by the reticular formation, which is present in the. Answer: wakefulness", "output": [ "What is regulated by the reticular formation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3e648cc2ca20471b9d5a10d82c2f0344", "input": "Passage: 23.5 The Small and Large Intestines The three main regions of the small intestine are the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum. The small intestine is where digestion is completed and virtually all absorption occurs. These two activities are facilitated by structural adaptations that increase the mucosal surface area by 600-fold, including circular folds, villi, and microvilli. There are around 200 million microvilli per square millimeter of small intestine, which contain brush border enzymes that complete the digestion of carbohydrates and proteins. Combined with pancreatic juice, intestinal juice provides the liquid medium needed to further digest and absorb substances from chyme. The small intestine is also the site of unique mechanical digestive movements. Segmentation moves the chyme back and forth, increasing mixing and opportunities for absorption. Migrating motility complexes propel the residual chyme toward the large intestine. The main regions of the large intestine are the cecum, the colon, and the rectum. The large intestine absorbs water and forms feces, and is responsible for defecation. Bacterial flora break down additional carbohydrate residue, and synthesize certain vitamins. The mucosa of the large intestinal wall is generously endowed with goblet cells, which secrete mucus that eases the passage of feces. The entry of feces into the rectum activates the defecation reflex. Answer: small intestine", "output": [ "The duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum are the main regions of which organ?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8000eecf09d54bd383273af59085353e", "input": "Passage: A: Breathing consists of inhaling and exhaling, and its purpose is to move gases into and out of the body. Oxygen needed for cellular respiration is brought into the body with each inhalation. Carbon dioxide and water vapor produced by cellular respiration are released from the body with each exhalation. Answer: exhalation", "output": [ "How is carbon dioxide and water vapor that is produced by cellular respiration released?" ] }, { "id": "task594-29d44cff085543c0958fe9b0e404a64c", "input": "Passage: Hemophilia is the name of a group of hereditary diseases that affect the body's ability to control blood clotting. Hemophilia is caused by a lack of clotting factors in the blood. Clotting factors are normally released by platelets. Since people with hemophilia cannot produce clots, any cut can put a person at risk of bleeding to death. The risk of internal bleeding is also increased in hemophilia, especially into muscles and joints. This disease affected the royal families of Europe. Answer: hemophilia", "output": [ "What is the name of a group of hereditary diseases that affect the body's ability to control blood clotting?" ] }, { "id": "task594-826fa68a1f0a46218d51a7bd6e51e1a5", "input": "Passage: Oxidation can be defined as the addition of oxygen to a molecule or the removal of hydrogen from a molecule. When an alkane is heated in the presence of an appropriate catalyst, it can be oxidized to the corresponding alkene in a reaction called a dehydrogenation reaction. Two hydrogen atoms are removed in the process. The alkene can be further oxidized to an alkyne by the removal of two more hydrogen atoms. Answer: oxidation", "output": [ "What is the addition of oxygen to a molecule or the removal of hydrogen from a molecule called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-aff567c9d0fe4d76af0c16db8f4fec09", "input": "Passage: Cyanide inhibits cytochrome c oxidase, a component of the electron transport chain. If cyanide poisoning occurs, would you expect the pH of the intermembrane space to increase or decrease? What effect would cyanide have on ATP synthesis?. Answer: cytochrome c oxidase", "output": [ "Which component of the electron transport chain does cyanide inhibit?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a568b0b87d214f51ab132de00480b785", "input": "Passage: The ability to see is called vision. The brain and eyes work together to allow us to see. The eyes collect and focus visible light and change it to electrical signals that travel to the brain. The brain interprets the signals and “tells” us what we are seeing. Answer: brain and eyes", "output": [ "What are the organs work together to allow us to see?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c4e5470c13b14972954560c12eeb0cfa", "input": "Passage: Structure of the Heart The heart muscle is asymmetrical as a result of the distance blood must travel in the pulmonary and systemic circuits. Since the right side of the heart sends blood to the pulmonary circuit it is smaller than the left side which must send blood out to the whole body in the systemic circuit, as shown in Figure 40.11. In humans, the heart is about the size of a clenched fist; it is divided into four chambers: two atria and two ventricles. There is one atrium and one ventricle on the right side and one atrium and one ventricle on the left side. The atria are the chambers that receive blood, and the ventricles are the chambers that pump blood. The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the superior vena cava, which drains blood from the jugular vein that comes from the brain and from the veins that come from the arms, as well as from the inferior vena cava which drains blood from the veins that come from the lower organs and the legs. In addition, the right atrium receives blood from the coronary sinus which drains deoxygenated blood from the heart itself. This deoxygenated blood then passes to the right ventricle through the atrioventricular valve or the tricuspid valve, a flap of connective tissue that opens in only one direction to prevent the backflow of blood. The valve separating the chambers on the left side of the heart valve is called the biscuspid or mitral valve. After it is filled, the right ventricle pumps the blood through the pulmonary arteries, by-passing the semilunar valve (or pulmonic valve) to the lungs for re-oxygenation. After blood passes through the pulmonary arteries, the right semilunar valves close preventing the blood from flowing backwards into the right ventricle. The left atrium then receives the oxygen-rich blood from the lungs via the pulmonary veins. This blood passes through the bicuspid valve or mitral valve (the atrioventricular valve on the left side of the heart) to the left ventricle where the blood is pumped out through aorta, the major artery of the body, taking oxygenated blood to the organs and muscles of the body. Once blood is pumped out of the left ventricle and into the aorta, the aortic semilunar valve (or aortic valve) closes preventing blood from flowing backward into the left ventricle. This pattern of pumping is referred to as double circulation and is found in all mammals. Answer: heart", "output": [ "What asymmetrical organ has four chambers and, in humans, is about the size of a clenched fist?" ] }, { "id": "task594-89962750885b4d0396f956db175b98c5", "input": "Passage: Figure 31.3 Cellulose, the main structural component of the plant cell wall, makes up over thirty percent of plant matter. It is the most abundant organic compound on earth. Plants are able to make their own cellulose, but need carbon from the soil to do so. Answer: cell wall", "output": [ "Cellulose is the main structural component of what part of the plant cell, and makes up over thirty percent of plant matter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d9d053b77d9c46beb77ecb395ca27076", "input": "Passage: Start right above point on the temperature axis and follow the red line vertically. At very low pressure, the particles of the substance are far apart from one another and the substance is in the gas state. As the pressure is increased, the particles of the substance are forced closer and closer together. Eventually the particles are pushed so close together that attractive forces cause the substance to condense into the liquid state. Continually increasing the pressure on the liquid will eventually cause the substance to solidify. For the majority of substances, the solid state is denser than the liquid state and so putting a liquid under great pressure will cause it to turn into a solid. The line segment represents the process of sublimation, where the substance changes directly from a solid to a gas. At a sufficiently low pressure, the liquid phase does not exist. The point labeled is called the triple point . The triple point is the one condition of temperature and pressure where the solid, liquid, and vapor states of a substance can all coexist at equilibrium. Answer: solidify", "output": [ "Continually increasing the pressure on the liquid will eventually cause the substance to do what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d3711d5364d6478990f2d7b58e6a671e", "input": "Passage: Superior Rotation and Inferior Rotation Superior and inferior rotation are movements of the scapula and are defined by the direction of movement of the glenoid cavity. These motions involve rotation of the scapula around a point inferior to the scapular spine and are produced by combinations of muscles acting on the scapula. During superior rotation, the glenoid cavity moves upward as the medial end of the scapular spine moves downward. This is a very important motion that contributes to upper limb abduction. Without superior rotation of the scapula, the greater tubercle of the humerus would hit the acromion of the scapula, thus preventing any abduction of the arm above shoulder height. Superior rotation of the scapula is thus required for full abduction of the upper limb. Superior rotation is also used without arm abduction when carrying a heavy load with your hand or on your shoulder. You can feel this rotation when you pick up a load, such as a heavy book bag and carry it on only one shoulder. To increase its weight-bearing support for the bag, the shoulder lifts as the scapula superiorly rotates. Inferior rotation occurs during limb adduction and involves the downward motion of the glenoid cavity with upward movement of the medial end of the scapular spine. Answer: glenoid cavity", "output": [ "Inferior rotation occurs during limb adduction and involves the downward motion of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f5ceb4b6322a434ab40506b49e75c59c", "input": "Passage: Beautiful sunsets are another manifestation of Rayleigh scattering that occurs when light travels long distances through the atmosphere. The blue light and some green is scattered away, making the sun appear red. Answer: rayleigh scattering", "output": [ "What makes sunsets appear red?" ] }, { "id": "task594-658a61da621f4bd78c24cffea3c25f3d", "input": "Passage: All elements have an oxidation number of zero in their pure form. Answer: zero", "output": [ "In their pure form, all elements have an oxidation number of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d44df12d5e2f4859b50c616826abd474", "input": "Passage: Boiling points are affected by external pressure. Answer: external pressure", "output": [ "What affects the boiling point of water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2421de717d7143e38ed3165f82ffefd8", "input": "Passage: They will all blend together. The dyes will move through the water until an even distribution is achieved. The process of moving from areas of high amounts to areas of low amounts is called diffusion. Answer: diffusion", "output": [ "The process of moving from areas of high amounts to areas of low amounts is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-30726e9b8ce94a84ab0f3fe94ede38bd", "input": "Passage: The atmosphere is a big part of the water cycle. What do you think would happen to Earth’s water without it?. Answer: thermosphere", "output": [ "What is the upper-most atmosphere known as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-355c281eb3454b2380b0f7681c881c0e", "input": "Passage: Figure 25.5 Light is diffused when it reflects from a rough surface. Here many parallel rays are incident, but they are reflected at many different angles since the surface is rough. Answer: gets diffused", "output": [ "What happens to light when it reflects from a rough surface?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ae7d70a1335444aeaae3291442b89cfb", "input": "Passage: Lastly, keep in mind the small size of bacteria. Together, all the bacteria in your gut may weight just about 2 pounds. Answer: 2 pounds", "output": [ "How much can the bacteria in your gut weigh?" ] }, { "id": "task594-876bf6babd584b49be915bdb4292c205", "input": "Passage: Most gemstones are not used exactly as they are found in nature. Usually, gems are cut and polished. Figure below shows an uncut piece of ruby and a ruby that has been cut and polished. The way a mineral splits along a surface allows it to be cut to produce smooth surfaces. Notice that the cut and polished ruby sparkles more. Gems sparkle because light bounces back when it hits them. These gems are cut so that the most amount of light possible bounces back. Other gemstones, such as turquoise, are opaque, which means light does not pass through them. These gems are not cut in the same way. Answer: opaque", "output": [ "What are gemstones known as when light cannot pass through them?" ] }, { "id": "task594-88fed82556b748789b5ddc198bca9cac", "input": "Passage: Iodine is added to alcohol and used as an antiseptic. It reacts with germs on cuts and wounds. Small amounts of iodine are also needed for good health. In the U. S. , iodine is added to table salt to prevent iodine deficiencies. Does the salt you use contain iodine?. Answer: iodine", "output": [ "What is added to alcohol and used as an antiseptic?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dbff5990ee60448e81ac0f0b284fe96f", "input": "Passage: People divide up the seas into five oceans. But they are really all interconnected. Even so, they are all very different. This ocean is near a shore and is obviously in a cold region. It appears to be a good habitat for whales! No matter what, the oceans have a huge influence on the planet, locally and as a whole. Answer: oceans", "output": [ "We divide up the earth's seas into five what, which are really all interconnected?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f92e7834c1c44049a47d35de4dd12583", "input": "Passage: Food is chemical energy stored in organic molecules. Answer: organic molecules", "output": [ "Food is chemical energy stored in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d26668a10ce84b87a7ea8a7313b6599f", "input": "Passage: Cells in blood include red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Answer: platelets", "output": [ "Cells in blood include red blood cells, white blood cells, and what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-763f0df70dd542969208d5a932e79e69", "input": "Passage: Stuart Chalmers. Cows digest cellulose with the aid of methanogens . CC BY 2.0. Answer: cows", "output": [ "Which of the animals digest cellulose with the aid of methanogens?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1f50df4c8c364e7388e1977acb47d341", "input": "Passage: Over the past several decades, computer technology has revolutionized human society. Watch this video interview about ways computers have changed people’s lives. Then answer the questions below. Answer: computer technology", "output": [ "What has revolutionized human society over the past several decades?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7ea9e7c2d7f342b8801f4b7b8bee38be", "input": "Passage: Sulfur Oxygen Compounds The two common oxides of sulfur are sulfur dioxide, SO2, and sulfur trioxide, SO3. The odor of burning sulfur comes from sulfur dioxide. Sulfur dioxide, shown in Figure 18.47, occurs in volcanic gases and in the atmosphere near industrial plants that burn fuel containing sulfur compounds. Answer: sulfur dioxide", "output": [ "What sulfur compound occurs in volcanic gases and in the atmosphere near industrial plants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b54db19bcf4b4091a9635939ce8c3cec", "input": "Passage: The atmosphere protects living things from the Sun’s most harmful rays. Gases reflect or absorb the strongest rays of sunlight. Figure below models this role of the atmosphere. Answer: the atmosphere", "output": [ "What is the name of the protective layer of gases that surrounds the earth and blocks harmful rays from the sun?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c3beac9114b34e7f86d06d15715e6323", "input": "Passage: When an action and reaction occur, momentum is transferred from one object to the other. However, the combined momentum of the objects remains the same. In other words, momentum is conserved. This is the law of conservation of momentum . Answer: momentum", "output": [ "When an action and reaction occur, what is transferred from one object to the other, yet in combination it remains the same?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4e6e62484ad240adbaf413902d8e3915", "input": "Passage: CHAPTER REVIEW 20.1 Structure and Function of Blood Vessels Blood pumped by the heart flows through a series of vessels known as arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins before returning to the heart. Arteries transport blood away from the heart and branch into smaller vessels, forming arterioles. Arterioles distribute blood to capillary beds, the sites of exchange with the body tissues. Capillaries lead back to small vessels known as venules that flow into the larger veins and eventually back to the heart. The arterial system is a relatively high-pressure system, so arteries have thick walls that appear round in cross section. The venous system is a lower-pressure system, containing veins that have larger lumens and thinner walls. They often appear flattened. Arteries, arterioles, venules, and veins are composed of three tunics known as the tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica externa. Capillaries have only a tunica intima layer. The tunica intima is a thin layer composed of a simple squamous epithelium known as endothelium and a small amount of connective tissue. The tunica media is a thicker area composed of variable amounts of smooth muscle and connective tissue. It is the thickest layer in all but the largest arteries. The tunica externa is primarily a layer of connective tissue, although in veins, it also contains some smooth muscle. Blood flow through vessels can be dramatically influenced by vasoconstriction and vasodilation in their walls. Answer: heart", "output": [ "Blood vessels blood pumped by the heart flows through a series of vessels known as arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins before returning to this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d8a030193db94b28917dc43cc6efcc43", "input": "Passage: The stomach is a sac-like organ in which food is further digested both mechanically and chemically. (To see an animation of how the stomach digests food, go to the link below. ) Churning movements of the stomach’s thick, muscular walls complete the mechanical breakdown of food. The churning movements also mix food with digestive fluids secreted by the stomach. One of these fluids is hydrochloric acid. It kills bacteria in food and gives the stomach the low (acidic) pH needed by digestive enzymes that work in the stomach. The main enzyme is pepsin , which chemically digests protein. Answer: stomach", "output": [ "What is the sac-like organ of the body that is important for both mechanical and chemical digestion?" ] }, { "id": "task594-60f311b9e4b04f58a5206bd28e564510", "input": "Passage: As a cell grows, its volume increases more quickly than its surface area. If a cell was to get very large, the small surface area would not allow enough nutrients to enter the cell quickly enough for the cell’s needs. This idea is explained in Figure below . However, large cells have a way of dealing with some size challenges. Big cells, such as some white blood cells, often grow more nuclei so that they can supply enough proteins and RNA for the cell’s requirements. Large, metabolically active cells often have lots of cell protrusions, resulting in many folds throughout the membrane. These folds increase the surface area available for transport of materials into or out of the cell. Such cell types are found lining your small intestine, where they absorb nutrients from your food through protrusions called microvilli . Answer: surface area", "output": [ "As a cell grows, its volume increases more quickly than its what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e6eb86e4e0ce4b7cb55e7b4da85832c8", "input": "Passage: Most pure nitrogen comes from the fractional distillation of liquid air. The atmosphere consists of 78% nitrogen by volume. This means there are more than 20 million tons of nitrogen over every square mile of the earth’s surface. Nitrogen is a component of proteins and of the genetic material (DNA/RNA) of all plants and animals. Under ordinary conditions, nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas. It boils at 77 K and freezes at 63 K. Liquid nitrogen is a useful coolant because it is inexpensive and has a low boiling point. Nitrogen is very unreactive because of the very strong triple bond between the nitrogen atoms. The only common reactions at room temperature occur with lithium to form Li3N, with certain transition metal complexes, and with hydrogen or oxygen in nitrogenfixing bacteria. The general lack of reactivity of nitrogen makes the remarkable ability of some bacteria to synthesize nitrogen compounds using atmospheric nitrogen gas as the source one of the most exciting chemical events on our planet. This process is one type of nitrogen fixation. In this case, nitrogen fixation is the process where organisms convert atmospheric nitrogen into biologically useful chemicals. Nitrogen fixation also occurs when lightning passes through air, causing molecular nitrogen to react with oxygen to form nitrogen oxides, which are then carried down to the soil. Answer: nitrogen fixation", "output": [ "What term describes the process where organisms convert atmospheric nitrogen into biologically useful chemicals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3cacd9e6144249549c13aef4bc0317f0", "input": "Passage: The metallic bond is responsible for the properties of metals. Answer: the metallic bond", "output": [ "What is responsible for the properties of metals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b5fc1c1d8851478b8a531a317cdf93a3", "input": "Passage: Chemical formulas for ionic compounds are called ionic formulas. A proper ionic formula has a cation and an anion in it; an ionic compound is never formed between two cations only or two anions only. The key to writing proper ionic formulas is simple: the total positive charge must balance the total negative charge. Because the charges on the ions are characteristic, sometimes we have to have more than one of a cation or an anion to balance the overall positive and negative charges. It is conventional to use the lowest ratio of ions that are needed to balance the charges. For example, consider the ionic compound between Na+ and Cl−. Each ion has a single charge, one positive and one negative, so we need only one ion of each to balance the overall charge. When writing the ionic formula, we follow two additional conventions: (1) write the formula for the cation first and the formula for the anion next, but (2) do not write the charges on the ions. Thus, for the compound between Na+ and Cl−, we have the ionic formula NaCl (Figure 3.5 \"NaCl = Table Salt\"). The formula Na2Cl2 also has balanced charges, but the convention is to use the lowest ratio of ions, which would be one of each. (Remember from our conventions for writing formulas that we don’t write a 1 subscript if there is only one atom of a particular element present. ) For the ionic compound between magnesium cations (Mg2+) and oxide anions (O2−), again we need only one of each ion to balance the charges. By convention, the formula is MgO. For the ionic compound between Mg2+ ions and Cl− ions, we now consider the fact that the charges have different magnitudes, 2+ on the magnesium ion and 1− on the chloride ion. To balance the charges with the lowest number of ions possible, we need to have two chloride ions Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: ionic formulas", "output": [ "Chemical formulas for ionic compounds are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fd01070d81684ce9b79ca415239c77b9", "input": "Passage: The epidermis is the outer layer of skin, consisting of epithelial cells and little else (see Figure below ). For example, there are no nerve endings or blood vessels in the epidermis. The innermost cells of the epidermis are continuously dividing through mitosis to form new cells. The newly formed cells move up through the epidermis toward the skin surface, while producing a tough, fibrous protein called keratin. The cells become filled with keratin and die by the time they reach the surface, where they form a protective, waterproof layer called the stratum corneum. The dead cells are gradually shed from the surface of the skin and replaced by other cells. Answer: epidermis", "output": [ "What is the outer layer of skin, consisting almost entirely of epithelial cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bafa785b0f754eb1a430d958c9c01a3c", "input": "Passage: Placental mammals get their name from the placenta. This is a spongy structure that develops during pregnancy only in placental mammals. You can see where a human placenta forms in Figure below . The placenta sustains the fetus while it grows inside the mother’s uterus. It consists of membranes and blood vessels from both mother and fetus. It allows substances to pass between the mother’s blood and that of the fetus. The fetus gets oxygen and nutrients from the mother. It passes carbon dioxide and other wastes to the mother. Answer: placenta", "output": [ "What sustains the fetus while it grows inside the mother’s uterus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0fded8d9b2da4b31954720d19f62fa44", "input": "Passage: Segmented worms have a digestive system, nervous system, and circulatory system. Answer: circulatory", "output": [ "Segmented worms have a digestive,nervous and what type of system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-75217a034a1a416f8c9d3e4792077f8c", "input": "Passage: Alveoli are tiny sacs in the lungs where gas exchange takes place. Answer: alveoli", "output": [ "What are the tiny sacs in the lungs where gas exchange takes place?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e58d69c11fcb43ab90fb286e762181e9", "input": "Passage: Weight is a measure of the force of gravity pulling down on an object. Buoyant force pushes up on an object. Weight and buoyant force together determine whether an object sinks or floats. This is illustrated in Figure below . Answer: weight", "output": [ "What is the measure of the force of gravity pulling down on an object called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-95269e904dd948999cee8cad6f4816f4", "input": "Passage: The ability of a solute to dissolve in a particular solvent is called solubility . Many chemical substances are soluble in water. In fact, so many substances are soluble in water that water is called the universal solvent. Water is a strongly polar solvent, and polar solvents are better at dissolving polar solutes. Many organic compounds and other important biochemicals are polar, so they dissolve well in water. On the other hand, strongly polar solvents like water cannot dissolve strongly nonpolar solutes like oil. Did you ever try to mix oil and water? Even after being well shaken, the two substances quickly separate into distinct layers. Answer: water", "output": [ "What is known as the universal solvent?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6cb159532da24599a4381923e9245935", "input": "Passage: 22.6 The Hall Effect We have seen effects of a magnetic field on free-moving charges. The magnetic field also affects charges moving in a conductor. One result is the Hall effect, which has important implications and applications. Figure 22.27 shows what happens to charges moving through a conductor in a magnetic field. The field is perpendicular to the electron drift velocity and to the width of the conductor. Note that conventional current is to the right in both parts of the figure. In part (a), electrons carry the current and move to the left. In part (b), positive charges carry the current and move to the right. Moving electrons feel a magnetic force toward one side of the conductor, leaving a net positive charge on the other side. This separation of charge creates a voltage ε , known as the Hall emf, across the conductor. The creation of a voltage across a current-carrying conductor by a magnetic field is known as the Hall effect, after Edwin Hall, the American physicist who discovered it in 1879. Answer: hall effect", "output": [ "The creation of a voltage across a current-carrying conductor by a magnetic field is known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b5dd302b0ee24e6f96fd96998e111413", "input": "Passage: Syphilis is a very serious STI. Luckily, it is less common than chlamydia or gonorrhea. Syphilis usually begins with a small sore on the genitals. This is followed a few months later by a rash and flu-like symptoms. If syphilis is not treated, it may damage the heart, brain, and other organs. It can even cause death. Answer: syphilis", "output": [ "What serious sti can damage the heart, brain and other organs or even cause death, if untreated?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e7698baa8a0040e7965567f97cda6476", "input": "Passage: Plants that live in extremely dry environments have the opposite problem: how to get and keep water. Plants that are adapted to very dry environments are called xerophytes . Their adaptations may help them increase water intake, decrease water loss, or store water when it is available. Answer: xerophytes", "output": [ "Plants that live in the desert are called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-04e4f142d8ac440daf516bb6a62bbf34", "input": "Passage: The sketch below shows how we see an image in a plane mirror. Plane mirrors work because the light rays create a virtual image behind the mirror. Light rays from the object strike the mirror and reflect according to the law of reflection. When some of the light rays enter our eye, our eye and brain interpret these rays as having traveled in a straight line path. Therefore, our eye and brain track the light rays backward to a position from which they appear to have come. At this position, we see an image. Answer: a virtual image", "output": [ "Plane mirrors work because the light rays create what behind the mirror?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d5ba4ea6e9b84cf293a40b5a68dfe514", "input": "Passage: Figure 5.10 The sun emits energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation. This radiation exists in different wavelengths, each of which has its own characteristic energy. Visible light is one type of energy emitted from the sun. Answer: electromagnetic radiation", "output": [ "The sun emits energy in the form of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c91d8c0fa91e40ca82f15784d9636085", "input": "Passage: Comparing Meiosis and Mitosis Mitosis and meiosis are both forms of division of the nucleus in eukaryotic cells. They share some similarities, but also exhibit distinct differences that lead to very different outcomes (Figure 11.7). Mitosis is a single nuclear division that results in two nuclei that are usually partitioned into two new cells. The nuclei resulting from a mitotic division are genetically identical to the original nucleus. They have the same number of sets of chromosomes, one set in the case of haploid cells and two sets in the case of diploid cells. In most plants and all animal species, it is typically diploid cells that undergo mitosis to form new diploid cells. In contrast, meiosis consists of two nuclear divisions resulting in four nuclei that are usually partitioned into four new cells. The nuclei resulting from meiosis are not genetically identical and they contain one chromosome set only. This is half the number of chromosome sets in the original cell, which is diploid. Answer: eukaryotic cells", "output": [ "Mitosis and meiosis are both forms of division of the nucleus in these?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8a9d20c88f4246778f1d19ded9c7a13f", "input": "Passage: The pulmonary circulation carries blood between the heart and lungs. The systemic circulation carries blood between the heart and body. Answer: heart and lungs", "output": [ "The pulmonary circulation carries blood between what two organs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-de9e10335be9428cb7e2542be545b7db", "input": "Passage: Binary Acids Some compounds containing hydrogen are members of an important class of substances known as acids. The chemistry of these compounds is explored in more detail in later chapters of this text, but for now, it will suffice to note that many acids release hydrogen ions, H+, when dissolved in water. To denote this distinct chemical property, a mixture of water with an acid is given a name derived from the compound’s name. If the compound is a binary acid (comprised of hydrogen and one other nonmetallic element): 1. The word “hydrogen” is changed to the prefix hydro2. The other nonmetallic element name is modified by adding the suffix -ic 3. The word “acid” is added as a second word. Answer: acids", "output": [ "Some compounds containing hydrogen are members of an important class of substances known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c6ad8032ce8c4123a063ff73d46ffa67", "input": "Passage: Mammals are a class of endothermic vertebrates. They have four limbs and produce amniotic eggs. The mammal class is defined by the presence of mammary glands and hair (or fur). Other traits of mammals include sweat glands in their skin, alveoli in their lungs, a four-chambered heart, and a brain covering called the neocortex. Answer: mammals", "output": [ "What class of animals have four limbs and produce amniotic eggs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-961821e9bf9746bbbf44e3ab470cfa67", "input": "Passage: Speed is the distance traveled divided by the time it took to travel that distance. Velocity is the instantaneous speed and direction. Average velocity is the displacement divided by the time. Answer: speed", "output": [ "What term is used to describe the distance traveled divided by the time it took to travel that distance?" ] }, { "id": "task594-77b7e36f5b3847e0a6e255d7319a932b", "input": "Passage: CHAPTER SUMMARY 22.1 Prokaryotic Diversity Prokaryotes existed for billions of years before plants and animals appeared. Hot springs and hydrothermal vents may have been the environments in which life began. Microbial mats are thought to represent the earliest forms of life on Earth, and there is fossil evidence of their presence about 3.5 billion years ago. A microbial mat is a multi-layered sheet of prokaryotes that grows at interfaces between different types of material, mostly on moist surfaces. During the first 2 billion years, the atmosphere was anoxic and only anaerobic organisms were able to live. Cyanobacteria evolved from early. Answer: anaerobic", "output": [ "What type of organism was the only able to live in the anoxic atmosphere of the first 2 billion years?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5bb738e4e7e94dfeb40136195aa49068", "input": "Passage: The Salivary Glands Many small salivary glands are housed within the mucous membranes of the mouth and tongue. These minor exocrine glands are constantly secreting saliva, either directly into the oral cavity or indirectly through ducts, even while you sleep. In fact, an average of 1 to 1.5 liters of saliva is secreted each day. Usually just enough saliva is present to moisten the mouth and teeth. Secretion increases when you eat, because saliva is essential to moisten food and initiate the chemical breakdown of carbohydrates. Small amounts of saliva are also secreted by the labial glands in the lips. In addition, the buccal glands in the cheeks, palatal glands in the palate, and lingual glands in the tongue help ensure that all areas of the mouth are supplied with adequate saliva. Answer: salivary glands", "output": [ "What small glands are abundant within the mucous membranes of the mouth and tongue?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e97489d8a02c4ffda7d28256e3982fe4", "input": "Passage: Image copyright Sebastian Kaulitzki, 2013. The small intestine is lined with tiny villi that help absorb nutrients . Used under license from Shutterstock. com. Answer: villi", "output": [ "What is the small intestine lined with that helps with nutrient absorption?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b4bd9effbdd648e69cc8f162d1cdc1a0", "input": "Passage: Examples of machines that increase the distance over which force is applied are paddles and hammers. Figure below explains how these machines work. In each case, the machine increases the distance over which the force is applied, but it reduces the strength of the applied force. Answer: strength", "output": [ "Paddles and hammers are examples of simple machines that increase the distance over which force is applied, while reducing what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dd4ef241201e4d5dbd92ef0068dcb5e7", "input": "Passage: By far the most common producers use the energy in sunlight to make food. This is called photosynthesis . Producers that photosynthesize include plants and algae. These organisms must live where there is plenty of sunlight. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "What is the process by which producers use the energy in sunlight to make food?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8c8b7d3eaa444972b0b45c2fdde60821", "input": "Passage: This is a \"puffball\" fungus. At maturity, clouds of a brown dust-like power escape when they are touched. This powdery substance is made up of spores, the reproductive structure of the fungus. Answer: spores", "output": [ "What is the cloud of brown dust-like power that escapes when a puffball fungus is touched?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ed6ac43537224092b6a97fd505e6dad1", "input": "Passage: A spectrometer produces a spectrum from starlight. Astronomers can learn a lot about a star by studying its spectrum. Answer: spectrum", "output": [ "What is a spectrometer able to produce from starlight?" ] }, { "id": "task594-390f100894b346e8b7c1779c63050cec", "input": "Passage: Vertebrates are chordates with a vertebral column and endoskeleton of cartilage and bone. Vertebrates also have several organ systems. Answer: vertebrate", "output": [ "What is the term for chordates with a vertebral column and endoskeleton of cartilage and bone?" ] }, { "id": "task594-43bd6c8f62b14e9ab69baaf157a0dd10", "input": "Passage: The thyroid gland is a relatively large gland in the neck. Hormones secreted by the thyroid gland include thyroxin. Thyroxin increases the rate of metabolism in cells throughout the body. Answer: thyroid", "output": [ "What is the name of the relatively large gland in the neck that secretes thyroxin?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9c792a8568fb41719e9b943e998e878f", "input": "Passage: The best-known method of radiometric dating is carbon-14 dating . A living thing takes in carbon-14 (along with stable carbon-12). As the carbon-14 decays, it is replaced with more carbon-14. After the organism dies, it stops taking in carbon. That includes carbon-14. The carbon-14 that is in its body continues to decay. So the organism contains less and less carbon-14 as time goes on. We can estimate the amount of carbon-14 that has decayed by measuring the amount of carbon-14 to carbon-12. We know how fast carbon-14 decays. With this information, we can tell how long ago the organism died. Answer: radiometric", "output": [ "Carbon-14 dating is a method of what kind of dating?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e87db50ed48c4cd583cfac3ec0b783b2", "input": "Passage: The human species has been incredibly successful. In a relatively short period of time, it has colonized almost all of Earth’s terrestrial habitats. Unfortunately, human beings have also impacted Earth, its climate, and its environment. Human actions threaten Earth’s valuable biodiversity. Answer: humans", "output": [ "What incredibly successful species has quickly colonized almost all of earth’s terrestrial habitats, but also impacted earth, its climate, and its environment?" ] }, { "id": "task594-53b34638baa64039be6a97c74ca397f2", "input": "Passage: The outer ear catches sound waves and funnels them to the middle ear. The middle ear amplifies the sound waves and passes them to the inner ear. The inner ear changes the sound waves to electrical signals. The signals travel to the brain, which interprets the sounds. Answer: middle ear", "output": [ "Which part of the ear amplifies the sound waves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b328b121be4a45899aba6af84e0ac17f", "input": "Passage: ART CONNECTION QUESTIONS 1. Figure 34.11 Which of the following statements about the digestive system is false? a. Chyme is a mixture of food and digestive juices that is produced in the stomach. Food enters the large intestine before the small intestine. In the small intestine, chyme mixes with bile, which emulsifies fats. The stomach is separated from the small intestine by the pyloric sphincter. Figure 34.12 Which of the following statements about the small intestine is false? a. Absorptive cells that line the small intestine have microvilli, small projections that increase surface area and aid in the absorption of food. Answer: fats", "output": [ "In the small intestine, chyme mixes with bile, which emulsifies what substances?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3994d0fe27394465ac015ed6f22a1ec7", "input": "Passage: Heterotrophs are organisms incapable of photosynthesis that must therefore obtain energy and carbon from food by consuming other organisms. The Greek roots of the word heterotroph mean “other” (hetero) “feeder” (troph), meaning that their food comes from other organisms. Even if the food organism is another animal, this food traces its origins back to autotrophs and the process of photosynthesis. Humans are heterotrophs, as are all animals. Heterotrophs depend on autotrophs, either directly or indirectly. Deer and wolves are heterotrophs. A deer obtains energy by eating plants. A wolf eating a deer obtains energy that originally came from the plants eaten by that deer. The energy in the plant came from photosynthesis, and therefore it is the only autotroph in this example (Figure 5.3). Using this reasoning, all food eaten by humans also links back to autotrophs that carry out photosynthesis. Answer: heterotrophs", "output": [ "Organisms incapable of photosynthesis that must therefore obtain energy and carbon from food by consuming other organisms are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d1863eef10934917b820dd2f58e90d7c", "input": "Passage: Wind blows small particles away. As a result, the ground surface gets lower and rockier; this is called deflation . The rocks that are left are called desert pavement . Desert pavement is a surface covered by gravel-sized particles that are not easily moved by wind. Answer: deflation", "output": [ "What is the process by which wind blows to make the ground surface gets lower and rockier ?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3f13a806a8a94c488cfc6a616283e2a5", "input": "Passage: Denaturation and Protein Folding Each protein has its own unique sequence and shape that are held together by chemical interactions. If the protein is subject to changes in temperature, pH, or exposure to chemicals, the protein structure may change, losing its shape without losing its primary sequence in what is known as denaturation. Denaturation is often reversible because the primary structure of the polypeptide is conserved in the process if the denaturing agent is removed, allowing the protein to resume its function. Sometimes denaturation is irreversible, leading to loss of function. One example of irreversible protein denaturation is when an egg is fried. The albumin protein in the liquid egg white is denatured when placed in a hot pan. Not all proteins are denatured at high temperatures; for instance, bacteria that survive in hot springs have proteins that function at temperatures close to boiling. The stomach is also very acidic, has a low pH, and denatures proteins as part of the digestion process; however, the digestive enzymes of the stomach retain their activity under these conditions. Protein folding is critical to its function. It was originally thought that the proteins themselves were responsible for the folding process. Only recently was it found that often they receive assistance in the folding process from protein helpers known as chaperones (or chaperonins) that associate with the target protein during the folding process. They act by preventing aggregation of polypeptides that make up the complete protein structure, and they disassociate from the protein once the target protein is folded. Answer: protein", "output": [ "An example of irreversible denaturation of what substance occurs to the liquid albumin when an egg is fried?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9fa193c206dd4e3987a2f8e7d0d22d60", "input": "Passage: Intraspecific competition occurs between members of the same species. For example, two male birds of the same species might compete for mates in the same area. This type of competition is a basic factor in natural selection. It leads to the evolution of better adaptations within a species. Answer: intraspecific competition", "output": [ "Competition between members of the same species is known as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-feb04a722d7242fc840f1d7984c93948", "input": "Passage: The answer is actually “no. ” A virus is essentially DNA or RNA surrounded by a coat of protein ( Figure below ). It is not made of a cell , and cannot maintain a stable internal environment ( homeostasis ). Recall that a cell is the basic unit of living organisms. So if a virus is not made of at least one cell, can it be living? Viruses also cannot reproduce on their own—they need to infect a host cell to reproduce. So a virus is very different from any of the organisms that fall into the three domains of life. Answer: protein", "output": [ "A virus is essentially dna or rna surrounded by a coat of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-954db17f0bb8413386053dd7f3ce0e05", "input": "Passage: In 1905, the physicist Albert Einstein developed a new theory about electromagnetic radiation. The theory is often called the wave-particle theory . It explains how electromagnetic radiation can behave as both a wave and a particle. Einstein argued that when an electron returns to a lower energy level and gives off electromagnetic energy, the energy is released as a discrete “packet” of energy. We now call such a packet of energy a photon . According to Einstein, a photon resembles a particle but moves like a wave. You can see this in the Figure below . The theory posits that waves of photons traveling through space or matter make up electromagnetic radiation. Answer: particle", "output": [ "Einstein developed a theory about how electromagnetic radiation can behave as both a wave and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6415a64aed6d47898683525bc7440efb", "input": "Passage: Solution The charges, as well as the atoms, must balance in reactions. The silver atom is being oxidized from the 0 oxidation state to the 1+ state. Whenever something loses electrons, something must also gain electrons (be reduced) to balance the equation. Oxygen is a good oxidizing agent for these reactions because it can gain electrons to go from the 0 oxidation state to the 2− state. Answer: gain electrons", "output": [ "When something loses electrons, it must also?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c8fa30ee7b4d4c64b4c71b1cea9344b1", "input": "Passage: 8.1 Linear Momentum and Force Linear Momentum The scientific definition of linear momentum is consistent with most people’s intuitive understanding of momentum: a large, fastmoving object has greater momentum than a smaller, slower object. Linear momentum is defined as the product of a system’s mass multiplied by its velocity. In symbols, linear momentum is expressed as. Answer: linear momentum", "output": [ "The product of a system’s mass multiplied by its velocity is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8ec58de55a8c4e34bc4ebacb4bb632e8", "input": "Passage: 11.8 Cohesion and Adhesion in Liquids: Surface Tension and Capillary Action Cohesion and Adhesion in Liquids Children blow soap bubbles and play in the spray of a sprinkler on a hot summer day. (See Figure 11.27. ) An underwater spider keeps his air supply in a shiny bubble he carries wrapped around him. A technician draws blood into a small-diameter tube just by touching it to a drop on a pricked finger. A premature infant struggles to inflate her lungs. What is the common thread? All these activities are dominated by the attractive forces between atoms and molecules in liquids—both within a liquid and between the liquid and its surroundings. Attractive forces between molecules of the same type are called cohesive forces. Liquids can, for example, be held in open containers because cohesive forces hold the molecules together. Attractive forces between molecules of different types are called adhesive forces. Such forces cause liquid drops to cling to window panes, for example. In this section we examine effects directly attributable to cohesive and adhesive forces in liquids. Answer: shiny air bubble", "output": [ "What does an underwater spider use to breathe and keep alive?" ] }, { "id": "task594-89fac03cabf84fe987bab6e5dbb71507", "input": "Passage: 17.2 Hormones Hormones are derived from amino acids or lipids. Amine hormones originate from the amino acids tryptophan or tyrosine. Larger amino acid hormones include peptides and protein hormones. Steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol. Steroid hormones and thyroid hormone are lipid soluble. All other amino acid–derived hormones are water soluble. Hydrophobic hormones are able to diffuse through the membrane and interact with an intracellular receptor. In contrast, hydrophilic hormones must interact with cell membrane receptors. These are typically associated with a G protein, which becomes activated when the hormone binds the receptor. This initiates a signaling cascade that involves a second messenger, such as cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). Second messenger systems greatly amplify the hormone signal, creating a broader, more efficient, and faster response. Hormones are released upon stimulation that is of either chemical or neural origin. Regulation of hormone release is primarily achieved through negative feedback. Various stimuli may cause the release of hormones, but there are three major types. Humoral stimuli are changes in ion or nutrient levels in the blood. Hormonal stimuli are changes in hormone levels that initiate or inhibit the secretion of another hormone. Finally, a neural stimulus occurs when a nerve impulse prompts the secretion or inhibition of a hormone. Answer: steroid", "output": [ "What kind of hormones are derived from cholesterol?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3e3939d4487d4af9a37babaf161fe123", "input": "Passage: Varves form in lakes covered by ice. Varves are useful to scientists for understanding climate. Answer: ice", "output": [ "Varves form in lakes covered by what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-de5394329ea84744be980379301573d5", "input": "Passage: The process by which remains or traces of living things become fossils is called fossilization . Most fossils are preserved in sedimentary rocks. Answer: fossilization", "output": [ "What is the process by which the remains of living things become fossils?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a195f6423b8b464f9053e465bb9469bc", "input": "Passage: Unsaturated fats are found mainly in plant foods, such as vegetable oil, olive oil, and nuts. Unsaturated lipids are also found in fish, such as salmon. Unsaturated lipids are needed in small amounts for good health. Most lipids in your diet should be unsaturated. Answer: unsaturated", "output": [ "Most lipids in your diet should be what type, found mainly in plant sources and also in fish?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bdbe78a0a86e43afa7c2d42bed836ef4", "input": "Passage: The ear canal is a tube that carries sound waves into the ear. The sound waves travel through the air inside the ear canal to the eardrum. Answer: ear canal", "output": [ "What is the term for the tube that carries sound waves into the ear?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8d655ae1a8644a058e2af6454c031f6d", "input": "Passage: There are several different ways to quantitatively describe the concentration of a solution. For example, molarity was introduced in as a useful way to describe solution concentrations for reactions that are carried out in solution. Mole fractions, introduced in , are used not only to describe gas concentrations but also to determine the vapor pressures of mixtures of similar liquids. Example 4 reviews the methods for calculating the molarity and mole fraction of a solution when the masses of its components are known. Answer: mole fractions", "output": [ "What is used to describe gas concentrations of a solution?" ] }, { "id": "task594-45f54e3e9b69477c93d8e1577c624234", "input": "Passage: Humans and apes have five fingers they can use to grasp objects. Do you think these are analogous or homologous structures? Explain. Answer: five", "output": [ "How many fingers do apes have on each hand?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f6b5d054e3324ce9b96323b321590e62", "input": "Passage: Decomposers release nutrients when they break down dead organisms. Answer: nutrients", "output": [ "What do decomposers release when they break down dead organisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ba522b2f509c4d289e42e04069b50e8c", "input": "Passage: Molecules move from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration until an equilibrium is met. The molecules continue to cross the membrane at equilibrium, but at equal rates in both directions. Answer: equilibrium", "output": [ "Molecules move from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration until an what is met?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5c4c77a257a74573a61089068d3da8db", "input": "Passage: There are other units in chemistry that are important, and we will cover others in the course of the entire book. One of the fundamental quantities in science is temperature. Temperature is a measure of the average amount of energy of motion, or kinetic energy, a system contains. Temperatures are expressed using scales that use units called degrees, and there are several temperature scales in use. In the United States, the commonly used temperature scale is the Fahrenheit scale (symbolized by °F and spoken as “degrees Fahrenheit”). On this scale, the freezing point of liquid water (the temperature at which liquid water turns to solid ice) is 32°F, and the boiling point of water (the temperature at which liquid water turns to steam) is 212°F. Science also uses other scales to express temperature. The Celsius scale (symbolized by °C and spoken as “degrees Celsius”) is a temperature scale where 0°C is the freezing point of water and 100°C is the boiling point of water; the scale is divided into 100 divisions between these two landmarks and extended higher and lower. By comparing the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales, a conversion between the two scales can be determined: °C=(°F–32) × 59° Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: temperature", "output": [ "What is a measure of the average amount of energy of motion, or kinetic energy, a system contains called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c4096089d1d04b7b94704f20ecccd2b5", "input": "Passage: Many people get their freshwater from an aquifer. They obtain the water through a well. A well is a hole that is dug or drilled through the ground down to an aquifer. Answer: well", "output": [ "What is hole that is dug or drilled through the ground down to an aquifer?" ] }, { "id": "task594-773c0d0205ac499bb175fa5a0951aab5", "input": "Passage: Lobe-fined fish are currently far fewer in number than ray-finned fish. Their fins, like the one shown in Figure above , contain a stump-like appendage of bone and muscle. There are two groups of lobe-finned fish still alive today: coelacanths and lungfish. Answer: coelacanths and lungfish", "output": [ "What are two types of lobe finned fish?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f2a256f881ae4c81bb29e1f62ae467a0", "input": "Passage: Linnaeus published his classification system in the 1700s. Since then, many new species have been discovered. The biochemistry of many organisms has also become known. Eventually, scientists realized that Linnaeus’s system of classification needed revision. Answer: linnaeus", "output": [ "What scientist created the modern system for classifying organisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f3eecdde07b3461e90014dc4c436d2ef", "input": "Passage: Biology - The Life Science • Internal functions are coordinated and regulated so that the internal environment of a living thing is relatively constant, referred to as homeostasis10 . Living things are organized in the microscopic level from atoms up to cells11 . Atoms are arranged into molecules, then into macromolecules12 , which make up organelles13 , which work together to form cells. Beyond this, cells are organized in higher levels to form entire multicellular organisms. Cells together form tissues14 , which make up organs, which are part of organ systems, which work together to form an entire organism. Of course, beyond this, organisms form populations which make up parts of an ecosystem. All of the Earth's ecosystems together form the diverse environment that is the earth. Example:sub atoms, atoms, molecules, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms, population, community, eco systems. Answer: homeostasis", "output": [ "Internal functions are coordinated and regulated so that the internal environment of a living thing is relatively constant, referred to as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1f39a20391424a95b7f941f41b7315a2", "input": "Passage: Another example of species loss due to habitat destruction happened on Madagascar’s central highland plateau. From 1970 to 2000, slash-and-burn agriculture destroyed about 10% of the country’s total native plants. The area turned into a wasteland. Soil from erosion entered the waterways. Much of the river ecosystems of several large rivers were also destroyed. Several fish species are almost extinct. Also, some coral reef formations in the Indian Ocean are completely lost. Answer: slash-and-burn", "output": [ "What kind of agriculture destroyed about 10% of madagascar's native plants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9b532cdc911745e0a7f7239591fe5675", "input": "Passage: Some volcanoes form over active hot spots . Scientists count about 50 hot spots on the Earth. Hot spots may be in the middle of a tectonic plate. Hot spots lie directly above a column of hot rock called a mantle plume . Mantle plumes continuously bring magma up from the mantle towards the crust ( Figure below ). Answer: magma", "output": [ "What substance comes toward earth's crust through mantle plumes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-048fad2129444897945b6b823f7b01b5", "input": "Passage: Figure 8.39 Molecular orbitals in solids are so closely spaced that they are described as bands. The valence band is lower in energy and the conduction band is higher in energy. The type of solid is determined by the size of the “band gap” between the valence and conduction bands. Only a very small amount of energy is required to move electrons from the valance band to the conduction band in a conductor, and so they conduct electricity well. In an insulator, the band gap is large, so that very few electrons move, and they are poor conductors of electricity. Semiconductors are in between: they conduct electricity better than insulators, but not as well as conductors. In order to conduct electricity, electrons must move from the filled valence band to the empty conduction band where they can move throughout the solid. The size of the band gap, or the energy difference between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band, determines how easy it is to move electrons between the bands. Only a small amount of energy is required in a conductor because the band gap is very small. This small energy difference is “easy” to overcome, so they are good conductors of electricity. In an insulator, the band gap is so “large” that very few electrons move into the conduction band; as a result, insulators are poor conductors of electricity. Semiconductors conduct electricity when “moderate” amounts of energy are provided to move electrons out of the valence band and into the conduction band. Semiconductors, such as silicon, are found in many electronics. Semiconductors are used in devices such as computers, smartphones, and solar cells. Solar cells produce electricity when light provides the energy to move electrons out of the valence band. The electricity that is generated may then be used to power a light or tool, or it can be stored for later use by charging a battery. As of December 2014, up to 46% of the energy in sunlight could be converted into electricity using solar cells. Answer: electricity", "output": [ "In order to conduct what, electrons must move from the filled valence band to the empty conduction band where they can move throughout the solid?" ] }, { "id": "task594-508143e5a4cb40be8b925da615db6821", "input": "Passage: Pressure is what results when gas particles rebound off the walls of their container. The basic unit of pressure is the newton per square meter (N/m2). This combined unit is redefined as a pascal (Pa). One pascal is not a very large amount of pressure. A more useful unit of pressure is the bar, which is 100,000 Pa (1 bar = 100,000 Pa). Other common units of pressure are the atmosphere (atm), which was originally defined as the average pressure of Earth’s atmosphere at sea level; and mmHg (millimeters of mercury), which is the pressure generated by a column of mercury 1 mm high. The unit millimeters of mercury is also called a torr, named after the Italian scientist Evangelista Torricelli, who invented the barometer in the mid1600s. A more precise definition of atmosphere, in terms of torr, is that there are exactly 760 torr in 1 atm. A bar equals 1.01325 atm. Given all the relationships between these pressure units, the ability to convert from one pressure unit to another is a useful skill. Answer: pressure", "output": [ "What results when gas particles rebound off the walls of their container?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ce860afca8954c8484af93fb6673f2af", "input": "Passage: has a single main root that grows down. A fibrous root system forms a dense network of roots that is closer to the soil surface. An example of a tap root system is a carrot. Grasses such as wheat, rice, and corn are examples of fibrous root systems. Fibrous root systems are found in monocots; tap root systems are found in dicots. 37 Monocots have leaves with parallel venation, and dicots have leaves with reticulate, net-like venation. 39 The process of bulk flow moves water up the xylem and moves photosynthates (solutes) up and down the phloem. 41 Gravitropism will allow roots to dig deep into the soil to find water and minerals, whereas the seedling will grow towards light to enable photosynthesis. 43 To prevent further entry of pathogens, stomata close, even if they restrict entry of CO2. Some pathogens secrete virulence factors that inhibit the closing of stomata. Abscisic acid is the stress hormone responsible for inducing closing of stomata. Answer: dicots", "output": [ "Grasses such as wheat, rice, and corn are examples of fibrous root systems. fibrous root systems are found in monocots; tap root systems are found in these?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d7ee5b3a20834705a495744898fb58be", "input": "Passage: The angular velocity tells you how quickly the angle changes. In more formal language, the rate of change of , the angular position, is called the angular velocity . The direction of angular velocity is either clockwise or counterclockwise. Analogously, the rate of change of is the angular acceleration . Answer: angular velocity", "output": [ "What term tells you how quickly the angle changes and can occur in either clockwise or counterclockwise directions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-06d0d837d63943abac9dd886449d9267", "input": "Passage: Respiration begins with ventilation, the process of moving air into and out of the lungs. Gas exchange in the lungs takes place in across the thin walls of pulmonary arteries in tiny air sacs called alveoli. Oxygenated blood is transported by the circulatory system from lungs to tissues throughout the body. Gas exchange between blood and body cells occurs across the walls of peripheral capillaries. Answer: ventilation", "output": [ "What is the process of moving air into and out of the lungs called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cf92d2d0a33c4c2fbff88ce4315e4233", "input": "Passage: Figure 9.3 This car is in dynamic equilibrium because it is moving at constant velocity. There are horizontal and vertical forces, but the net external force in any direction is zero. The applied force F app between the tires and the road is balanced by air friction, and the weight of the car is supported by the normal forces, here shown to be equal for all four tires. Answer: zero net force", "output": [ "When is a moving car said to be in dynamic equilibrium?" ] }, { "id": "task594-95bab31d6d2242f38d8f53dc9fb992b1", "input": "Passage: Ionic compounds are compounds in which positive metal ions and negative nonmetal ions are joined by ionic bonds. In these compounds, the chemical symbol for the positive metal ion is written first, followed by the symbol for the negative nonmetal ion. The video at the following URL gives a fuller explanation of ionic compounds and their formulas: http://www. youtube. com/watch?v=vscoYh6m46M . Answer: positive metal ion", "output": [ "The chemical symbol of which ion is written first in ionic compounds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6bba5befcec54831ad854499180af9a5", "input": "Passage: We have a main sequence star nearby. Our Sun is on the main sequence, classified as a yellow dwarf. Our Sun has been a main sequence star for about 5 billion years. As a medium-sized star, it will continue to shine for about 5 billion more years. Most stars are on the main sequence. Answer: yellow dwarf", "output": [ "Our sun is on the main sequence, like most stars, and it is classified by what colorful name?" ] }, { "id": "task594-159782b58c6e4b0495e35ff73ba5c7a3", "input": "Passage: Earth rotates on its axis once each day and revolves around the Sun once every year. Answer: once each year", "output": [ "Earth rotates on its axis once each day and revolves around the sun how often?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2e70fa9c5e144d109356f5819d23f2ed", "input": "Passage: Average speed is distance divided by time. Answer: time", "output": [ "Average speed is equal to distance divided by what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0641819698984dabbe9814eead2395a0", "input": "Passage: Acids are ionic compounds that produce positively charged hydrogen ions (H + ) when dissolved in water. Acids taste sour and react with metals. Bases are ionic compounds that produce negatively charged hydroxide ions (OH - ) when dissolved in water. Bases taste bitter and do not react with metals. Examples of acids are vinegar and battery acid. The acid in vinegar is weak enough to safely eat on a salad. The acid in a car battery is strong enough to eat through skin. Examples of bases include those in antacid tablets and drain cleaner. Bases in antacid tablets are weak enough to take for an upset stomach. Bases in drain cleaner are strong enough to cause serious burns. Answer: hydroxide ions", "output": [ "What is produced when a base is dissolved in water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-636f266a283f4ad5891fadc4e292aa1c", "input": "Passage: Over time, deposited sediments may harden into rock. First, the sediments are compacted . That is, they are squeezed together by the weight of sediments on top of them. Next, the sediments are cemented together. Minerals fill in the spaces between the loose sediment particles. These cementing minerals come from the water that moves through the sediments. Sedimentary rocks that form from sediments are called “clastic rocks. “ Clastic rocks are rock fragments that are compacted and cemented together ( Figure below ). Answer: rocks", "output": [ "Over time, deposited sediments may harden into what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ed2ceaf9e43947cebf5c806e82de588a", "input": "Passage: Water power does not burn a fuel. So it causes less pollution than many other kinds of energy. Water power is also a renewable resource. Water keeps flowing downhill. Although we use some of the energy from this movement, we are not using up the water. Answer: renewable", "output": [ "What type of resource is water power?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c6399f80aae946b18d218e9d08c9e3e0", "input": "Passage: Why does it snow instead of rain? Air temperature determines which type of precipitation falls. Rain falls if the air temperature is above freezing (0° C or 32° F). Frozen precipitation falls if the air or ground is below freezing. Frozen precipitation may fall as snow , sleet , or freezing rain . Below, you can see how the different types form ( Figure below ). Answer: air temperature", "output": [ "What determines which type of precipitation falls in the atmosphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-19d1644f926647a1b4eb82266088a7bf", "input": "Passage: The molar mass of any substance is the mass in grams of one mole of representative particles of that substance. The representative particles can be atoms, molecules, or formula units of ionic compounds. This relationship is frequently used in the laboratory. Suppose that for a certain experiment you need 3.00 moles of calcium chloride (CaCl 2 ). Since calcium chloride is a solid, it would be convenient to use a balance to measure the mass that is needed. The molar mass of CaCl 2 is 110.98 g/mol. The conversion factor that can be used is then based on the equality that 1 mol = 110.98 g CaCl 2 . Dimensional analysis will allow you to calculate the mass of CaCl 2 that you should measure. Answer: william gilbert", "output": [ "Who first proposed that earth is a magnet?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3d80123a9b2a429d82f664108937404a", "input": "Passage: 8.7.1 Intermediate Filaments These are rope like filaments, 8-10nm in diameter and tend to give the structural stability to cells. Examples inculude Vimentin, neurofilaments and keratin. It is keratin which priniciply makes up hair, nails and horns. Answer: cells", "output": [ "Intermediate filaments tend to give the structural stability to what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3a66d10476a74d25b372a9a722ef40df", "input": "Passage: Sometimes cancer cells break away from a tumor. If they enter the bloodstream, they are carried throughout the body. Then, the cells may start growing in other tissues. This is usually how cancer spreads from one part of the body to another. Once this happens, cancer is very hard to stop or control. Answer: bloodstream", "output": [ "How do cancer cells typically spread from one part of the body to another?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b13953e937684878a840d88a1f80d1fc", "input": "Passage: chloride, NaCl. When Na 2 HPO 24 − (the weak acid) comes into contact with a strong base, such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH), the weak acid reverts back to the weak base and produces water. Acids and bases are still present, but they hold onto the ions. Answer: water", "output": [ "When na 2 hpo 24 − (the weak acid) comes into contact with a strong base, such as sodium hydroxide (naoh), the weak acid reverts back to the weak base and produces what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-603d224c11ba4931be13f84cf2424ec2", "input": "Passage: The tRNA structure is a very important aspect in its role. Though the molecule folds into a 3-leaf clover structure, notice the anticodon arm in the lower segment of the molecule, with the amino acid attached at the opposite end of the molecule (acceptor stem). It is the anticodon that determines which codon in the mRNA the tRNA will bind to. Answer: anticodon", "output": [ "What determines which codon in the mrna the trna will bind to?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8f53b92d035d44a6ae013165dde1fdf8", "input": "Passage: Cardiac muscle also contracts and gets shorter. This muscle is found only in the heart. The sudden burst of contraction forces blood throughout your body. When the cardiac muscle relaxes, the heart fills with blood. This rhythmic contraction must continue for your whole life, luckily the heart muscle never gets tired. If your heart beats 75 times a minute, how many times does it beat in an hour? A day? A year? 85 years?. Answer: heart", "output": [ "Cardiac muscle is only found where?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7c5d4199c9ae44daaa5d711ce72e54f3", "input": "Passage: Atherosclerosis is a condition in which a material called plaque builds up inside arteries. Plaque consists of cell debris, cholesterol, and other substances. As plaque builds up in an artery, the artery narrows, as shown in Figure below . This reduces blood flow through the artery. Answer: atherosclerosis", "output": [ "What is a condition in which a material called plaque builds up inside arteries?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f06aeea015f64733add010d110d3761e", "input": "Passage: Most adults experience at least some hearing loss as they get older. The most common cause is exposure to loud sounds, which damage hair cells. The louder a sound is, the less exposure is needed for damage to occur. Even a single brief exposure to a sound louder than 115 decibels can cause hearing loss. Figure below shows the relationship between loudness, exposure time, and hearing loss. Answer: exposure to noise", "output": [ "Because it damages hair cells, what is the most cause of hearing loss in adults?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cc270760e21140a8a22f6201bd4b3caf", "input": "Passage: Ribosomes are the organelles on which proteins are made during protein synthesis . Ribosomes are found throughout the cytosol of the cell and attached to the endoplasmic reticulum organelle. Ribosomes order amino acids using messenger RNA (mRNA) as a template in a process called translation. Ribosomes are made from complexes of ribosomal RNAs (rRNA) and proteins called ribonucleoproteins . Each ribosome is divided into two subunits. The smaller subunit binds to the mRNA pattern, while the larger subunit binds to the transfer RNA (tRNA) and the growing polypeptide chain. More about the ribosome will be discussed in the Cell Structures: Ribosomes (Advanced) concept. Answer: ribosomes", "output": [ "What are the organelles on which proteins are made during protein synthesis called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-21e600f539304d07adc5a09cd2bdd518", "input": "Passage: Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic waves are waves of electric and magnetic energy that travel through space at the speed of light. The energy travels in tiny “packets” of energy, called photons. Photons of gamma energy are called gamma particles. Other electromagnetic waves include microwaves, light rays, and X rays. Gamma rays have the greatest amount of energy of all electromagnetic waves. You can learn more about gamma radiation at this URL: http://www. youtube. com/watch?v=okyynBaSOtA. Answer: electric and magnetic", "output": [ "Electromagnetic waves are comprised of what two types of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-05ac7bda26c54306ab0ebeebaab0a012", "input": "Passage: A nonrenewable resource is a natural resource that is consumed or used up faster than it can be made by nature. Two main types of nonrenewable resources are fossil fuels and nuclear power. Fossil fuels , such as petroleum, coal, and natural gas, formed from plant and animal remains over periods from 50 to 350 million years ago. They took millions of years to form. Humans have been consuming fossil fuels for less than 200 years, yet remaining reserves of oil can supply our needs only until around the year 2055. Natural gas can only supply us until around 2085. Coal will last longer, until around the year 2250. That is why it is so important to develop alternate forms of energy, especially for our cars. Today, electric cars are becoming more and more common. What would happen if we ran out of gasoline? Alternative use of energy, especially in transportation, must become a standard feature of all cars and trucks and planes by the middle of the century. Answer: non-renewable", "output": [ "A natural resource that is consumed or used up faster than it can be made by nature is termed what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5cfc174f98094e518a9678f432f6353c", "input": "Passage: Fertilization of an egg by a sperm in a fallopian tube produces a zygote. The zygote develops into a blastocyst, which implants in the uterus. The offspring then goes through the embryonic and fetal stages. The placenta supports the needs of the developing embryo and fetus. Birth generally occurs at about 38 months after fertilization. Answer: zygote", "output": [ "What is produced when an egg is fertilized by a sperm in a fallopian tube?" ] }, { "id": "task594-adf355e4dd774661b007e1e1f1a7d7a4", "input": "Passage: The average human body contains 5,830 g of blood. What mass of arsenic is present in the body if the amount in blood is 0.55 ppm?. Answer: blood", "output": [ "The average human body contains 5,830 g of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-944cea4127e74f94a4d3121f9b06796b", "input": "Passage: Other specialized cells are involved in feeding. Sponges are filter feeders. They filter food out of the water as it flows through them. Sponges pump water into their body through specialized pore cells called porocytes. Answer: filter feeders", "output": [ "What type of feeders are sponges?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e73a9d0424a1468e92f18180eaca45ff", "input": "Passage: Diamond is a form of carbon in which each carbon atom is covalently bonded to four other carbon atoms. This forms a strong, rigid, three-dimensional structure (see Figure below ). Diamond is the hardest natural substance, and no other natural substance can scratch it. This property makes diamonds useful for cutting and grinding tools as well as for rings and other jewelry (see Figure below ). Answer: carbon", "output": [ "The hardest natural substance, diamond is a form of what element?" ] }, { "id": "task594-44853f00d2a8427e8883ca17df9bbbf6", "input": "Passage: When iron and sulfur are mixed together in a certain ratio and heated, a chemical reaction occurs. This results in the formation of a unique new compound, called iron sulfide (FeS). A magnet cannot be used to mechanically separate the iron from the iron sulfide because metallic iron does not exist in the compound. Instead, another chemical reaction is required to separate the iron and sulfur. Answer: iron sulfide", "output": [ "When iron and sulfur are mixed together in a certain ratio and heated, what do they become?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bb8bf13362b9464cbe3bc21ac624dea1", "input": "Passage: The Prokaryotic Cell Recall that prokaryotes (Figure 22.10) are unicellular organisms that lack organelles or other internal membrane-bound structures. Therefore, they do not have a nucleus but instead generally have a single chromosome—a piece of circular, double-stranded DNA located in an area of the cell called the nucleoid. Most prokaryotes have a cell wall outside the plasma membrane. Answer: nucleoid", "output": [ "Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus but instead generally have a single chromosome, a piece of double-stranded dna located in an area of the cell called the what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d7d6816b562344418f11f85963ecbde1", "input": "Passage: Bacteria reproduce through a process called binary fission . During binary fission, the chromosome copies itself, forming two genetically identical copies. Then, the cell enlarges and divides into two new daughter cells. The two daughter cells are identical to the parent cell. Binary fission can happen very rapidly. Some species of bacteria can double their population in less than ten minutes!. Answer: binary fission", "output": [ "Bacteria reproduce through what process, where the chromosome copies itself, forming two genetically identical copies?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ffcbbb1f6bf84b1491bfe525214d0d73", "input": "Passage: To ensure that no more than one sperm fertilizes the egg, once the acrosomal reactions take place at one location of the egg membrane, the egg releases proteins in other locations to prevent other sperm from fusing with the egg. If this mechanism fails, multiple sperm can fuse with the egg, resulting in polyspermy. The resulting embryo is not genetically viable and dies within a few days. Answer: polyspermy", "output": [ "What is the term for if multiple sperm fuse with an egg?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f49ca1a4584e46ca8c19b3fd80003108", "input": "Passage: The liver breaks down excess amino acids and toxins in the blood. Answer: liver", "output": [ "Which organ breaks down amino acids and toxins that are in the blood?" ] }, { "id": "task594-165f002bfd9e42b9ac5d363cc93d808a", "input": "Passage: What is this intricate orb? It is the greatly magnified skeleton of single-celled ocean organisms call radiolarian. The skeleton is made of an element that is extremely common on Earth. In fact, it is the second most abundant element in Earth’s crust. It is also one of the most common elements in the entire universe. What is this important element? Its name is silicon, and it belongs to a class of elements called metalloids. Answer: silicon", "output": [ "What is the second most abundant element in the earth's crust?" ] }, { "id": "task594-301e51736c9742bf8f7139d7139fe5ce", "input": "Passage: The biological electron transport chain provides for an orderly, stepwise transfer of electrons. Both NADH (reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and FADH2 (reduced flavin adenine dinucleotide) are energyrich molecules that liberate a large amount of energy during oxidation. Free energy released during the transfer of electrons from either of these molecules to oxygen drives the synthesis of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) formed during respiratory metabolism. The reactions are as follows:. Answer: oxidation", "output": [ "The biological electron transport chain provides for an orderly, stepwise transfer of electrons. both nadh (reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and fadh2 (reduced flavin adenine dinucleotide) are energy rich molecules that liberate a large amount of energy during what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-00bddeb91ff44710aefb1d3c11f4eb46", "input": "Passage: Force is a push or a pull acting on an object. Examples of force include friction and gravity. Force is a vector because it has both size and direction. The SI unit of force is the newton (N). Answer: force", "output": [ "What is a push or a pull acting on an object?" ] }, { "id": "task594-558fcd00447e4433a456c1e6ddfb595e", "input": "Passage: Early in the development of a human fetus, the skeleton is made entirely of cartilage. The relatively soft cartilage gradually changes to hard bone through ossification. This is a process in which mineral deposits replace cartilage in bone. At birth, several areas of cartilage remain, including the ends of the long bones in the arms and legs. This allows these bones to keep growing in length during childhood. Answer: cartilage", "output": [ "Early in the development of a human fetus, the skeleton is made entirely of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-89c21097de8143d29f29979ea333920a", "input": "Passage: Figure 6.6 Water behind a dam has potential energy. Moving water, such as in a waterfall or a rapidly flowing river, has kinetic energy. (credit “dam”: modification of work by \"Pascal\"/Flickr; credit “waterfall”: modification of work by Frank Gualtieri). Answer: kinetic energy", "output": [ "Water behind a dam has potential energy. moving water, such as in a waterfall or a rapidly flowing river, has this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9b3d3a689a8d431eb210ef9a1b7c3864", "input": "Passage: The strength of an acid depends on the concentration of hydrogen ions it produces when dissolved in water. A stronger acid produces a greater concentration of ions than a weaker acid. For example, when hydrogen chloride is added to water, all of it breaks down into H + and Cl - ions. Therefore, it is a strong acid. On the other hand, only about 1 percent of acetic acid breaks down into ions, so it is a weak acid. Answer: acid", "output": [ "The strength of what depends on the concentration of hydrogen ions it produces when dissolved in water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-50e94478a64248c68a4b06e79e4be861", "input": "Passage: Clouds block sunlight in the day. Clouds trap heat in the atmosphere at night. Answer: heat", "output": [ "What do clouds trap into the atmosphere at night?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fb967d57bef44297bf94e2d11587256a", "input": "Passage: The driest climates are deserts . Most occur between about 15° and 30° latitude. This is where dry air sinks to the surface in the global circulation cells. Deserts receive less than 25 centimeters (10 inches) of rain per year. They may be covered with sand dunes or be home to sparse but hardy plants (see Figure below ). With few clouds, deserts have hot days and cool nights. Answer: deserts", "output": [ "What has hot days and cool nights, and are typically covered with sand dunes or sparse but hardy plants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5868d44d1ee74395836e39a0bf680af1", "input": "Passage: Examples of osmosis are evident in many biological systems because cells are surrounded by semipermeable membranes. Carrots and celery that have become limp because they have lost water can be made crisp again by placing them in water. Water moves into the carrot or celery cells by osmosis. A cucumber placed in a concentrated salt solution loses water by osmosis and absorbs some salt to become a pickle. Osmosis can also affect animal cells. Solute concentrations are particularly important when solutions are injected into the body. Solutes in body cell fluids and blood serum give these solutions an osmotic pressure of approximately 7.7 atm. Solutions injected into the body must have the same osmotic pressure as blood serum; that is, they should be isotonic with blood serum. If a less concentrated solution, a hypotonic solution, is injected in sufficient quantity to dilute the blood serum, water from the diluted serum passes into the blood cells by osmosis, causing the cells to expand and rupture. This process is called hemolysis. When a more concentrated solution, a hypertonic solution, is injected, the cells lose water to the more concentrated solution, shrivel, and possibly die in a process called crenation. These effects are illustrated in Figure 11.28. Answer: osmosis", "output": [ "Examples of what process are evident in many biological systems because cells are surrounded by semipermeable membranes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-861db15af08247d5ac1ec1e645eedf77", "input": "Passage: Proteins are nutrients made up of smaller molecules called amino acids . Recall that there are 20 different amino acids arranged like \"beads on a string\" to form proteins. These amino acid chains then fold up into a three-dimensional molecule, giving the protein a specific function. Proteins have several important roles in the body. For example, proteins make up antibodies, muscle fibers and enzymes that help control cell and body processes. You need to make sure you have enough protein in your diet to obtain the necessary amino acids to make your proteins. Answer: 20", "output": [ "How many amino acids are arranged like \"beads on a string\" to form proteins?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5c2ce7cd2d9c4575b1f2750eb3cd9938", "input": "Passage: Some arthropods have special excretory structures. They are called coxal glands and Malphigian tubules. Coxal glands collect and concentrate liquid waste from blood. They excrete the waste from the body through a pore. Malphigian tubules carry waste from the digestive tract to the anus. The waste is excreted through the anus. Answer: excretion", "output": [ "In arthropods, coxal glands and malphigian tubules perform what role?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d4b4df0dca744669bbaf94ce5d97876b", "input": "Passage: Chemical Digestion The fundus plays an important role, because it stores both undigested food and gases that are released during the process of chemical digestion. Food may sit in the fundus of the stomach for a while before being mixed with the chyme. While the food is in the fundus, the digestive activities of salivary amylase continue until the food begins mixing with the acidic chyme. Ultimately, mixing waves incorporate this food with the chyme, the acidity of which inactivates salivary amylase and activates lingual lipase. Lingual lipase then begins breaking down triglycerides into free fatty acids, and mono- and diglycerides. The breakdown of protein begins in the stomach through the actions of HCl and the enzyme pepsin. During infancy, gastric glands also produce rennin, an enzyme that helps digest milk protein. Its numerous digestive functions notwithstanding, there is only one stomach function necessary to life: the production of intrinsic factor. The intestinal absorption of vitamin B12, which is necessary for both the production of mature red blood cells and normal neurological functioning, cannot occur without intrinsic factor. People who undergo total gastrectomy (stomach removal)—for life-threatening stomach cancer, for example—can survive with minimal digestive dysfunction if they receive vitamin B12 injections. The contents of the stomach are completely emptied into the duodenum within 2 to 4 hours after you eat a meal. Different types of food take different amounts of time to process. Foods heavy in carbohydrates empty fastest, followed by highprotein foods. Meals with a high triglyceride content remain in the stomach the longest. Since enzymes in the small intestine digest fats slowly, food can stay in the stomach for 6 hours or longer when the duodenum is processing fatty chyme. However, note that this is still a fraction of the 24 to 72 hours that full digestion typically takes from start to finish. Answer: fundus of the stomach", "output": [ "Where is the food stored before being mixed with the chyme?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d293aba9745849e28735c72a6ef0ca0e", "input": "Passage: Insectivorous Plants An insectivorous plant has specialized leaves to attract and digest insects. The Venus flytrap is popularly known for its insectivorous mode of nutrition, and has leaves that work as traps (Figure 31.16). The minerals it obtains from prey compensate for those lacking in the boggy (low pH) soil of its native North Carolina coastal plains. There are three sensitive hairs in the center of each half of each leaf. The edges of each leaf are covered with long spines. Nectar secreted by the plant attracts flies to the leaf. When a fly touches the sensory hairs, the leaf immediately closes. Next, fluids and enzymes break down the prey and minerals are absorbed by the leaf. Since this plant is popular in the horticultural trade, it is threatened in its original habitat. Answer: specialized leaves", "output": [ "What helps an insectivorous plant attract and digest insects?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8db355b9a64f4f3c90bc5b7015b93fda", "input": "Passage: Secondary growth of sweet potato roots provides more space to store food. Roots store sugar from photosynthesis as starch. What other starchy roots do people eat?. Answer: roots", "output": [ "What part of the sweet potato store sugar from photosynthesis as starch?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3ff8846ac8f34561802bde592d4dad20", "input": "Passage: You can see the structural formula of glucose and two other sugars in Figure below . The other sugars in the figure are fructose and sucrose. Fructose is an isomer of glucose. It is found in fruits. It has the same atoms as glucose, but they are arranged differently. Sucrose is table sugar. It consists of one molecule of glucose and one molecule of fructose. Answer: fructose", "output": [ "Sucrose consists of one molecule of glucose and one molecule of what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cf4406f4ce154df79f34e670f7031af5", "input": "Passage: 8.3 The Pelvic Girdle and Pelvis The pelvic girdle, consisting of a hip bone, serves to attach a lower limb to the axial skeleton. The hip bone articulates posteriorly at the sacroiliac joint with the sacrum, which is part of the axial skeleton. The right and left hip bones converge anteriorly and articulate with each other at the pubic symphysis. The combination of the hip bone, the sacrum, and the coccyx forms the pelvis. The pelvis has a pronounced anterior tilt. The primary function of the pelvis is to support the upper body and transfer body weight to the lower limbs. It also serves as the site of attachment for multiple muscles. The hip bone consists of three regions: the ilium, ischium, and pubis. The ilium forms the large, fan-like region of the hip bone. The superior margin of this area is the iliac crest. Located at either end of the iliac crest are the anterior superior and posterior superior iliac spines. Inferior to these are the anterior inferior and posterior inferior iliac spines. The auricular surface of the ilium articulates with the sacrum to form the sacroiliac joint. The medial surface of the upper ilium forms the iliac fossa, with the arcuate line marking the inferior limit of this area. The posterior margin of the ilium has the large greater sciatic notch. Answer: axial skeleton", "output": [ "The pelvic girdle, consisting of a hip bone, serves to attach a lower limb to this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f0f5ab0ab5ad46b88b5394308c359fe9", "input": "Passage: Internal Fertilization Internal fertilization occurs most often in terrestrial animals, although some aquatic animals also use this method. Internal fertilization may occur by the male directly depositing sperm in the female during mating. It may also occur by the male depositing sperm in the environment, usually in a protective structure, which a female picks up to deposit the sperm in her reproductive tract. There are three ways that offspring are produced following internal fertilization. In oviparity, fertilized eggs are laid outside the female’s body and develop there, receiving nourishment from the yolk that is a part of the egg (Figure 18.7a). This occurs in some bony fish, some reptiles, a few cartilaginous fish, some amphibians, a few mammals, and all birds. Most non-avian reptiles and insects produce leathery eggs, while birds and some turtles produce eggs with high concentrations of calcium carbonate in the shell, making them hard. Chicken eggs are an example of a hard shell. The eggs of the egg-laying mammals such as the platypus and echidna are leathery. In ovoviparity, fertilized eggs are retained in the female, and the embryo obtains its nourishment from the egg’s yolk. The eggs are retained in the female’s body until they hatch inside of her, or she lays the eggs right before they hatch. This process helps protect the eggs until hatching. This occurs in some bony fish (like the platyfish Xiphophorus maculatus, Figure 18.7b), some sharks, lizards, some snakes (garter snake Thamnophis sirtalis), some vipers, and some invertebrate animals (Madagascar hissing cockroach Gromphadorhina portentosa). In viviparity the young are born alive. They obtain their nourishment from the female and are born in varying states of maturity. This occurs in most mammals (Figure 18.7c), some cartilaginous fish, and a few reptiles. Answer: internal", "output": [ "When a male directly deposits sperm in a female during mating, this is considered what type of fertilization?" ] }, { "id": "task594-72776abfc8924f52a0267305b469d6a8", "input": "Passage: An articulation is any place at which two bones are joined. The humerus is the largest and longest bone of the upper limb and the only bone of the arm. It articulates with the scapula at the shoulder and with the forearm at the elbow. The forearm extends from the elbow to the wrist and consists of two bones: the ulna and the radius. The radius is located along the lateral (thumb) side of the forearm and articulates with the humerus at the elbow. The ulna is located on the medial aspect (pinky-finger side) of the forearm. It is longer than the radius. The ulna articulates with the humerus at the elbow. The radius and ulna also articulate with the carpal bones and with each other, which in vertebrates enables a variable degree of rotation of the carpus with respect to the long axis of the limb. The hand includes the eight bones of the carpus (wrist), the five bones of the metacarpus (palm), and the 14 bones of the phalanges (digits). Each digit consists of three phalanges, except for the thumb, when present, which has only two. The Pelvic Girdle The pelvic girdle attaches to the lower limbs of the axial skeleton. Because it is responsible for bearing the weight of the body and for locomotion, the pelvic girdle is securely attached to the axial skeleton by strong ligaments. It also has deep sockets with robust ligaments to securely attach the femur to the body. The pelvic girdle is further strengthened by two large hip bones. In adults, the hip bones, or coxal bones, are formed by the fusion of three pairs of bones: the ilium, ischium, and pubis. The pelvis joins together in the anterior of the body at a joint called the pubic symphysis and with the bones of the sacrum at the posterior of the body. The female pelvis is slightly different from the male pelvis. Over generations of evolution, females with a wider pubic angle and larger diameter pelvic canal reproduced more successfully. Therefore, their offspring also had pelvic anatomy that enabled successful childbirth (Figure 38.13). Answer: articulation", "output": [ "Any place at which two bones are joined is called a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6992e46fc4f94947831f5a076dbcbcf4", "input": "Passage: A peptide is composed of two or more amino acids. Amino acids are the building blocks of peptides. Answer: amino acids", "output": [ "What are the building blocks of peptides?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5515be0c516e4df1a3173377804f316f", "input": "Passage: What portion of Earth makes up the “plates” in plate tectonics? Again, the answer came about in part due to war. In this case, the Cold War. The scientists set up seismometer networks during the 1950s and early 1960s. The purpose was to see if other nations were testing atomic bombs. Since seismometers measure ground shaking, they also recorded earthquakes. Answer: plates", "output": [ "What are the things moving under the earth's mantle that move the crust?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1a1dfd6f1ca24fdeb500ca525ff0b889", "input": "Passage: Glucose is the energy-rich product of photosynthesis, a universal food for life. It is also the primary form in which your bloodstream delivers energy to every cell in your body. Answer: glucose", "output": [ "What do we call the energy-rich product of photosynthesis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d186a22676804d12b72469b837188e7f", "input": "Passage: Inside the plasma membrane of prokaryotic cells is the cytoplasm. It contains several structures, including ribosomes, a cytoskeleton, and genetic material. Ribosomes are sites where proteins are made. The cytoskeleton helps the cell keep its shape. The genetic material is usually a single loop of DNA. There may also be small, circular pieces of DNA, called plasmids . (see Figure below ). The cytoplasm may contain microcompartments as well. These are tiny structures enclosed by proteins. They contain enzymes and are involved in metabolic processes. Answer: vacuole", "output": [ "A flower's colors come from what part of the plant?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dbd636d002a342f789568622c02feaca", "input": "Passage: Introduction to Particle Physics Following ideas remarkably similar to those of the ancient Greeks, we continue to look for smaller and smaller structures in nature, hoping ultimately to find and understand the most fundamental building blocks that exist. Atomic physics deals with the smallest units of elements and compounds. In its study, we have found a relatively small number of atoms with systematic properties that explained a tremendous range of phenomena. Nuclear physics is concerned with the nuclei of atoms and their substructures. Here, a smaller number of components—the proton and neutron—make up all nuclei. Exploring the systematic behavior of their interactions has revealed even more about matter, forces, and energy. Particle physics deals with the substructures of atoms and nuclei and is particularly aimed at finding those truly fundamental particles that have no further substructure. Just as in atomic and nuclear physics, we have found a complex array of particles and properties with systematic characteristics analogous to the periodic table and the chart of nuclides. An underlying structure is apparent, and there is some reason to think that we are finding particles that have no substructure. Of course, we have been in similar situations before. For example, atoms were once thought to be the ultimate substructure. Perhaps we will find deeper and deeper structures and never come to an ultimate substructure. We may never really know, as indicated in Figure 33.2. Answer: atomic", "output": [ "What branch of physics deals with the smallest units of elements and compounds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a6980f4442964fd7b4bb1ef21ed86a8d", "input": "Passage: Moving water has energy ( Figure above ). That energy is used to make electricity. Hydroelectric power , or hydropower, harnesses the energy of water moving down a stream. Hydropower is the most widely used form of renewable energy in the world. This abundant energy source provides almost one fifth of the world’s electricity. The energy of waves and tides can also be used to produce water power. At this time, wave and tidal power are rare. Answer: hydropower", "output": [ "What is the most widely used form of renewable energy in the world?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bf98ef1e5cc546b7a4a23280b8b4d805", "input": "Passage: Nearly all rocks are made of minerals. A few are made of materials that do not fit the definition of minerals. Answer: minerals", "output": [ "Nearly all rocks are made of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-000fce4de5524115b188f35620045e75", "input": "Passage: Photochemical smog consists mainly of ozone (O 3 ). The ozone in smog is the same compound as the ozone in the ozone layer,(O 3 ). But ozone in smog is found near the ground. Figure below shows how it forms. When nitrogen oxides and VOCs are heated by the Sun, they lose oxygen atoms. The oxygen atoms combine with molecules of oxygen to form ozone. Smog ozone is harmful to humans and other living things. Answer: ozone", "output": [ "What dangerous oxygen compound is found in ground level smog?" ] }, { "id": "task594-53b1d07cf6ed4247bf35f54654060b27", "input": "Passage: Imagine the thrill of riding on a roller coaster like this one! The coaster slowly crawls to the top of the track and then flies down the other side. It also zooms around twists and turns at breakneck speeds. These changes in speed and direction are what make a roller coaster ride so exciting. Changes in speed or direction are called acceleration. Answer: acceleration", "output": [ "What is the term for changes in speed or direction, changes that make a roller coaster ride so exciting?" ] }, { "id": "task594-53801909d5004eb3bb9e79a12a99b987", "input": "Passage: Photosynthetic bacteria use the energy of the sun to make their own food. In the presence of sunlight, carbon dioxide and water are turned into glucose and oxygen. The glucose is then turned into usable energy. Glucose is like the \"food\" for the bacteria. An example of photosynthetic bacteria is cyanobacteria, as seen in the opening image. Answer: food", "output": [ "What is glucose used for the bacteria?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9af8e215c48a42adb10333e2c6ab56fe", "input": "Passage: Biological organization exists at all levels in organisms. It can be seen at the smallest level, in the molecules that make up such compounds as DNA and proteins, to the largest level, in an organism such as a blue whale, the largest mammal on Earth. Similarly, single celled prokaryotes and eukaryotes show order in the way their cells are arranged. Single-celled organisms such as an amoeba are free-floating and independent-living. Their single-celled \"bodies\" are able to carry out all the processes of life such as metabolism and respiration without help from other cells. Answer: blue whale", "output": [ "What is the largest mammal on earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2f13b804c8af40e3a406c66418016521", "input": "Passage: The process in which cells make proteins is called protein synthesis . It actually consists of two processes: transcription and translation . Transcription takes place in the nucleus. It uses DNA as a template to make an RNA molecule. RNA then leaves the nucleus and goes to a ribosome in the cytoplasm, where translation occurs. Translation reads the genetic code in mRNA and makes a protein. Answer: protein synthesis", "output": [ "What is the process in which cells make proteins called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f240f3892039424fb3259e51a5792a00", "input": "Passage: USFWS Pacific. Coral reefs are one of the biomes with the highest biodiversity on Earth . CC BY 2.0. Answer: biome", "output": [ "Coral reefs are a type of what large community and have the highest biodiversity on earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3abed6e0d6e447a1941593ed148ef46a", "input": "Passage: The cerebellum is the next largest part of the brain. It lies under the cerebrum and behind the brain stem. The cerebellum controls body position, coordination, and balance. Whether you are riding a bicycle or writing with a pen, you are using your cerebellum. Answer: cerebellum", "output": [ "What part of the brain lies under the cerebrum and behind the brain stem?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8433cb6235a6488c9120170433c5abfe", "input": "Passage: Ionic compounds are named for their positive metal ion first, followed by their negative nonmetal ion. Answer: ionic compounds", "output": [ "What kind of compounds are named for their positive metal ion first, followed by their negative nonmetal ion?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dc84dfefa6cf4b7a84792417ce48071d", "input": "Passage: Fungi can grow fast because they are such good eaters. Fungi have lots of surface area, and this large surface area “eats” or absorbs. Surface area is how much exposed area an organism has, compared to their overall volume. Most of a mushroom's surface area is actually underground. If you see a mushroom in your yard, that is just a small part of a larger fungus growing underground. Answer: underground", "output": [ "Most of a mushroom's surface area is actually where?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5dd0f590b50943e08361d514868ece1f", "input": "Passage: Forest and Kim Starr (Flickr:Starr Environmental). Secondary succession occurs when nature reclaims areas formerly occupied by life . CC BY 2.0. Answer: secondary succession", "output": [ "What occurs when nature reclaims areas formerly occupied by life?" ] }, { "id": "task594-417668e153474c62b9f6e1d559bad908", "input": "Passage: There is a pressure difference when the channel narrows. This pressure difference results in a net force on the fluid: recall that pressure times area equals force. The net work done increases the fluid’s kinetic energy. As a result, the pressure will drop in a rapidly-moving fluid, whether or not the fluid is confined to a tube. There are a number of common examples of pressure dropping in rapidly-moving fluids. Shower curtains have a disagreeable habit of bulging into the shower stall when the shower is on. The high-velocity stream of water and air creates a region of lower pressure inside the shower, and standard atmospheric pressure on the other side. The pressure difference results in a net force inward pushing the curtain in. You may also have noticed that when passing a truck on the highway, your car tends to veer toward it. The reason is the same—the high velocity of the air between the car and the truck creates a region of lower pressure, and the vehicles are pushed together by greater pressure on the outside. (See Figure 12.4. ) This effect was observed as far back as the mid-1800s, when it was found that trains passing in opposite directions tipped precariously toward one another. Answer: force", "output": [ "What is pressure times area equal to?" ] }, { "id": "task594-69156828b7034b75a9f8f01c72e40e9c", "input": "Passage: In science, a theory has been repeatedly shown to be true. A theory is supported by many observations. However, a theory may be disproved if conflicting data is discovered. Many important theories have been shown to be true by many observations and experiments and are extremely unlikely to be disproved. These include the theory of plate tectonics and the theory of evolution. Answer: many observations", "output": [ "What does a theory need to be supported by?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d3516ab19c0347cd82d0d2c4fb857097", "input": "Passage: The nucleus is the largest organelle in a eukaryotic cell. It contains most of the cell’s DNA. DNA, in turn, contains the genetic code. This code “tells” the cell which proteins to make and when to make them. You can see a diagram of a cell nucleus in Figure below . Besides DNA, the nucleus contains a structure called a nucleolus. Its function is to form ribosomes. The membrane enclosing the nucleus is called the nuclear envelope. The envelope has tiny holes, or pores, in it. The pores allow substances to move into and out of the nucleus. Answer: nucleus", "output": [ "What is the largest organelle in a eukaryotic cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b227c9e7fa224724991d9cc1396dacab", "input": "Passage: The following ideas are important in understanding hybridization: 1. Hybrid orbitals do not exist in isolated atoms. They are formed only in covalently bonded atoms. Hybrid orbitals have shapes and orientations that are very different from those of the atomic orbitals in isolated. Answer: covalently", "output": [ "Hybrid orbitals are formed only in which type of bonded atoms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2bb55f8382ff4cee921251014d3c2010", "input": "Passage: The ductless endocrine glands are not to be confused with the body’s exocrine system, whose glands release their secretions through ducts. Examples of exocrine glands include the sebaceous and sweat glands of the skin. As just noted, the pancreas also has an exocrine function: most of its cells secrete pancreatic juice through the pancreatic and accessory ducts to the lumen of the small intestine. Answer: glands", "output": [ "\"endocrine\" and \"exocrine\" are two types of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6013b3f5e83444528af8fb54af3e6488", "input": "Passage: Glaciers form when more snow falls than melts each year. Over many years, layer upon layer of snow compacts and turns to ice. There are two different types of glaciers: continental glaciers and valley glaciers. Each type forms some unique features through erosion and deposition. An example of each type is pictured in Figure below . Answer: valley", "output": [ "The two types of glaciers are continental and what other kind?" ] }, { "id": "task594-883ec3f265d74d4dbb2dc1d9fb1f3bd5", "input": "Passage: Endoskeleton An endoskeleton is a skeleton that consists of hard, mineralized structures located within the soft tissue of organisms. An example of a primitive endoskeletal structure is the spicules of sponges. The bones of vertebrates are composed of tissues, whereas sponges have no true tissues (Figure 38.4). Endoskeletons provide support for the body, protect internal organs, and allow for movement through contraction of muscles attached to the skeleton. Answer: endoskeleton", "output": [ "A skeleton that consists of hard, mineralized structures located within the soft tissue of organisms is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5cf40451dc6d4c188e028e533725d172", "input": "Passage: Mesophyll makes up most of the leaf’s interior. This is where photosynthesis occurs. Mesophyll consists mainly of parenchymal cells with chloroplasts. Answer: mesophyll", "output": [ "What consists mainly of parenchymal cells with chloroplasts?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4835da77cfd547e39e1e745c554d5526", "input": "Passage: Winds on Earth are either global or local. Global winds blow in the same directions all the time. They are created when more solar energy strikes the Equator than the polar regions. More about global wind patterns is described in detail in the concept \"Global Wind Belts. \". Answer: global winds", "output": [ "What type of winds are created when more solar energy strikes the equator than the polar regions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-37f372b337914528876ad065a48ae8df", "input": "Passage: Some cases of type 2 diabetes can be cured with weight loss. However, most people with the disease need to take medicine to control their blood sugar. Regular exercise and balanced eating also help, and should be a regular part of the treatment for these people. Like people with type 1 diabetes, people with type 2 diabetes must frequently check their blood sugar. Answer: blood sugar", "output": [ "Like people with type 1 diabetes, people with type 2 diabetes must frequently check what level?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a64719b172544694a2be4e480c45661b", "input": "Passage: The nucleus divides during mitosis, and the cytoplasm divides during cytokinesis. Answer: mitosis", "output": [ "When does the nucleus divide?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f7a7ab8b051e48669a32a45d26791b96", "input": "Passage: An air mass takes on the conditions of the area where it forms. For example, a continental polar air mass has cold dry air. A maritime polar air mass has cold moist air. Which air masses have warm moist air? Where do they form?. Answer: cold dry air", "output": [ "What kind of air does a continental polar air mass hold?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f42473d085ab41d08dae9dc788cd8db5", "input": "Passage: An underground layer of rock that is saturated with groundwater is called an aquifer . A diagram of an aquifer is pictured below ( Figure below ). Aquifers are generally found in porous rock, such as sandstone. Water infiltrates the aquifer from the surface. The water that enters the aquifer is called recharge . Answer: aquifer", "output": [ "What is the name for an underground layer of rock that is saturated with groundwater?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4e2cdef5e080440ebd9c94d5f551ccb2", "input": "Passage: Phagocytosis , or cellular eating, occurs when the dissolved materials enter the cell. The plasma membrane engulfs the solid material, forming a phagocytic vesicle. Answer: phagocytosis", "output": [ "What is the term for cellular eating?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2b949e1d602f4a12bcb673ce98ffdc37", "input": "Passage: With logistic growth, the population starts out growing slowly, and then the rate of growth increases—but only to a point. The rate of growth tapers off as the population size approaches its carrying capacity. Carrying capacity is the largest population size that can be supported in an area without harming the environment. This type of growth characterizes many populations. Answer: slowly", "output": [ "With logistic growth, how does population growth start out?" ] }, { "id": "task594-17653f23cd294ed79796865c85fcd428", "input": "Passage: 15.1 Mendelian inheritance has its physical basis in the behavior of chromosomes. Answer: chromosomes", "output": [ "Mendelian inheritance has its physical basis in the behavior of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6bb4300dbc0c4b289325d854500176b9", "input": "Passage: An amide can be formed by combining a carboxylic acid and an amine. Only primary and secondary amines can be used to form amides, since they have a hydrogen that can be replaced with the carbonyl carbon; tertiary amines will not form amides. The amide shown in the Figure above was formed from a carboxylic acid and a primary amine. Answer: carboxylic acid", "output": [ "What can be combined with an amine to form an amide?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e93cabf8d0204c7c86f64549ba2cd1a2", "input": "Passage: A migraine is a more severe type of headache. It occurs when blood vessels in the head dilate, or expand. This may be triggered by certain foods, bright lights, weather changes, or other factors. People with migraines may also have nausea or other symptoms. Fortunately, migraines can often be relieved with prescription drugs. Answer: migraine", "output": [ "When blood vessels in the head dilate, what kind of severe headache can occur?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d812a6a39a7948bba90af52ce81ef365", "input": "Passage: Terrestrial biomes , which are land-based, such as deserts and forests. Answer: terrestrial", "output": [ "Deserts and forests are examples of what type of biome?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b1f5993f60154e69a7db86ca26e5b6a5", "input": "Passage: When a warm air mass runs into a cold air mass, it creates a warm front ( Figure below ). The warm air mass is moving faster than the cold air mass. The warm air mass then flows up over the cold air mass. As the warm air rises, it cools. This brings about clouds and sometimes light precipitation. Warm fronts move slowly and cover a wide area. After a warm front passes, the warm air mass behind it brings warmer temperatures. The warm air is also likely to be more humid. Answer: warm front", "output": [ "What results when a warm air mass runs into a cold air mass?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5f557c3ed9cd402f86aac8fc4acb6f11", "input": "Passage: Populations usually grow bigger when they have what they need. How fast they grow depends on birth and death rates. They grow more slowly as they get close to the carrying capacity. This is the biggest population the environment can support. Answer: slows", "output": [ "When populations get close to the carrying capacity, what happens to growth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1db0b7dac68d440f953209627d9e7548", "input": "Passage: Mitochondria are thought to have evolved from ancient prokaryotic cells. Answer: ancient prokaryotic", "output": [ "Mitochondria are thought to have evolved from what kind of cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a3248140f64c42c89ea453011a89267c", "input": "Passage: Thoracic Vertebrae The bodies of the thoracic vertebrae are larger than those of cervical vertebrae (Figure 7.26). The characteristic feature for a typical midthoracic vertebra is the spinous process, which is long and has a pronounced downward angle that causes it to overlap the next inferior vertebra. The superior articular processes of thoracic vertebrae face anteriorly and the inferior processes face posteriorly. These orientations are important determinants for the type and range of movements available to the thoracic region of the vertebral column. Thoracic vertebrae have several additional articulation sites, each of which is called a facet, where a rib is attached. Most thoracic vertebrae have two facets located on the lateral sides of the body, each of which is called a costal facet (costal = “rib”). These are for articulation with the head (end) of a rib. An additional facet is located on the transverse process for articulation with the tubercle of a rib. Answer: rib", "output": [ "Most thoracic vertebrae have two facets that articulate with the head of what structure?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b01c2761e3d94eff9fc0bba4cee05e63", "input": "Passage: Real gases deviate from ideal gases at high pressures and at low temperatures. Answer: low temperatures", "output": [ "Real gases deviate from ideal form at high pressure and what other thermodynamic condition?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e8312e753f21478e9f8e41bf1a2c796d", "input": "Passage: Metalloids such as boron have an outer energy level that is about half full. These elements need to gain or lose too many electrons for a full outer energy level to come about easily. As a result, these elements are not very reactive. They may be able to conduct electricity but not very well. Answer: half full", "output": [ "About how full is the outer energy level in metalloids?" ] }, { "id": "task594-090bbe6db5ba4f4c94fad3a7db970f73", "input": "Passage: and . The electric force is 39 orders of magnitudes bigger. Answer: 39", "output": [ "How many orders of magnitudes bigger is the electric force?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3df899238f2d4dd99f9edba5a873ed12", "input": "Passage: gametes swim with the aid of their flagella to the female gametangium (the archegonium), and fertilization ensues. The zygote grows into a small sporophyte still attached to the parent gametophyte. It will give rise, by meiosis, to the next generation of spores. Liverwort plants can also reproduce asexually, by the breaking of branches or the spreading of leaf fragments called gemmae. In this latter type of reproduction, the gemmae—small, intact, complete pieces of plant that are produced in a cup on the surface of the thallus (shown in Figure 25.11)—are splashed out of the cup by raindrops. The gemmae then land nearby and develop into gametophytes. Answer: flagella", "output": [ "Gametes swim with the aid of what structure to the female gametangium, and fertilization ensues?" ] }, { "id": "task594-713737d287ec481c8eca53a9ab0532e7", "input": "Passage: Figure 20.2 The rate of flow of charge is current. An ampere is the flow of one coulomb through an area in one second. Answer: current", "output": [ "The rate of flow of charge in an electrical circuit is known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-889978541fb5486a841e7510144628ff", "input": "Passage: Collision theory explains how materials can collide and become new materials. Answer: collision theory", "output": [ "Which theory explains how materials can collide and become new materials?" ] }, { "id": "task594-454c04384517456ba8579a4beccfc3b7", "input": "Passage: When ordered by atomic number, the discrepancies within Mendeleev’s table disappeared. Tellurium has an atomic number of 52, while iodine has an atomic number of 53. So even though tellurium does indeed have a greater atomic mass than iodine, it is properly placed before iodine in the periodic table. Mendeleev and Moseley are credited with being most responsible for the modern periodic law : When elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number, there is a periodic repetition of their chemical and physical properties. The result is the periodic table as we know it today. Each new horizontal row of the periodic table corresponds to the beginning of a new period because a new principal energy level is being filled with electrons. Elements with similar chemical properties appear at regular intervals, within the vertical columns called groups . Answer: electrons", "output": [ "Each new horizontal row of the periodic table corresponds to the beginning of a new period because a new principal energy level is being filled with what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bfd46eb41dbe4670bdb41dcb61087b56", "input": "Passage: The mouth also begins the process of mechanical digestion. Sharp teeth in the front of the mouth cut or tear food when you bite into it (see Figure below ). Broad teeth in the back of the mouth grind food when you chew. Food is easier to chew because it is moistened by saliva from the salivary glands. The tongue helps mix the food with saliva and also helps you swallow. After you swallow, the chewed food passes into the pharynx. Answer: grinding food", "output": [ "Teeth in the back of the mouth are used for what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-078fa698752b41d39d6ea8f32419d9ab", "input": "Passage: In all types of mechanical waves, energy moves from one place to another while the media carrying the wave only vibrates back and forth in position. One type of mechanical wave is the transverse wave . In the case of transverse waves, the movement of the medium is perpendicular to the direction of the energy movement. Answer: energy movement", "output": [ "In the case of transverse waves, the movement of the medium is perpendicular to the direction of the what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ea4b7b247e0446349f987e79297fb99b", "input": "Passage: As plant cells grow, they also become specialized into different cell types. Once cells become specialized, they can no longer divide. So how do plants grow after that? The key to continued growth is meristem. Meristem is a type of plant tissue consisting of undifferentiated cells that can continue to divide. Answer: divide", "output": [ "Once a plant cell becomes specialized, what can they no longer do?" ] }, { "id": "task594-64a7358014cd49e2bc50e4034237fea4", "input": "Passage: Lizards and snakes belong to the largest order of reptiles, Squamata. Lizards are a large group of reptiles, with nearly 5,000 species, living on every continent except Antarctica. Some places are just too cold for lizards. Answer: reptiles", "output": [ "Squamata is the largest order of what broad animal group, and includes lizards and snakes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-337bdec94138475eaa230591c41add65", "input": "Passage: Figure 28.14 Classically, velocities add like ordinary numbers in one-dimensional motion. Here the girl throws a snowball forward and then backward from a sled. The velocity of the sled relative to the Earth is relative to the Earth is. Answer: distance over time in a given direction", "output": [ "What determines velocity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5849e297552e420bba349d63b8712c41", "input": "Passage: Clouds form when air in the atmosphere reaches the dew point. Clouds may form anywhere in the troposphere. Clouds that form on the ground are called fog . Answer: fog", "output": [ "What are clouds that form on the ground called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-63d8b0dfeb5f4171b677a16f54eef946", "input": "Passage: Gases mix homogeneously when confined to same container. When several gases are added to a container, the individual gas particles mix freely, forming a homogeneous mixture in which each type of gas is randomly distributed throughout all the available volume. Answer: homogeneous mixture", "output": [ "What is formed when different gases are confined to the same container?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8e626109053541ce9aaffd3cfeddcd1d", "input": "Passage: The large intestine is a wide tube that connects the small intestine with the anus. In adults, the large intestine is about 1.5 meters (5 feet) long. It is larger in width but shorter in length than the small intestine. Answer: large intestine", "output": [ "Which organ is a wide tube connecting the small intestine with the anus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c4937914bc744116a92abed2196839f4", "input": "Passage: Cnidarians are invertebrates such as jellyfish and corals. They belong to the phylum Cnidaria. All cnidarians are aquatic. Most of them live in the ocean. Cnidarians are a little more complex than sponges. They have radial symmetry and tissues. There are more than 10,000 cnidarian species. They are very diverse, as shown in Figure below . Answer: ocean", "output": [ "Where do most cnidarians live?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6b6f328f96064be8b7fd7783cdf72640", "input": "Passage: The amount of space matter takes up is its volume . How the volume of matter is measured depends on its state. Answer: volume", "output": [ "What term means the amount of space matter takes up?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4a22cc98c9bd4f47a09f94e59fd236a9", "input": "Passage: Endocrine Signaling Signals from distant cells are called endocrine signals, and they originate from endocrine cells. (In the body, many endocrine cells are located in endocrine glands, such as the thyroid gland, the hypothalamus, and the pituitary gland. ) These types of signals usually produce a slower response but have a longer-lasting effect. The ligands released in endocrine signaling are called hormones, signaling molecules that are produced in one part of the body but affect other body regions some distance away. Hormones travel the large distances between endocrine cells and their target cells via the bloodstream, which is a relatively slow way to move throughout the body. Because of their form of transport, hormones get diluted and are present in low concentrations when they act on their target cells. This is different from paracrine signaling, in which local concentrations of ligands can be very high. Autocrine Signaling Autocrine signals are produced by signaling cells that can also bind to the ligand that is released. This means the signaling cell and the target cell can be the same or a similar cell (the prefix auto- means self, a reminder that the signaling cell sends a signal to itself). This type of signaling often occurs during the early development of an organism to ensure that cells develop into the correct tissues and take on the proper function. Autocrine signaling also regulates pain sensation and inflammatory responses. Further, if a cell is infected with a virus, the cell can signal itself to undergo programmed cell death, killing the virus in the process. In some cases, neighboring cells of the same type are also influenced by the released ligand. In embryological development, this process of stimulating a group of neighboring cells may help to direct the differentiation of identical cells into the same cell type, thus ensuring the proper developmental outcome. Direct Signaling Across Gap Junctions Gap junctions in animals and plasmodesmata in plants are connections between the plasma membranes of neighboring cells. These water-filled channels allow small signaling molecules, called intracellular mediators, to diffuse between the two cells. Small molecules, such as calcium ions (Ca2+), are able to move between cells, but large molecules like proteins and DNA cannot fit through the channels. The specificity of the channels ensures that the cells remain independent but can quickly and easily transmit signals. The transfer of signaling molecules communicates the current state of the cell that is directly next to the target cell; this allows a group of cells to coordinate their response to a signal that only one of them may have received. In plants, plasmodesmata are ubiquitous, making the entire plant into a giant, communication network. Answer: hormones", "output": [ "Because these components of the endocrine system are transported via blood, they get diluted and are present in low concentrations when they act on their target cells." ] }, { "id": "task594-0a2b1260559f463a87be03c8655665c8", "input": "Passage: User:helix84/Wikimedia Commons. Gas exchange is the movement of oxygen into the blood and carbon dioxide out of the blood . CC BY 2.5. Answer: oxygen, carbon dioxide", "output": [ "What gases move in and out of blood during gas exchange?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d2d184c628d242e1a899653e119e4e89", "input": "Passage: Air conditioning systems that can incubate certain bacteria and mold. Answer: mold", "output": [ "Air conditioning systems can incubate certain bacteria and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ace07c569fa74117ac4282f70286148e", "input": "Passage: Climate is the most important factor in determining the type of soil that forms in a particular area. Answer: climate", "output": [ "What is the most important factor in determining the type of soil that forms in a particular area?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5b6a7e0ee09045bcb74643d87b55f296", "input": "Passage: The frequency , , is the number of cycles an object or wave goes through in 1 second. Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz). 1 Hz = 1 cycle per sec. Answer: hertz", "output": [ "In what unit is frequency measured in?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4d7c3341e92d429888b3cdf38ca5704d", "input": "Passage: Earth has a tremendous amount of water. So why is water sometimes a scarce resource?. Answer: the female reproductive system", "output": [ "Where does the development of a fetus take place?" ] }, { "id": "task594-26ad5709ab804159bd468fa5f782e809", "input": "Passage: Skin is made up of two layers, the epidermis on top and the dermis below. The tissue below the dermis is called the hypodermis, but it is not part of the skin. Answer: epidermis and dermis", "output": [ "What two layers is the skin made of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-64a91bde9ac145fcb2c40fd02f619f69", "input": "Passage: An electromagnetic wave begins when an electrically charged particle vibrates. The Figure below shows how this happens. A vibrating charged particle causes the electric field surrounding it to vibrate as well. A vibrating electric field, in turn, creates a vibrating magnetic field. The two types of vibrating fields combine to create an electromagnetic wave. You can see animations of electromagnetic waves at these URLs:. Answer: vibrating", "output": [ "Electromagnetic waves are generally caused by magnetic fields doing what (or moving in what way)?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fbeffe9f19144d1c8a64598b6d588370", "input": "Passage: Many of the higher neurological functions, such as memory, emotion, and consciousness, are the result of cerebral function. The complexity of the cerebrum is different across vertebrate species. The cerebrum of the most primitive vertebrates is not much more than the connection for the sense of smell. In mammals, the cerebrum comprises the outer gray matter that is the cortex (from the Latin word meaning “bark of a tree”) and several deep nuclei that belong to three important functional groups. The basal nuclei are responsible for cognitive processing, the most important function being that associated with planning movements. The basal forebrain contains nuclei that are important in learning and memory. The limbic cortex is the region of the cerebral cortex that is part of the limbic system, a collection of structures involved in emotion, memory, and behavior. Answer: nuclei", "output": [ "The basal forebrain contains what that are important in learning and memory?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3e01ed7c79364dcfb7d6ac0553a28517", "input": "Passage: The pioneer species is soon replaced by other populations. Abiotic factors such as soil quality, water, and climate will determine the species that continue the process of succession. Mosses and grasses will be able to grow in the newly created soil. During early succession, plant species like grasses that grow and reproduce quickly will take over the landscape. Over time, these plants improve the soil and a few shrubs can begin to grow. Slowly, the shrubs are replaced by small trees. Small trees then are succeeded by larger trees. Since trees are more successful at competing for resources than shrubs and grasses, a forest may be the end result of primary succession. Answer: primary succession", "output": [ "What's the term for the gradual progression from simple plants to larger more complex ones in an area?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e17ff07ebf434c4fa5ec73d4c888cde0", "input": "Passage: An object’s kinetic energy is the energy due to motion. Kinetic energy can be defined mathematically as. Answer: kinetic energy", "output": [ "An object's energy due to motion is known as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-37ca7369a5dc4216ada274be91473a9a", "input": "Passage: A final effect of this trapped radiation merits mention. Alpha decay produces helium nuclei, which form helium atoms when they are stopped and capture electrons. Most of the helium on Earth is obtained from wells and is produced in this manner. Any helium in the atmosphere will escape in geologically short times because of its high thermal velocity. What patterns and insights are gained from an examination of the binding energy of various nuclides? First, we find that BE is approximately proportional to the number of nucleons A in any nucleus. About twice as much energy is needed to pull apart a nucleus like 24 Mg compared with pulling apart 12 C , for example. To help us look at other effects, we divide BE by A and consider the binding energy per nucleon, BE / A . The graph of BE / A in Figure 31.27 reveals some very interesting aspects of nuclei. We see that the binding energy per nucleon averages about 8 MeV, but is lower for both the lightest and heaviest nuclei. This overall trend, in which nuclei with A equal to about 60 have the greatest BE / A and are thus the most tightly bound, is due to the combined characteristics of the attractive nuclear forces and the repulsive Coulomb force. It is especially important to note two things—the strong nuclear force is about 100 times stronger than the Coulomb force, and the nuclear forces are shorter in range compared to the Coulomb force. So, for low-mass nuclei, the nuclear attraction dominates and each added nucleon forms bonds with all others, causing progressively heavier nuclei to have progressively greater values of BE / A . This continues up to A ≈ 60 , roughly corresponding to the mass number of iron. Beyond that, new nucleons added to a nucleus will be too far from some others to feel their nuclear attraction. Added protons, however, feel the repulsion of all other protons, since the Coulomb force is longer in range. Coulomb repulsion grows for progressively heavier nuclei, but nuclear attraction remains about the same, and so BE / A becomes smaller. This is why stable nuclei heavier than A ≈ 40 have more neutrons than protons. Coulomb repulsion is reduced by having more neutrons to keep the protons farther apart (see Figure 31.28). Answer: alpha decay", "output": [ "What decay produces helium nuclei?" ] }, { "id": "task594-58bb1eb8c3ac4557999b95b0b10c74cb", "input": "Passage: symbiotic relationship in which one species benefits while the other species is harmed. Answer: symbiotic relationship", "output": [ "What is the term for the relationship in which one species benefits while the other species is harmed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c3507761c03b41008d3d3fb1a03b5f23", "input": "Passage: In some parts of the world, insects are used for food by humans. Insects are a rich source of protein, vitamins, and minerals, and are prized as delicacies in many third-world countries. In fact, it is difficult to find an insect that is not eaten in one form or another by people. Among the most popular are cicadas, locusts, mantises, grubs, caterpillars, crickets, ants, and wasps. Many people support this idea to provide a source of protein in human nutrition. From South America to Japan, people eat roasted insects, like grasshoppers or beetles. Answer: insects", "output": [ "Rich in protein and nutrients, what abundant group of organisms is being touted as an important human dietary source?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6071ac5057a040f9b1b6163e68eb5637", "input": "Passage: Maps can often be used to measure distance. The map in the Figure below shows the route from Jordan’s house to his school. You can use the scale at the bottom of the map to measure the distance between these two points. Answer: maps", "output": [ "What can often be used to measure distance?" ] }, { "id": "task594-19be5aced0a7428b8e41e13964387482", "input": "Passage: Individual torques are determined by multiplying the force applied by the perpendicular component of the moment arm. Answer: torques", "output": [ "By multiplying the force applied by the perpendicular component of the moment arm,what is determined?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1a48658360154d32b63c036e2292368d", "input": "Passage: Your large intestine is not just made up of cells. It is also an ecosystem , home to trillions of bacteria known as the \"gut flora\" ( Figure below ). But don't worry, most of these bacteria are helpful. Friendly bacteria live mostly in the large intestine and part of the small intestine. The acidic environment of the stomach does not allow bacterial growth. Answer: stomach", "output": [ "Friendly bacteria live mostly in the large intestine and part of the small intestine, because what organ is too acidic?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d7edbfd9ba64430eb5301a5edb417ceb", "input": "Passage: Unit cells occur in many different varieties. As one example, the cubic crystal system is composed of three different types of unit cells: (1) simple cubic , (2) face-centered cubic , and (3) body-centered cubic . These are shown in three different ways in the Figure below . Answer: three", "output": [ "The cubic crystal system is composed of how many different types of unit cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-63a399c00623409bb27edce7550e25d4", "input": "Passage: Negative electrons are attracted to the positive nucleus. This force of attraction keeps electrons constantly moving around the nucleus. The region where an electron is most likely to be found is called an orbital. Answer: the orbital", "output": [ "What is the region called where an electron is most likely to be found?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f30ac5d5a7084eb1a94546a591b376ba", "input": "Passage: Enthalpy changes are measured by using calorimetry. Answer: calorimetry", "output": [ "Enthalpy changes are measured by using what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-568c040f07504c6db4a1dc0f34700259", "input": "Passage: Gas solubility decreases as the temperature increases. Answer: decreases", "output": [ "What happens to gas solubility as the temperature increases?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ed0f15b4c33b456ca33a11ffaf285a88", "input": "Passage: water that flows over the land from precipitation or melting snow or ice. Answer: water", "output": [ "What substance flows over the land from precipitation or melting snow or ice?" ] }, { "id": "task594-be56747d6b0a42e5979594b1c183c103", "input": "Passage: Amides are prepared by the reaction of a carboxylic acid with ammonia or an amine. Answer: carboxylic acid reaction", "output": [ "What kind of reaction is needed to prepare amides?" ] }, { "id": "task594-01ea197735e744ce9616d412ddb80bcb", "input": "Passage: The first case of West Nile virus in North America occurred in 1999. Within just a few years, the virus had spread throughout most of the United States. Birds as well as humans can be infected with the virus. Birds often fly long distances. This is one reason why West Nile virus spread so quickly. Answer: north america", "output": [ "Where did west nile first appear?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7bcc5b4e797f4c90aed574897b073a45", "input": "Passage: The plasma membranes of cells that specialize in absorption are folded into fingerlike projections called microvilli (singular = microvillus). This folding increases the surface area of the plasma membrane. Such cells are typically found lining the small intestine, the organ that absorbs nutrients from digested food. This is an excellent example of form matching the function of a structure. People with celiac disease have an immune response to gluten, which is a protein found in wheat, barley, and rye. The immune response damages microvilli, and thus, afflicted individuals cannot absorb nutrients. This leads to malnutrition, cramping, and diarrhea. Patients suffering from celiac disease must follow a gluten-free diet. Answer: gluten", "output": [ "People with celiac disease have an immune response to what, which ultimately leads to malnutrition, cramping, and diarrhea?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2fdbcaf6279c47ba9254e8db9f1a239f", "input": "Passage: All volcanoes share the same basic features. First, mantle rock melts. The molten rock collects in magma chambers that can be 160 kilometers (100 miles) beneath the surface. As the rock heats, it expands. The hot rock is less dense than the surrounding rock. The magma rises toward the surface through cracks in the crust. A volcanic eruption occurs when the magma reaches the surface. Lava can reach the surface gently or explosively. Answer: volcanic eruption", "output": [ "When magma reaches the surface through cracks in the earth's crust, what occurs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f27d107e59f8419dac225232828493da", "input": "Passage: The pancreas is a large gland located near the stomach. Hormones secreted by the pancreas include insulin. Insulin helps cells absorb glucose from the blood. It also stimulates the liver to take up and store excess glucose. Answer: insulin", "output": [ "Which hormone is secreted by the pancreas in a human body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-71da6505603047c4ba53c2a5d493f83f", "input": "Passage: There are a variety of types of mutations. Two major categories of mutations are germline mutations and somatic mutations. Answer: germline and somatic", "output": [ "What are two major categories of mutations?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8aad5a7133854c70bb4c187142e7860f", "input": "Passage: The Coriolis effect causes winds and currents to form circular patterns. The direction that they spin depends on the hemisphere that they are in. Answer: coriolis effect", "output": [ "What effect causes winds and currents to form circular patterns?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7ee5fae122334a449393294e2812f08b", "input": "Passage: Two species may often interact with each other and have a close relationship. Examples include flowers and the animals that pollinate them. When one of the two species evolves new traits, the other species may evolve matching traits. This is called coevolution . You can see an example of this in Figure below . The very long beak of this hummingbird co-evolved with the tubular flowers it pollinates. Only this species of hummingbird can reach nectar deep in the flowers. Answer: coevolution", "output": [ "What is it called when two species evolve matching traits?" ] }, { "id": "task594-87f07889a40c49ffa3dfe3eda4178aa0", "input": "Passage: Introduction The word fungus comes from the Latin word for mushrooms. Indeed, the familiar mushroom is a reproductive structure used by many types of fungi. However, there are also many fungi species that don't produce mushrooms at all. Being eukaryotes, a typical fungal cell contains a true nucleus and many membrane-bound organelles. The kingdom Fungi includes an enormous variety of living organisms collectively referred to as Eucomycota, or true Fungi. While scientists have identified about 100,000 species of fungi, this is only a fraction of the 1.5 million species of fungus likely present on Earth. Edible mushrooms, yeasts, black mold, and the producer of the antibiotic penicillin, Penicillium notatum, are all members of the kingdom Fungi, which belongs to the domain Eukarya. Fungi, once considered plant-like organisms, are more closely related to animals than plants. Fungi are not capable of photosynthesis: they are heterotrophic because they use complex organic compounds as sources of energy and carbon. Some fungal organisms multiply only asexually, whereas others undergo both asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction with alternation of generations. Most fungi produce a large number of spores, which are haploid cells that can undergo mitosis to form multicellular, haploid individuals. Like bacteria, fungi play an essential role in ecosystems because they are decomposers and participate in the cycling of nutrients by breaking down organic materials to simple molecules. Fungi often interact with other organisms, forming beneficial or mutualistic associations. For example most terrestrial plants form symbiotic relationships with fungi. The roots of the plant connect with the underground parts of the fungus forming mycorrhizae. Through mycorrhizae, the fungus and plant exchange nutrients and water, greatly aiding the survival of both species Alternatively, lichens are an association between a fungus and its photosynthetic partner (usually an alga). Fungi also cause serious infections in plants and animals. For example, Dutch elm disease, which is caused by the fungus Ophiostoma ulmi, is a particularly devastating type of fungal infestation that destroys many native species of elm (Ulmus sp. ) by infecting the tree’s vascular system. The elm bark beetle acts as a vector, transmitting the disease from tree to tree. Answer: mushroom", "output": [ "The word fungus comes from the latin word for what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-77dd1de3cae54f609d3bf22cf1b015e4", "input": "Passage: Sulfuric acid is produced in extremely large quantities in the United States (about 40 million tons/year). This material is manufactured by oxidizing sulfur to form sulfur trioxide. The SO 3 is then dissolved in water to form the sulfuric acid. Most of the sulfuric acid produced is used in fertilizers. This acid is also found in lead-acid car batteries. Answer: water", "output": [ "What is sulfur trioxide dissolved in to form sulfuric acid?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5a73b2915bcb45fc99bdf9c953314700", "input": "Passage: Electromagnetism is magnetism produced by an electric current. Current flowing through a wire creates a magnetic field that surrounds the wire in concentric circles. Answer: electromagnetism", "output": [ "What is magnetism produced by an electrical current?" ] }, { "id": "task594-848602b03d1c41159c38b7165ce8ae13", "input": "Passage: Plate movements cause continents to drift closer to the poles or the equator. Ocean currents also shift when continents drift. All these changes can affect Earth’s temperature. Answer: plate movements", "output": [ "What causes continents to drift closer to the poles or the equator?" ] }, { "id": "task594-89d8171c49f04912b2583588050b24ed", "input": "Passage: 41.4 | Nitrogenous Wastes By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Compare and contrast the way in which aquatic animals and terrestrial animals can eliminate toxic ammonia from their systems • Compare the major byproduct of ammonia metabolism in vertebrate animals to that of birds, insects, and reptiles Of the four major macromolecules in biological systems, both proteins and nucleic acids contain nitrogen. During the catabolism, or breakdown, of nitrogen-containing macromolecules, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are extracted and stored in the form of carbohydrates and fats. Excess nitrogen is excreted from the body. Nitrogenous wastes tend to form toxic ammonia, which raises the pH of body fluids. The formation of ammonia itself requires energy in the form of ATP and large quantities of water to dilute it out of a biological system. Animals that live in aquatic environments tend to release ammonia into the water. Animals that excrete ammonia are said to be ammonotelic. Terrestrial organisms have evolved other mechanisms to excrete nitrogenous wastes. The animals must detoxify ammonia by converting it into a relatively nontoxic form such as urea or uric acid. Mammals, including humans, produce urea, whereas reptiles and many terrestrial. Answer: ammonotelic", "output": [ "What term is used to describe animals that excrete ammonia?" ] }, { "id": "task594-70b0d878efb241038df955473f2bd65b", "input": "Passage: Electromagnetic radiation is energy transmitted as waves with different wavelengths. This makes up the electromagnetic spectrum. Answer: electromagnetic radiation in different wavelengths", "output": [ "What is transmitted that makes up the electromagnetic spectrum?" ] }, { "id": "task594-be7ace0f01174d04bf042f78f8af1138", "input": "Passage: Renewable energy resources include solar, water, wind, biomass, and geothermal power. These resources are usually replaced at the same rate that we use them. Scientists know that the Sun will continue to shine for billions of years. So we can use the solar energy without it ever running out. Water flows from high places to lower ones. Wind blows from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. We can use the flow of wind and water to generate power. We can count on wind and water to continue to flow! Burning wood ( Figure below ), is an example of biomass energy. Changing grains into biofuels is biomass energy. Biomass is renewable because we can plant new trees or crops to replace the ones we use. Geothermal energy uses water that was heated by hot rocks. There are always more hot rocks available to heat more water. Answer: renewable", "output": [ "Biomass, solar, wind, water, and geothermal power are examples of what kinds of energy resources?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e357c3cd2e164efb9b0088950ea6f1a3", "input": "Passage: The alkaline earth metals include beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, and barium. Strontium and barium react with air and must be stored in oil. Answer: alkaline earth metals", "output": [ "Beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, and barium are classified as what type of metals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-db8ebfaadb04492297ed4cd39ea130ce", "input": "Passage: Supercritical Fluids If we place a sample of water in a sealed container at 25 °C, remove the air, and let the vaporization-condensation equilibrium establish itself, we are left with a mixture of liquid water and water vapor at a pressure of 0.03 atm. A distinct boundary between the more dense liquid and the less dense gas is clearly observed. As we increase the temperature, the pressure of the water vapor increases, as described by the liquid-gas curve in the phase diagram for water (Figure 10.31), and a two-phase equilibrium of liquid and gaseous phases remains. At a temperature of 374 °C, the vapor pressure has risen to 218 atm, and any further increase in temperature results in the disappearance of the boundary between liquid and vapor phases. All of the water in the container is now present in a single phase whose physical properties are intermediate between those of the gaseous and liquid states. This phase of matter is called a supercritical fluid, and the temperature and pressure above which this phase exists is the critical point (Figure 10.35). Above its critical temperature, a gas cannot be liquefied no matter how much pressure is applied. The pressure required to liquefy a gas at its critical temperature is called the critical pressure. The critical temperatures and critical pressures of some common substances are given in Table 10.3. Substance. Answer: supercritical fluid", "output": [ "What phase exists when all the water in a container has physical properties intermediate between those of the gaseous and liquid states?" ] }, { "id": "task594-356993af8aff43068b07b0d5da74e91f", "input": "Passage: Monotremes reproduce by laying eggs. They have a cloaca instead of a uterus and vagina. The eggs pass through the opening of the cloaca. This form of reproduction is the least risky for the mother. However, eggs are harder to protect than is an embryo or a fetus in a pouch or uterus. Therefore, monotreme offspring may have a lower chance of surviving than the offspring of therian mammals. Answer: by laying eggs", "output": [ "How do basal mammals like monotreme reproduce?" ] }, { "id": "task594-64c08cb5a6bb4f79a76b6848f7483804", "input": "Passage: Fluid friction occurs in fluids, which are liquids or gases. Answer: liquid or gas", "output": [ "What two forms can fluids take?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d230d8535e824171b27b113333dbfd42", "input": "Passage: Sponges come in a variety of shapes and sizes. For example, they may be shaped like tubes, fans, cones, or just blobs. They range in diameter from about a centimeter (0.4 inches) to over a meter (3.3 feet). Many species live in colonies that may be quite large. Adult sponges are sessile. This means they are unable to move from place to place. Root-like projections anchor them to solid surfaces such as rocks and reefs. Answer: sponges", "output": [ "Root-like projections anchor adults of what colony-dwelling animals to solid surfaces such as rocks and reefs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d1de497aae404484a7103e05d4e8d134", "input": "Passage: Digestion consists of mechanical and chemical digestion. Mechanical digestion occurs in the mouth and stomach. Chemical digestion occurs mainly in the small intestine. The pancreas and liver secrete fluids that aid in digestion. Answer: small intestine", "output": [ "Where does chemical digestion mainly occur?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1b85c14480594db68ec87f376ea7b3b6", "input": "Passage: In vascular plants, the sporophyte generation is dominant. Answer: dominant", "output": [ "In vascular plants, the sporophyte generation is what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c66fbfde91864e7e852ca481895038e3", "input": "Passage: Each muscle fiber contains hundreds of organelles called myofibrils. Each myofibril is made up of two types of protein filaments: actin filaments, which are thinner, and myosin filaments, which are thicker. Actin filaments are anchored to structures called Z lines (see Figure below ). The region between two Z lines is called a sarcomere. Within a sarcomere, myosin filaments overlap the actin filaments. The myosin filaments have tiny structures called cross bridges that can attach to actin filaments. Answer: myofibrils", "output": [ "Each muscle fiber contains hundreds of organelles called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eaf40c5b74b14d6b9be35f18a8df6ee8", "input": "Passage: The two stages of photosynthesis are the light reactions and the Calvin cycle. Do you see how the two stages are related?. Answer: calvin cycle", "output": [ "The two stages of photosynthesis are the light reactions and what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ec92a161d9db4e85bdbb371655ee683b", "input": "Passage: Voltmeters measure the voltage drop across a resistor. Answer: voltage drop across a resistor", "output": [ "What do voltmeters measure?" ] }, { "id": "task594-29b436e8158e4ae5809e271f0319fab8", "input": "Passage: If someone asks you, “What is science?” you might say that it’s a bunch of facts and explanations. But that’s only part of the story. Science is a knowledge base. But science is also a way of learning about the world. Earth science is about our planet and its environments. Earth scientists study Earth’s surface and interior. They study why volcanoes erupt and why some places are mountainous and some are entirely flat. Some Earth scientists are interested in the weather. Others want to know about the oceans. There are even Earth scientists who apply what they know about Earth to learning about space. Some Earth scientists do a lot of their work in the field, as seen above. Answer: earth science", "output": [ "What branch of science aims to understand all about our planet and its environments?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c1d414d5a90a448a9621803efb6d3bcd", "input": "Passage: Direction is just as important as distance in describing motion. For example, if Mia told a friend how to reach the post office from her house, she couldn’t just say, \"go 3 kilometers. \" The friend might end up at the park instead of the post office. Mia would have to be more specific. She could say, \"go west for 2 kilometers and then go north for 1 kilometer. \" When both distance and direction are considered, motion is a vector. A vector is a quantity that includes both size and direction. A vector is represented by an arrow. The length of the arrow represents distance. The way the arrow points shows direction. The red arrows in Figure above are vectors for Mia’s route to the school and post office. If you want to learn more about vectors, watch the videos at these URLs:. Answer: direction", "output": [ "When describing motion, what factor is just as important as distance?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b3f9a5d8481e4fbbaa3dcbeafe67868c", "input": "Passage: Cells are organized into tissues, and tissues form organs. Answer: cells", "output": [ "Tissues are organized by what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6db627be682a4ebc9633e521570dd3e1", "input": "Passage: Since life began on Earth, there have been at least five major massive extinctions. Answer: five", "output": [ "How many major massive extinctions have been since life began on earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fd03c426c28b4789971089c4f009c33a", "input": "Passage: Lipids are organic compounds that consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are made up of fatty acids and other compounds. They provide cells with energy, store energy, and help form cell membranes. Answer: oxygen", "output": [ "Lipids are organic compounds that consist of carbon, hydrogen, and?" ] }, { "id": "task594-819dc835ac444b9aaffeef1204e91f40", "input": "Passage: Long bones are longer than they are wide and have a shaft and two ends. The diaphysis, or central shaft, contains bone marrow in a marrow cavity. The rounded ends, the epiphyses, are covered with articular cartilage and are filled with red bone marrow, which produces blood cells (Figure 38.17). Most of the limb bones are long bones—for example, the femur, tibia, ulna, and radius. Exceptions to this include the patella and the bones of the wrist and ankle. Answer: marrow", "output": [ "What is contained in the cavity of a long bone's central shaft?" ] }, { "id": "task594-aee009cd11ef48dd96ae1cecbf83037c", "input": "Passage: Gas exchange is the movement of oxygen into the blood and carbon dioxide out of the blood. Answer: carbon dioxide", "output": [ "In gas exchange, oxygen flows into the blood, and what flows out?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4722c4efb7f74cd19e6ee2699a4d0577", "input": "Passage: Most people think of opossums as scary creatures. Is this because they look kind of funny, walk kind of funny, have beady eyes and sharp teeth, and can emit a very foul odor? Maybe. But what is so different about opossums is that they are the only marsupial in North America. Answer: oppossum", "output": [ "What is the only marsupial in north america?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a47d0d0418a64bbfa36f1019ec0c03f5", "input": "Passage: Respiration is the process in which gases are exchanged between the body and the outside air. The lungs and other organs of the respiratory system bring oxygen into the body and release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Answer: respiration", "output": [ "What is the process in which gases are exchanged between the body and the outside air?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e6bd7771a3e4400aba9e2f88a1fcece2", "input": "Passage: Life Cycle of a Conifer Pine trees are conifers (cone bearing) and carry both male and female sporophylls on the same mature sporophyte. Therefore, they are monoecious plants. Like all gymnosperms, pines are heterosporous and generate two different types of spores: male microspores and female megaspores. In the male cones, or staminate cones, the microsporocytes give rise to pollen grains by meiosis. In the spring, large amounts of yellow pollen are released and carried by the wind. Some gametophytes will land on a female cone. Pollination is defined as the initiation of pollen tube growth. The pollen tube develops slowly, and the generative cell in the pollen grain divides into two haploid sperm cells by mitosis. At fertilization, one of the sperm cells will finally unite its haploid nucleus with the haploid nucleus of a haploid egg cell. Female cones, or ovulate cones, contain two ovules per scale. One megaspore mother cell, or megasporocyte, undergoes meiosis in each ovule. Three of the four cells break down; only a single surviving cell will develop into a female multicellular gametophyte, which encloses archegonia (an archegonium is a reproductive organ that contains a single large egg). Upon fertilization, the diploid egg will give rise to the embryo, which is enclosed in a seed coat of tissue from the parent plant. Fertilization and seed development is a long process in pine trees: it may take up to two years after pollination. The seed that is formed contains three generations of tissues: the seed coat that originates from the sporophyte tissue, the gametophyte that will provide nutrients, and the embryo itself. Answer: monoecious", "output": [ "Because conifers carry both male and female sporophylls on the same mature sporophyte, they are considered what type of plant?" ] }, { "id": "task594-321f5ee4ce9d46808aa91367f96e3f87", "input": "Passage: Plant-like protists are called algae. They include single-celled diatoms and multicellular seaweed. Answer: algae", "output": [ "What are plant-like protists called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4803480f7aac4b438692920b52b05b44", "input": "Passage: Fingernails and toenails consist of specialized epidermal cells that are filled with keratin . The keratin makes them tough and hard, which is important for the functions they serve. Fingernails prevent injury by forming protective plates over the ends of the fingers. They also enhance sensation by acting as a counterforce to the sensitive fingertips when objects are handled. Nails are similar to claws in other animals. They cover the tips of fingers and toes. Fingernails and toenails both grow from nail beds. As the nail grows, more cells are added at the nail bed. Older cells get pushed away from the nail bed and the nail grows longer. There are no nerve endings in the nail. Otherwise cutting your nails would hurt a lot!. Answer: keratin", "output": [ "What fills the epidermal cells that make up fingernails and toenails?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8887cb70967a452cb474fbd725094c15", "input": "Passage: Jason Hollinger. Liverworts with a flattened, ribbon-like body are called thallose liverworts . CC BY 2.0. Answer: thallose liverworts", "output": [ "What are liverworts with a flattened, ribbon-like body called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-390f237aca1d43abb868c4c00c383b5f", "input": "Passage: Momentum is a vector quantity that has the same direction as the velocity of the object. Answer: object ' s velocity", "output": [ "Momentum is a vector quantity that has the same direction as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9918b721f838445b95d44f72838fea51", "input": "Passage: Many mucous membranes are also covered with cilia. These are tiny, hair-like projections. Cilia move in waves and sweep mucus and trapped pathogens toward body openings. You can see this in the diagram in Figure below . When you clear your throat or blow your nose, you remove mucus and pathogens from your body. Answer: cilia", "output": [ "What are tiny, hair like projections?" ] }, { "id": "task594-912a9c4d339e4961b373bd85d00b0e9f", "input": "Passage: You know that ocean water is salty. How salty is it? What is the salinity of seawater? Average seawater is about 3.5% salt. The amount is different if there is a nearby source of freshwater. It is also different if there is a lot of evaporation in an area. How do you think these things affect seawater salinity? Seawater also contains other substances like sugars, acids, bases, and organic molecules. Answer: seawater", "output": [ "What water is about 3.5% salt?" ] }, { "id": "task594-23156685e06b4f379db86b1e28ee088b", "input": "Passage: Many species have a feeding structure, the radula , found only in mollusks. The radula can be thought of as a \"tongue-like\" structure. The radula is made mostly of chitin. Types of radulae range from structures used to scrape algae off of rocks to the beaks of squid and octopuses. Answer: chitin", "output": [ "What is the radula made mostly of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-aa0fbe2b1b8842dba7f227cd0e653d75", "input": "Passage: Francium has an atomic number of 87. Write the chemical equation for the alpha particle emission of 212Fr. What is the daughter isotope?. Answer: francium", "output": [ "Which element has atomic number 87?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8be90ae50bc24c8aad28e949b2e39d16", "input": "Passage: Photoautotrophs are cells that capture light energy, and use carbon dioxide as their carbon source. There are many photoautotrophic prokaryotes, which include cyanobacteria. Photoautotrophic prokaryotes use similar compounds to those of plants to trap light energy. Answer: photoautotrophs", "output": [ "What type of cells capture light energy, and use carbon dioxide as their carbon source?" ] }, { "id": "task594-96ac80f03d8e4e2b85669656391fb949", "input": "Passage: At the center of a hurricane is a small area where the air is calm and clear. This is the eye of the hurricane. The eye forms at the low-pressure center of the hurricane. You can see the eye of a hurricane in Figure below . Answer: eye", "output": [ "What do we call the center of a hurricane where the air is calm and clear?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9ea66c310ea44ce2a1dc15f4e0c0a695", "input": "Passage: The Sun is made mostly of plasma. Plasma is superheated gas with a positive electrical charge. Answer: plasma", "output": [ "What is defined as superheated gas with a positive electrical charge?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e3b8ff984cab479bb550f6d401f7363a", "input": "Passage: Why do satellites stay in orbit? Why don't they crash into Earth due to the planet's gravity? Newton’s law of universal gravitation describes what happens. Every object in the universe is attracted to every other object. Gravity makes an apple fall to the ground. Gravity also keeps you from floating away into the sky. Gravity holds the Moon in orbit around Earth. It keeps Earth in orbit around the Sun. Answer: gravity", "output": [ "What keeps earth in orbit around the sun?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f45f9dcd8be34080871cf43401988c09", "input": "Passage: Density is an expression of the mass of substance in terms of the volume occupied by the substance. Answer: density", "output": [ "What expresses the mass of substance in terms of the volume occupied by the substance?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2f66268ba9e4402184bdecb0ee4e296b", "input": "Passage: 10.4 | Cancer and the Cell Cycle By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Describe how cancer is caused by uncontrolled cell growth • Understand how proto-oncogenes are normal cell genes that, when mutated, become oncogenes • Describe how tumor suppressors function • Explain how mutant tumor suppressors cause cancer Cancer comprises many different diseases caused by a common mechanism: uncontrolled cell growth. Despite the redundancy and overlapping levels of cell cycle control, errors do occur. One of the critical processes monitored by the cell cycle checkpoint surveillance mechanism is the proper replication of DNA during the S phase. Even when all of the cell cycle controls are fully functional, a small percentage of replication errors (mutations) will be passed on to the daughter cells. If changes to the DNA nucleotide sequence occur within a coding portion of a gene and are not corrected, a gene mutation results. All cancers start when a gene mutation gives rise to a faulty protein that plays a key role in cell reproduction. The change in the cell that results from the malformed protein may be minor: perhaps a slight delay in the binding of Cdk to cyclin or an Rb protein that detaches from its target DNA while still phosphorylated. Even minor mistakes, however, may allow subsequent mistakes to occur more readily. Over and over, small uncorrected errors are passed from the parent cell to the daughter cells and amplified as each generation produces more non-functional proteins from uncorrected DNA damage. Eventually, the pace of the cell cycle speeds up as the effectiveness of the control and repair mechanisms decreases. Uncontrolled growth of the mutated cells outpaces the growth of normal cells in the area, and a tumor (“-oma”) can result. Answer: cancer", "output": [ "Uncontrolled cell growth can lead to tumors and what disease?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c2d548dcbf594a0f91876f26ae524346", "input": "Passage: Biological tissue consists primarily of water, which absorbs electromagnetic radiation in the infrared region of the spectrum. Suggest a plausible reason for using carbon dioxide lasers in surgery. Answer: water", "output": [ "What makes up most of biological tissues?" ] }, { "id": "task594-34d60e2b4df7441e95707b960b941b9d", "input": "Passage: Stems hold plants upright, bear leaves and other structures, and transport fluids between roots and leaves. Answer: stem", "output": [ "What basic structure holds plants upright, bears leaves and other structures, and transports fluids between roots and leaves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7d1e057c58aa4c38aef5c4abf5756d4c", "input": "Passage: Ungulates include hoofed animals, such as deer, sheep, goats, pigs, buffalo, elephants and giraffes ( Figure below ). These mammals use their hoofs to sustain their whole body weight while moving. Hoofs are formed by a thick nail rolled around the tip of the toe. Answer: ungulates", "output": [ "In the mammal family, what is the name for hoofed animals, such as deer, sheep, goats, pigs, buffalo, elephants and giraffes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-83472d600c024ced8566973424d850e8", "input": "Passage: This is a constellation, a pattern of stars in the night sky. This constellation is called Orion. The features you can see best are his belt and sword. You can see Orion's belt in the sky from many locations. These stars are very bright. For many constellations, the stars are not near each other. They just happen to appear near each other in our sky. Answer: constellation", "output": [ "What do you call a pattern of stars in the night sky?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c588aa4ca02a4f53be09b244159fffea", "input": "Passage: Plants have evolved three pathways for carbon fixation. Answer: three", "output": [ "How many pathways do plants have for carbon fixation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-10d4cab7da124a849392d664ec1f6923", "input": "Passage: In radio broadcasts, sounds are encoded in radio waves by changing either the amplitude (AM) or frequency (FM) of the waves. The encoded waves are broadcast from a tower and changed back to sounds by radio receivers. Answer: radio receivers", "output": [ "What changes encoded waves which are being broadcast into sounds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-64e253c4855a4c87a6d1ce276f97fa81", "input": "Passage: The alchemists were never successful in changing lead into gold. But modern nuclear physics can accomplish this task. Lead is subjected to nuclear bombardment in a particle accelerator. A small amount of gold can be obtained by this process. However, the cost of the procedure is far more than the amount of gold obtained. So the dream of the alchemists has never (and will never) come true. Answer: nuclear bombardment", "output": [ "Which procedure helps modern nuclear physics convert lead into gold?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dfdd8994d202455c80ed194a5ff9daa6", "input": "Passage: The human body radiates heat in the range of infrared light. Night goggles work by ‘seeing’ the infrared light emitted by our bodies. Answer: night goggles", "output": [ "What piece of technology can you use to see infrared light?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ac987d7b71b84fbcbf0c023b16468e34", "input": "Passage: Centripetal force is, simply, the force that causes centripetal acceleration. Objects that move in uniform circular motion all have an acceleration toward the center of the circle and therefore, they must also suffer a force toward the center of the circle. That force is the centripetal force. For orbiting satellites, such as the moon orbiting the earth or the earth orbiting the sun, the centripetal force is produced by gravity. When an Olympic hammer thrower whirls a massive ball on a chain, the centripetal force is created by the athlete and transmitted by the chain. Answer: gravity", "output": [ "What produces the centripetal force to keep the earth orbiting the sun?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0a7e0b79dae24099a8c1b965b2cdf9b7", "input": "Passage: Solar cells convert the energy in sunlight to electrical energy. They contain a material such as silicon that absorbs light energy and gives off electrons. The electrons flow and create electric current. Figure below and the animation at the URL below show how a solar cell uses light energy to produce electric current and power a light bulb. Many calculators and other devices are also powered by solar cells. Answer: electrical energy", "output": [ "What do solar cells convert the energy in sunlight into?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dd471ce81dd645b8a6e31d39794c1576", "input": "Passage: Macroevolution refers to much bigger evolutionary changes that result in new species. Macroevolution may happen:. Answer: macroevolution", "output": [ "What is the term for much bigger evolutionary changes that result in new species?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dc2f25786e7649e89c1305b9a3b6d75e", "input": "Passage: The electrochemical potential across a membrane determines the tendency of an ion to cross the membrane. The membrane may be that of a cell or organelle or other sub cellular compartment. The electrochemical potential arises from three factors:. Answer: cross the membrane", "output": [ "The electrochemical potential across a membrane determines the tendency of an ion to do what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-939e3ffa9bc94af394148b19059ad396", "input": "Passage: Electromagnetic radiation is energy that travels in waves across space as well as through matter. Most of the electromagnetic radiation on Earth comes from the sun. Like other waves, electromagnetic waves are characterized by certain wavelengths and wave frequencies. Wavelength is the distance between two corresponding points on adjacent waves. Wave frequency is the number of waves that pass a fixed point in a given amount of time. Electromagnetic waves with shorter wavelengths have higher frequencies and more energy. Answer: electromagnetic radiation", "output": [ "What type of energy travels in waves across space as well as through matter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-60a749e6e0104bb69f054575b2f244dc", "input": "Passage: Objects in motion that return to the same position after a fixed period of time are said to be in harmonic motion. Objects in harmonic motion have the ability to transfer some of their energy over large distances. They do so by creating waves in a medium. Imagine pushing up and down on the surface of a bathtub filled with water. Water acts as the medium that carries energy from your hand to the edges of the bathtub. Waves transfer energy over a distance without direct contact with the initial source. Since waves are disturbances in an existing medium, they are considered phenomena and not actual objects. Answer: harmonic motion", "output": [ "Objects in motion that return to the same position after a fixed period of time are said to be in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8c2ffed5cb694b968f6e4e168e7dab1a", "input": "Passage: The cell membrane is a thin coat of phospholipids that surrounds the cell. It’s like the “skin” of the cell. It forms a physical boundary between the contents of the cell and the environment outside the cell. It also controls what enters and leaves the cell. The cell membrane is sometimes called the plasma membrane. Answer: cell membrane", "output": [ "What is the thin coat of phospholipids that surrounds the cell and controls what enters and leaves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2f370d5bf32b4f7c8c4811ff35c590f0", "input": "Passage: In science, we need to make observations on various phenomena to form and test hypotheses. Some phenomena can be found and studied in nature, but scientists often need to create an experiment . Experiments are tests under controlled conditions designed to demonstrate something scientists already know or to test something scientists wish to know. Experiments vary greatly in their goal and scale, but always rely on repeatable procedure and logical analysis of the results. The process of designing and performing experiments is a part of the scientific method. Answer: hypotheses", "output": [ "In science, we need to make observations on various phenomena to form and test what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-105a139617864d56a792382d594695b9", "input": "Passage: Pictured below is a typical elliptical galaxy ( Figure below ). As you might have guessed, elliptical galaxies are elliptical, or egg-shaped. The smallest elliptical galaxies are as small as some globular clusters. Giant elliptical galaxies can contain over a trillion stars. Elliptical galaxies are reddish to yellowish in color because they contain mostly old stars. Answer: elliptical galaxies", "output": [ "What do you call egg-shaped galaxies, which are reddish to yellowish in color because they contain mostly old stars?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4fe4fd90b0814ca2932849dea510680f", "input": "Passage: Sedimentary rocks formed by the crystallization of chemical precipitates are called chemical sedimentary rocks . Dissolved ions in fluids precipitate out of the fluid and settle out, just like the halite pictured below ( Figure below ). Answer: chemical sedimentary", "output": [ "What rocks are formed by crystallization of chemical precipitates?" ] }, { "id": "task594-922ed93a596847069730d4c9c579cf03", "input": "Passage: An ionic bond is the force of attraction that holds together positive and negative ions. It forms when atoms of a metallic element give up electrons to atoms of a nonmetallic element. Figure below shows how this happens. Answer: ionic", "output": [ "What bond is the force of attraction that holds together positive and negative ions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9ba8a12754e84452945c3674d320b653", "input": "Passage: Therian mammals are viviparous. They give birth to an embryo or infant rather than laying eggs. The female reproductive system of a therian mammal includes a uterus and a vagina. There are two groups of therian mammals: placental mammals and marsupials. Answer: placental mammals and marsupials", "output": [ "What are the two groups of therian mammals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f5eb240226cc4bdaa21669e8cc5ff79c", "input": "Passage: cell depletion, organ system failure, and impaired tissue injury responses. Telomerase reactivation in these mice caused extension of telomeres, reduced DNA damage, reversed neurodegeneration, and improved the function of the testes, spleen, and intestines. Thus, telomere reactivation may have potential for treating age-related diseases in humans. Cancer is characterized by uncontrolled cell division of abnormal cells. The cells accumulate mutations, proliferate uncontrollably, and can migrate to different parts of the body through a process called metastasis. Scientists have observed that cancerous cells have considerably shortened telomeres and that telomerase is active in these cells. Interestingly, only after the telomeres were shortened in the cancer cells did the telomerase become active. If the action of telomerase in these cells can be inhibited by drugs during cancer therapy, then the cancerous cells could potentially be stopped from further division. Answer: cancer", "output": [ "What is characterized by uncontrolled cell division of abnormal cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a42b8f84ddf94abdb5926652b50395a0", "input": "Passage: Note Sometimes the word pure is added to substance, but this is not absolutely necessary. By definition, any single substance is pure. The smallest part of an element that maintains the identity of that element is called an atom. Atoms are extremely tiny; to make a line 1 inch long, you would need 217 million iron atoms. The smallest part of a compound that maintains the identity of that compound is called a molecule. Molecules are composed of atoms that are attached together and behave as a unit. Scientists usually work with millions and millions of atoms and molecules at a time. When a scientist is working with large numbers of atoms or molecules at a time, the scientist is studying the macroscopic view of the universe. However, scientists can also describe chemical events on the level of individual atoms or molecules, which is referred to as the microscopic viewpoint. We will see examples of Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: atom", "output": [ "The smallest part of an element that maintains the identity of that element is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-10d317072967470bae057412603ea3e5", "input": "Passage: Pollen is a tiny male gametophyte enclosed in a tough capsule. Pollen carries sperm to an ovule while preventing the sperm from drying out. Pollen grains can't swim, but they are very light, so the wind can carry them. Therefore, they can travel through air instead of water. Answer: pollen", "output": [ "What is the tiny male gametophyte enclosed in a tough capsule?" ] }, { "id": "task594-38b1598e674147e4b835bb0b30850d48", "input": "Passage: The back of the eye is covered by a thin layer called the retina. This is where the image of the object normally forms. The retina consists of special light-sensing cells called rods and cones. Rods sense dim light. Cones sense different colors of light. Answer: cones", "output": [ "The light-sensing cells in the retina are called rods and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5b019749f4b540ff843760909f345a82", "input": "Passage: Nerves of the Face and Oral Cavity An iconic part of a doctor’s visit is the inspection of the oral cavity and pharynx, suggested by the directive to “open your mouth and say ‘ah. ’” This is followed by inspection, with the aid of a tongue depressor, of the back of the mouth, or the opening of the oral cavity into the pharynx known as the fauces. Whereas this portion of a medical exam inspects for signs of infection, such as in tonsillitis, it is also the means to test the functions of the cranial nerves that are associated with the oral cavity. The facial and glossopharyngeal nerves convey gustatory stimulation to the brain. Testing this is as simple as introducing salty, sour, bitter, or sweet stimuli to either side of the tongue. The patient should respond to the taste stimulus before retracting the tongue into the mouth. Stimuli applied to specific locations on the tongue will dissolve into the saliva and may stimulate taste buds connected to either the left or right of the nerves, masking any lateral deficits. Along with taste, the glossopharyngeal nerve relays general sensations from the pharyngeal walls. These sensations, along with certain taste stimuli, can stimulate the gag reflex. If the examiner moves the tongue depressor to contact the lateral wall of the fauces, this should elicit the gag reflex. Stimulation of either side of the fauces should elicit an equivalent response. The motor response, through contraction of the muscles of the pharynx, is mediated through the vagus nerve. Normally, the vagus nerve is considered autonomic in nature. The vagus nerve directly stimulates the contraction of skeletal muscles in the pharynx and larynx to contribute to the swallowing and speech functions. Further testing of vagus motor function has the patient repeating consonant sounds that require movement of the muscles around the fauces. The patient is asked to say “lah-kah-. Answer: vagus nerve", "output": [ "Which nerve directly stimulates the contraction of skeletal muscles in the pharynx and larynx to contribute to the swallowing and speech functions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1e677992ebd54bd98646c3ac95d79186", "input": "Passage: Carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids contain energy. When your body digests food, it breaks down the molecules of these nutrients. This releases the energy so your body can use it. Answer: energy", "output": [ "When your body digests food, it breaks down the molecules of nutrients and releases what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cad9a9c861af44b2bd070cc862edf80f", "input": "Passage: Something that is elastic can return to its original shape after being stretched or compressed. This property is called elasticity . As you stretch or compress an elastic material like a bungee cord, it resists the change in shape. It exerts a counter force in the opposite direction. This force is called elastic force . The farther the material is stretched or compressed, the greater the elastic force becomes. As soon as the stretching or compressing force is released, elastic force causes the material to spring back to its original shape. You can watch a demonstration of elastic force at this URL:. Answer: elasticity", "output": [ "What property means that something can return to its original shape after being stretched or compressed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6780c8d03ea54898a889e78b538ba415", "input": "Passage: Extending from the upper corners of the uterus are the two fallopian tubes . Each tube reaches (but is not attached to) one of the ovaries. The ovary end of the tube has a fringelike structure that moves in waves. The motion sweeps eggs from the ovary into the tube. Answer: fallopian", "output": [ "What two tubes extend from the upper corners of the uterus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6fc5b54056db49c18ff976567f282b18", "input": "Passage: The first eight phyla listed in Table above include only invertebrate animals. Invertebrates are animals that lack a vertebral column , or backbone. The last phylum in the table, the Chordata, also includes many invertebrate species. Tunicates and lancelets are both invertebrates. Altogether, invertebrates make up at least 95 percent of all animal species. The remaining animals are vertebrates. Vertebrates are animals that have a backbone. All vertebrates belong to the phylum Chordata. They include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Answer: vertebrates", "output": [ "What is the name for animals that have a backbone?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dfa764fd19b84df496e7ad113d163747", "input": "Passage: The rocks in this photo of the Grand Canyon are all sedimentary. Hard rocks that are resistant to weathering form cliffs. Softer rocks that weather more easily form slopes. Answer: cliffs", "output": [ "In places like the grand canyon, hard rocks that are resistant to weathering form what, while softer rocks that weather more easily form slopes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3e24a4c827c24487bc3162eb1f935543", "input": "Passage: Light with the longest wavelengths is called infrared light . The term infrared means “below red. ” Infrared light is the range of light waves that have longer wavelengths and lower frequencies than red light in the visible range of light waves. The sun gives off infrared light as do flames and living things. You can’t see infrared light waves, but you can feel them as heat. But infrared cameras and night vision goggles can detect infrared light waves and convert them to visible images. For a deeper understanding of infrared light, watch the video at this URL: http://www. youtube. com/watch?v=2--0q0XlQJ0 . Answer: infrared light", "output": [ "Light with the longest wavelengths is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-27e206a756d0411798d69200250bba54", "input": "Passage: To understand the double slit interference pattern, we consider how two waves travel from the slits to the screen, as illustrated in Figure 27.13. Each slit is a different distance from a given point on the screen. Thus different numbers of wavelengths fit into each path. Waves start out from the slits in phase (crest to crest), but they may end up out of phase (crest to trough) at the screen if the paths differ in length by half a wavelength, interfering destructively as shown in Figure 27.13(a). If the paths differ by a whole wavelength, then the waves arrive in phase (crest to crest) at the screen, interfering constructively as shown in. Answer: constructive interference", "output": [ "What kind of interference is observed when the paths differ by a whole wavelength, and the waves arrive in phase?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f3c52828b00e42d9ad71ccf694d1e7cd", "input": "Passage: Brass saxophone: Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. It is softer than bronze and easier to shape. It's also very shiny. Notice the curved pieces in this shiny brass saxophone. Brass is used for shaping many other curved objects, such as doorknobs and plumbing fixtures. Stainless steel sink: Stainless steel is a type of steel that contains nickel and chromium in addition to carbon and iron. It is shiny, strong, and resistant to rusting. This makes it useful for sinks, eating utensils, and other objects that are exposed to water. \"Gold\" bracelet: Pure gold is relatively soft, so it is rarely used for jewelry. Most \"gold\" jewelry is actually made of an alloy of gold, copper and silver. Bronze statue: Bronze was the first alloy ever made. The earliest bronze dates back many thousands of years. Bronze is a mixture of copper and tin. Both copper and tin are relatively soft metals, but mixed together in bronze they are much harder. Bronze has been used for statues, coins, and other objects. Answer: brass", "output": [ "What alloy is made from copper and zinc?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d419cd3f121f42d898d47e025a630a84", "input": "Passage: The study of the Universe is called cosmology . Cosmologists study the structure and changes in the present Universe. The Universe contains all of the star systems, galaxies, gas, and dust, plus all the matter and energy that exists now. Plus all that existed in the past, and all that will exist in the future. The Universe includes all of space and time. Answer: cosmology", "output": [ "What branch of science is the study of the universe, not of cosmetics?" ] }, { "id": "task594-428ebeaac75f47418309b43c0b4c2419", "input": "Passage: Arachnids do not have antennae or wings. Answer: arachnids", "output": [ "While similar to insects, what eight-legged invertebrates lack antennae or wings?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4e0fe2622c024402bbf17b9ab02b766e", "input": "Passage: Luster describes the way light reflects off of the surface of the mineral. You might describe diamonds as sparkly or pyrite as shiny. But mineralogists have special terms to describe luster. They first divide minerals into metallic and non-metallic luster. Minerals that are opaque and shiny, like pyrite, are said to have a “metallic” luster. Minerals with a “non-metallic” luster do not look like metals. There are many types of non-metallic luster. Six are described below ( Table below ). Answer: luster", "output": [ "What describes the way light reflects off of the surface of the mineral?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ca1729f051984efba3548ec1873eb9a2", "input": "Passage: There are three flat skeletal muscles in the antero-lateral wall of the abdomen. The external oblique, closest to the surface, extend inferiorly and medially, in the direction of sliding one’s four fingers into pants pockets. Perpendicular to it is the intermediate internal oblique, extending superiorly and medially, the direction the thumbs usually go when the other fingers are in the pants pocket. The deep muscle, the transversus abdominis, is arranged transversely around the abdomen, similar to the front of a belt on a pair of pants. This arrangement of three bands of muscles in different orientations allows various movements and rotations of the trunk. The three layers of muscle also help to protect the internal abdominal organs in an area where there is no bone. The linea alba is a white, fibrous band that is made of the bilateral rectus sheaths that join at the anterior midline of the body. These enclose the rectus abdominis muscles (a pair of long, linear muscles, commonly called the “sit-up” muscles) that originate at the pubic crest and symphysis, and extend the length of the body’s trunk. Each muscle is segmented by three transverse bands of collagen fibers called the tendinous intersections. This results in the look of “six-pack abs,” as each segment hypertrophies on individuals at the gym who do many sit-ups. The posterior abdominal wall is formed by the lumbar vertebrae, parts of the ilia of the hip bones, psoas major and iliacus muscles, and quadratus lumborum muscle. This part of the core plays a key role in stabilizing the rest of the body and maintaining posture. Answer: abdomen", "output": [ "There are three flat skeletal muscles in the antero-lateral wall of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fb5256de451c4d3b8c20b94eed4f7158", "input": "Passage: An anticline is a fold that arches upward. The rocks dip away from the center of the fold ( Figure below ). The oldest rocks are found at the center of an anticline. The youngest rocks are draped over them at the top of the structure. When upward folding rocks form a circular structure, that structure is called a dome . If the top of the dome is eroded off, the oldest rocks are exposed at the center. Answer: anticline", "output": [ "What is the term for a fold that arches upward?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5519a5d7ae05479f9ed65b04f65a5b73", "input": "Passage: A drug known as RhoGAM, short for Rh immune globulin, can temporarily prevent the development of Rh antibodies in the Rh− mother, thereby averting this potentially serious disease for the fetus. RhoGAM antibodies destroy any fetal Rh+ erythrocytes that may cross the placental barrier. RhoGAM is normally administered to Rh− mothers during weeks 26−28 of pregnancy and within 72 hours following birth. It has proven remarkably effective in decreasing the incidence of HDN. Earlier we noted that the incidence of HDN in an Rh+ subsequent pregnancy to an Rh− mother is about 13–14 percent without preventive treatment. Since the introduction of RhoGAM in 1968, the incidence has dropped to about 0.1 percent in the United States. Answer: placental", "output": [ "Rh antibodies can prove dangerous if they cross what barrier in pregnancy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9d3a1ee9265940b69d1e3bb380589b49", "input": "Passage: There are many different types of symbiotic interactions between organisms. Clockwise from top left: Escherichia coli bacteria live inside your intestines in a mutualistic relationship: the bacteria produce Vitamin K for you, and they get their food from what you eat. Clownfish that live among the tentacles of sea anemones protect the anemone from anemone-eating fish, and in turn the stinging tentacles of the anemone protect the clownfish from its predators (a special mucus on the clownfish protects it from the stinging tentacles). Similar to the E. coli , this bee has a mutualistic relationship with the flower, the bee feeds from the flower, and the flower gets pollinated by the bee. Lions are predators that feed on other organisms such as this Cape buffalo. Answer: your intestines", "output": [ "In what part of the body do escherichia coli bacteria live?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f4f8b76263ef4adeb3d08299e4782265", "input": "Passage: It may be logical to assume that the electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride, called brine , would yield the same result through the same reactions as the process in molten NaCl. However, the reduction reaction that occurs at the cathode does not produce sodium metal because the water is reduced instead. This is because the reduction potential for water is only -0.83 V compared to -2.71 V for the reduction of sodium ions. This makes the reduction of water preferable because its reduction potential is less negative. Chlorine gas is still produced at the anode, just as in the electrolysis of molten NaCl. Answer: at the anode", "output": [ "Where is chlorine gas produced?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cea55ba57d3447f2909adc0a7a870dd4", "input": "Passage: Unsaturated hydrocarbons called aromatic hydrocarbons are cyclic hydrocarbons that have double bonds. These compounds have six carbon atoms in a ring with alternating single and double bonds. The smallest aromatic hydrocarbon is benzene, which has just one ring. Its structural formula is shown in the Figure below . Larger aromatic hydrocarbons consist of two or more rings, which are joined together by bonds between their carbon atoms. The name of aromatic hydrocarbons comes from their strong aroma, or scent. That’s why they are used in air fresheners and mothballs. You can learn more about these interesting hydrocarbons at this URL:. Answer: benzene", "output": [ "What is the smallest aromatic hydrocarbon?" ] }, { "id": "task594-019990bd244a48ad93f94b90483dc5b8", "input": "Passage: Frogs and toads are adapted for jumping. Salamanders and newts may walk or swim. Caecilians live in the water or soil and are the only amphibians without legs. Answer: caecilians", "output": [ "What is the only amphibian without legs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6ec65c52e71a402bb5be10f84a3bd73b", "input": "Passage: A: Like the strings of cello, anything that vibrates produces waves of energy that travel through matter. For example, when you throw a pebble into a pond, waves of energy travel from the pebble through the water in all directions. Like an incandescent light bulb, anything that glows consists of matter that produces light energy. For example, fireflies use chemicals to produce light energy. Like a moving tennis racket, anything that moves has energy because it is moving, including your eyes as they read this sentence. Answer: energy", "output": [ "Like the strings of cello, anything that vibrates produces waves of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-02889b4fbf294851abed6849b9e527fa", "input": "Passage: If heated water is released into a body of water, it may cause thermal pollution. Thermal pollution is a reduction in the quality of water because of an increase in water temperature. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and factories. This water is heated and then returned to the natural environment at a higher temperature. Answer: thermal pollution", "output": [ "What happens when heated water is released into a body of water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-04ce4dfe9ec448cf84ee0cbc06aede77", "input": "Passage: Fermat’s Principle states that light will always take the path of least amount of time (not distance). This principle governs the paths light will take and explains the familiar phenomena of reflection, refraction, lenses and diffraction. Light rarely travels in a straight-line path. When photons interact with electrons in matter the time it takes for this interaction determines the path. For example, higher frequency blue light is refracted more than red because blue wavelengths interacts more frequently with electrons than red wavelengths and the path of least time is for blue to bend more then red in order to get out of this ‘slow’ area faster. The rainbows we see are a result of this. Fermat’s Principle explains the many fascinating phenomena of light from rainbows to sunsets to the haloes around the moon. Answer: time", "output": [ "Fermat’s principle states that light will always take the path of least amount of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ce19d3037f6a4b6c82fa9c5d3cc63ab0", "input": "Passage: In biological systems, matter is continuously changing states as well. For example, carbon in the form of the gas carbon dioxide is changed into glucose, a solid. This change, of course, occurs during photosynthesis. During cellular respiration, carbons from the glucose molecule are changed back into the carbon dioxide gas. Answer: carbon dioxide", "output": [ "During cellular respiration, carbons from the glucose molecule are changed back into what gas?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8c068a2d2a74495ba6feffebd0a7d10a", "input": "Passage: This image depicts a true wonder of nature. This tiny human sperm is penetrating a much larger egg. These two cells will unite to become a brand new human being. The process in which they unite is called fertilization. Answer: fertilization", "output": [ "The process in which a sperm unites with an egg is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f229dde2a46e4b438f35c9561863e895", "input": "Passage: The urinary system controls the amount of water in the body and removes wastes. Any problem with the urinary system can also affect many other body systems. Answer: urinary system", "output": [ "Which human body system controls the amount of water in the body and removes wastes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4e94fc153a324bd7911e5182a83b09e9", "input": "Passage: More than 1000 different enzymes are necessary for human life. Many enzymes are needed for the digestion of food. Two examples are amylase and pepsin. Both are described in the Figure below . Answer: digestion", "output": [ "Amylase and pepsin are examples of enzymes needed for what process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-841404f4b67a4f3f8d190ca5437d0210", "input": "Passage: The optic nerve carries electrical signals from the rods and cones to the brain. Answer: optic", "output": [ "Which nerve carries electrical signals from the rods and cones to the brain?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c85e493f3fd343c6a569b33ace8c78e5", "input": "Passage: 15.4 Alterations of chromosome number or structure cause some genetic disorders. Answer: alterations of chromosome", "output": [ "What causes genetic disorders in humans?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9b8175c61a704908a0c81e1923dc1a31", "input": "Passage: Courtesy of Dr. Triche and the National Cancer Institute. Lymphocytes are the key cells of an immune response . Public Domain. Answer: lymphocytes", "output": [ "What are the key cells of an immune response?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8d47a6859cf84015817755431ffe59c5", "input": "Passage: Pigments are substances that color materials by reflecting light of certain wavelengths and absorbing light of other wavelengths. The primary pigment colors are cyan, yellow, and magenta. They can be combined to produce all other colors. Answer: cyan, yellow, magenta", "output": [ "What are the three primary pigment colors?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0f30e19da6f64bc5960f6332e7ab5729", "input": "Passage: In some cases, a population of one species disperses throughout an area, and each finds a distinct niche or isolated habitat. Over time, the varied demands of their new lifestyles lead to multiple speciation events originating from a single species, which is called adaptive radiation. From one point of origin, many adaptations evolve causing the species to radiate into several new ones. Island archipelagos like the Hawaiian Islands provide an ideal context for adaptive radiation events because water surrounds each island, which leads to geographical isolation for many organisms (Figure 11.16). The Hawaiian honeycreeper illustrates one example of adaptive radiation. From a single species, called the founder species, numerous species have evolved, including the eight shown in Figure 11.16. Answer: founder", "output": [ "In adaptive radiation, what is the name of the initial species that then subsequently becomes multiple other ones?" ] }, { "id": "task594-acbbd24cc3fe48b1b0d036c09ccbe8ee", "input": "Passage: Producing light without a high temperature is called luminescence. Types of luminescence include fluorescence, electroluminescence, and bioluminescence. Answer: luminescence", "output": [ "Producing light without a high temperature is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8b7601e13e5a4507ae05c5d839ce3da7", "input": "Passage: The ion concentration of neutral, pure water gives water a pH of 7 and sets the standard for defining acids and bases. Acids have a pH lower than 7, and bases have a pH higher than 7. Answer: seven", "output": [ "What is the ph level of neutral, pure water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c1c1d69798f4469cb70a322f33551fb5", "input": "Passage: Plastids are membrane-bound organelles with their own DNA. Examples are chloroplasts and chromoplasts. Chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll and carry out photosynthesis. Chromoplasts make and store other pigments. They give flower petals their bright colors. Answer: plastids", "output": [ "Chloroplasts and chromoplasts are examples of which membrane bound organelle containing their own dna?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e16358eb9a05414a9bc3fbaba0cfaa23", "input": "Passage: The symbol represents an electron whose charge corresponds to and since it has no nucleons, . It must be carefully noted that the electron released during beta decay is NOT an orbital electron but an electron whose origin was in the nucleus. The process has one neutron becoming one proton and one electron and the electron being emitted as a beta particle. Since a neutron has been lost AND a proton has been gained, the mass number does not change. The atomic number, however, has increased one due to the gain of a proton. Therefore, as a result of beta decay, the daughter product will have the same mass number as the parent and an atomic number one greater than the parent. Answer: in the nucleus", "output": [ "The electron released during beta decay is not an orbital electron but an electron whose origin was where?" ] }, { "id": "task594-190f4586431449e9bd1c5357f705b844", "input": "Passage: Water is needed by all known forms of life. Answer: water", "output": [ "What is needed by all known forms of life?" ] }, { "id": "task594-01fe28999d424c43ad032a2b4e8803ce", "input": "Passage: Valence electrons are the outer-shell electrons of an atom. Answer: valence electrons", "output": [ "What are the outer-shell electrons of an atom called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-20ab2edc88534579afb90bd4473183f2", "input": "Passage: When lactose is present, the repressor protein does not bind to the operator. This allows RNA polymerase to bind to the promoter and begin transcription. As a result, the lac genes are expressed, and lactose is digested. Answer: nonbinding of repressor protein", "output": [ "When lactose is present in the cell, what allows the lac genes to be expressed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5b79c8dac60149198bfda312a1489631", "input": "Passage: membrane gradients was known, Mitchell proposed that energy captured through the absorption of light (by phototrophs) or the breakdown of molecules into more stable molecules (by various types of chemotrophs) relied on the same basic (homologous) mechanism, namely the generation of H+ gradients across membranes (the plasma membrane in prokaryotes or the internal membranes of mitochondria or chloroplasts (intracellular organelles, derived from bacteria – see below) in eukaryotes. What makes us think that these processes might have a similar evolutionary root, that they are homologous? Basically, it is the observation that in both light- and chemical-based processes captured energy is transferred through the movement of electrons through a membrane-embedded “electron transport chain”. An electron transport chain involves a series of membrane and associated proteins and a series of reduction-oxidation or redox reactions (see below) during which electrons move from a high energy donor to a lower energy acceptor. Some of the energy difference between the two is used to move H+ ions across a membrane, generating a H+ concentration gradient. Subsequently the thermodynamically favorable movement of H+ down this concentration gradient (across the membrane) is used to drive ATP synthesis, a thermodynamically unfavorable process. ATP synthesis itself involves the rotating ATP synthase. The reaction can be written: H+outside + ADP + Pi ATP + H2O + H+inside, where “inside” and “outside” refer to compartments defined by the membrane containing the electron transport chain and the ATP synthase. Again, this reaction can run backwards. When this occurs, the ATP synthase acts as an ATPase (ATP hydrolase) that can pump H+ (or other molecules) against its concentration gradient. Such pumping ATPases establishes most biologically important molecular gradients across membranes. In such a reaction: ATP + H2O + molecule in low concentration region ADP + Pi + molecule in low concentration region. The most important difference between phototrophs and chemotrophs is how high energy electrons enter the electron transport chain. Oxygenic photosynthesis Compared to the salt loving archaea Halobium with its purple bacteriorhodopin-rich membranes, photosynthetic cyanobacteria (which are true bacteria), green algae, and higher plants (both eukaryotes) use more complex molecular systems through which to capture and utilize light. In all of these organisms, their photosynthetic systems appear to be homologous, that is derived from a common ancestor, a topic we will return to later in this chapter. For simplicity’s sake we will describe the photosynthetic system of cyanobacterium; the system in eukaryotic algae and plants, while more complex, follows the same basic logic. At this point, we consider only one aspect of this photosynthetic system, known as the oxygenic or non-cyclic system (look to more advanced classes for more details. ) The major pigment in this system, chlorophyll, is based on a complex molecule, a porphyrin (see above) and it is primarily these pigments that give plants their green color. As in the case of retinal, they absorb visible light due to the presence of a conjugated bonding structure (drawn as a series of alternating single and double) carbon-carbon bonds. Chlorophyll is synthesized by a conserved biosynthetic pathway that is also used to synthesize heme, which is found in the hemoglobin of animals and in the cytochromes, within the electron transport chain present in both plants and animals (which. Answer: chlorophyll", "output": [ "What major pigment in the photosynthetic system is based on a complex molecule and gives plants their green color?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f524b3eaef044dceaf944e98a8865738", "input": "Passage: Because chemical changes result in different substances, they often cannot be undone. Some chemical changes can be reversed, but only by other chemical changes. Answer: another chemical change", "output": [ "By what kind of change can a chemical change be reversed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-03fdaa1775544873b9be5c58adb8444d", "input": "Passage: Meiosis I begins after DNA replicates during interphase of the cell cycle. In both meiosis I and meiosis II , cells go through the same four phases as mitosis - prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. However, there are important differences between meiosis I and mitosis. The eight stages of meiosis are summarized below. The stages will be described for a human cell, starting with 46 chromosomes. Answer: dna", "output": [ "What must replicate in the cell cycle before meiosis i takes place?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a2339e9be12746fe87797ceeefee60e6", "input": "Passage: 23.4 Natural selection is the only mechanism that consistently causes adaptive evolution. Answer: natural selection", "output": [ "What is the only mechanism that consistently causes adaptive evolution?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2cca9cf7aead4ab88b5404a38412cbd5", "input": "Passage: Ancestors of mammals evolved close to 300 million years ago. They were amniotes called synapsids. Figure below shows how modern mammals evolved from synapsids. The stages of evolution from synapsids to mammals are described below. Answer: 300 million years", "output": [ "How long ago did the ancestors of mammals evolve?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a2b747416aed4227a90378d2a417fd25", "input": "Passage: Monsoons are like land and sea breezes, but on a larger scale. They occur because of seasonal changes in the temperature of land and water. In the winter, they blow from land to water. In the summer, they blow from water to land. In regions that experience monsoons, the seawater offshore is extremely warm. The hot air absorbs a lot of the moisture and carries it over the land. Summer monsoons bring heavy rains on land. Monsoons occur in several places around the globe. The most important monsoon in the world is in southern Asia ( Figure below ). These monsoons are important because they carry water to the many people who live there. Answer: southern asia", "output": [ "Where does the most important monsoon in the world occur?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1a7d86eee1d04040be49bfd7942ca74f", "input": "Passage: An ecosystem includes the living organisms (all the populations) in an area and the non-living aspects of the environment ( Figure below ). An ecosystem is made of the biotic and abiotic factors in an area. Answer: ecosystem", "output": [ "What includes the living organisms in an area and the non-living aspects of the environment?" ] }, { "id": "task594-407b217a5d4740b6b01ac058162821f6", "input": "Passage: Hair, hair follicle, and oil glands. The oil, called sebum, helps to prevent water loss from the skin. The sebaceous gland secretes sebum, which waterproofs the skin and hair. Answer: sebum", "output": [ "What does the sebaceous gland secrete which waterproofs the skin and hair?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8acb95bfc9a84d66a2f9ac07f578cb78", "input": "Passage: Photographs of the sky can be darkened by polarizing filters, a trick used by many photographers to make clouds brighter by contrast. Scattering from other particles, such as smoke or dust, can also polarize light. Detecting polarization in scattered EM waves can be a useful analytical tool in determining the scattering source. There is a range of optical effects used in sunglasses. Besides being Polaroid, other sunglasses have colored pigments embedded in them, while others use non-reflective or even reflective coatings. A recent development is photochromic lenses, which darken in the sunlight and become clear indoors. Photochromic lenses are embedded with organic microcrystalline molecules that change their properties when exposed to UV in sunlight, but become clear in artificial lighting with no UV. Take-Home Experiment: Polarization Find Polaroid sunglasses and rotate one while holding the other still and look at different surfaces and objects. Explain your observations. What is the difference in angle from when you see a maximum intensity to when you see a minimum intensity? Find a reflective glass surface and do the same. At what angle does the glass need to be oriented to give minimum glare?. Answer: polarizing filters", "output": [ "What is used to darken images of the sky?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4adb19036bf64fa7825dd1a6f6a6f72d", "input": "Passage: Toxic waste must be disposed of properly or there can be serious consequences. Now, your waste should not be as colorful or toxic as shown here (if it is, get yourself to a doctor as soon as possible), but it still needs to be removed from you. And that is the role of the excretory system. The excretory system gets rid of waste and excess water. Answer: excretory system", "output": [ "What system of the body is responsible for ultimately ridding it of waste and excess water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3e285685a3094f7595a0bcf1004b3333", "input": "Passage: The diaphragm is a sheet of muscle that spreads across the bottom of the rib cage. When the diaphragm contracts, the chest volume gets larger, and the lungs take in air. When the diaphragm relaxes, the chest volume gets smaller, and air is pushed out of the lungs. Answer: diaphragm", "output": [ "What is a sheet of muscle that spreads across the bottom of the rib cage?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eb3485f78108476db48ef6cf483172c2", "input": "Passage: The Tongue Perhaps you have heard it said that the tongue is the strongest muscle in the body. Those who stake this claim cite its strength proportionate to its size. Although it is difficult to quantify the relative strength of different muscles, it remains indisputable that the tongue is a workhorse, facilitating ingestion, mechanical digestion, chemical digestion (lingual lipase), sensation (of taste, texture, and temperature of food), swallowing, and vocalization. The tongue is attached to the mandible, the styloid processes of the temporal bones, and the hyoid bone. The hyoid is unique in that it only distantly/indirectly articulates with other bones. The tongue is positioned over the floor of the oral cavity. A medial septum extends the entire length of the tongue, dividing it into symmetrical halves. Beneath its mucous membrane covering, each half of the tongue is composed of the same number and type of intrinsic and extrinsic skeletal muscles. The intrinsic muscles (those within the tongue) are the longitudinalis inferior, longitudinalis superior, transversus linguae, and verticalis linguae muscles. These allow you to change the size and shape of your tongue, as well as to stick it out, if you wish. Having such a flexible tongue facilitates both swallowing and speech. As you learned in your study of the muscular system, the extrinsic muscles of the tongue are the mylohyoid, hyoglossus, styloglossus, and genioglossus muscles. These muscles originate outside the tongue and insert into connective tissues within the tongue. The mylohyoid is responsible for raising the tongue, the hyoglossus pulls it down and back, the styloglossus. Answer: tongue", "output": [ "What flexible organ enables swallowing and speech?" ] }, { "id": "task594-119901b2535a450b9c8bff2fc703f711", "input": "Passage: Covalent compounds form individual molecules rather than crystals. Compared with ionic compounds, they have low melting and boiling points. They are also poor conductors of electricity. In polar covalent compounds, oppositely charged ends of different molecules attract each other. This affects the properties of polar compounds. Answer: crystals", "output": [ "Covalent compounds form individual molecules rather than what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0b3b4b60250f481cac106d4d24511fa2", "input": "Passage: 21.4 DC Voltmeters and Ammeters • Voltmeters measure voltage, and ammeters measure current. • A voltmeter is placed in parallel with the voltage source to receive full voltage and must have a large resistance to limit its effect on the circuit. • An ammeter is placed in series to get the full current flowing through a branch and must have a small resistance to limit its effect on the circuit. • Both can be based on the combination of a resistor and a galvanometer, a device that gives an analog reading of current. • Standard voltmeters and ammeters alter the circuit being measured and are thus limited in accuracy. Answer: voltage", "output": [ "What do voltmeters measure?" ] }, { "id": "task594-40750ce7984d4d249d69ca1f7e7a25d9", "input": "Passage: The bones of the skull support the structures of the face and protect the brain. The skull consists of cranial bones and facial bones. The cranial bones form the cranial cavity, which encloses the brain and serves as an attachment site for muscles of the head and neck. In the adult they are tightly jointed with connective tissue and adjoining bones do not move. The auditory ossicles of the middle ear transmit sounds from the air as vibrations to the fluid-filled cochlea. The auditory ossicles consist of two malleus (hammer) bones, two incus (anvil) bones, and two stapes (stirrups), one on each side. Facial bones provide cavities for the sense organs (eyes, mouth, and nose), and serve as attachment points for facial muscles. The hyoid bone lies below the mandible in the front of the neck. It acts as a movable base for the tongue and is connected to muscles of the jaw, larynx, and tongue. The mandible forms a joint with the base of the skull. The mandible controls the opening to the mouth and hence, the airway and gut. Answer: facial", "output": [ "The skull consists of cranial bones and what other type of bones?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9a2ab61c68fc491eaa101c3445853072", "input": "Passage: Describe and explain volcanic activity that occurs within oceanic and continental plates. Answer: convergent boundary", "output": [ "What is the tectonic zone called where two plates come together?" ] }, { "id": "task594-269ec80016ca47239c2324282af98e20", "input": "Passage: Figure below shows a diagram of a simple doorbell. Like most doorbells, it has a button located by the front door. Pressing the button causes two electric contacts to come together and complete an electric circuit. In other words, the button is a switch. The circuit is also connected to a voltage source, an electromagnet, and the clapper of a bell. When current flows through the circuit, the electromagnet turns on, and its magnetic field attracts the clapper. This causes the clapper to hit the bell, making it ring. Because the clapper is part of the circuit, when it moves to strike the bell, it breaks the circuit. Without current flowing through the circuit, the electromagnet turns off. The clapper returns to its original position, which closes the circuit again and turns the electromagnet back on. The electromagnet again attracts the clapper, which hits the bell once more. This sequence of events keeps repeating as long as the button by the front door is being pressed. Answer: cricuit", "output": [ "When two electric contacts come together it completes a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a152011f8783471bba6f5b03f2451715", "input": "Passage: that extends the 3' end, so a primer is synthesized and extended. Thus, the ends are protected. 16 The cell controls which protein is expressed, and to what level that protein is expressed, in the cell. Prokaryotic cells alter the transcription rate to turn genes on or off. This method will increase or decrease protein levels in response to what is needed by the cell. Eukaryotic cells change the accessibility (epigenetic), transcription, or translation of a gene. This will alter the amount of RNA, and the lifespan of the RNA, to alter the amount of protein that exists. Eukaryotic cells also change the protein’s translation to increase or decrease its overall levels. Eukaryotic organisms are much more complex and can manipulate protein levels by changing many stages in the process. Answer: eukaryotic", "output": [ "Which cells change the accessibility, transcription, or translation of a gene?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f6992505bca64eea930d8dd984b6836e", "input": "Passage: untreated, it produces severe brain damage and mental retardation. Albinism is caused by a defective enzyme that is unable to produce melanin, the pigment responsible for the color of skin and hair. Cystic fibrosis, the most common inherited disease in the United States, blocks pancreatic function and causes thick mucus secretions that make breathing difficult. An area of intense research in combating cancer involves the synthesis of drugs that stop uncontrolled cell growth by interfering with DNA replication. Answer: albinism", "output": [ "What human disease is caused by a defective enzyme that is unable to produce melanin, the pigment responsible for the color of skin and hair?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f4b83c51dcd84cceba74691c307643a5", "input": "Passage: The differences in the biomes are due to differences in the abiotic factors , especially climate. Climate is the typical weather in an area over a long period of time. The climate includes the amount of rainfall and the average temperature in the region. Obviously, the climate in the desert is much different than the climate in the rainforest. As a result, different types of plants and animals live in each biome. Answer: abiotic", "output": [ "The differences in the biomes is due to differences in the what factors?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7f6b3e8ac2c84cc2b75ab3906e6e2bd1", "input": "Passage: Equations in chemistry must balance. There must be the same number of each type of atom in the products as there is in the reactants. Coefficients are used to balance chemical equations. They show how many atoms or molecules of a substance are involved in a reaction. Answer: chemical", "output": [ "In science, coefficients are used to balance what kind of equations?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3f5693ddf8ee4b1f9c6d9d1e5a448b81", "input": "Passage: A tissue is a group of connected cells that have a similar function within an organism. More complex organisms such as jellyfish, coral, and sea anemones have a tissue level of organization. For example, jellyfish have tissues that have separate protective, digestive, and sensory functions. Answer: tissue", "output": [ "What is a group of connected cells that have a similar function within an organism called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-134d49b5f2274c808ff2c4ebdc0047c6", "input": "Passage: Figure 14.5 Structures of the Ear The external ear contains the auricle, ear canal, and tympanic membrane. The middle ear contains the ossicles and is connected to the pharynx by the Eustachian tube. The inner ear contains the cochlea and vestibule, which are responsible for audition and equilibrium, respectively. Answer: inner", "output": [ "The cochlea and vestibul make up what part of the ear?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dcc9bf58bd3240e69e0b5d40d79aae45", "input": "Passage: X rays and gamma rays are the electromagnetic waves with the shortest wavelengths and highest frequencies. X rays are used in medicine and dentistry and to screen luggage at airports. Gamma rays are used to kill cancer cells. Answer: gamma rays", "output": [ "Which electromagnetic radiation is used to kill cancer cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f75ff96c59514ca2a2bf9ef5e58dae1c", "input": "Passage: Water Stabilizes Temperature The hydrogen bonds in water allow it to absorb and release heat energy more slowly than many other substances. Temperature is a measure of the motion (kinetic energy) of molecules. As the motion increases, energy is higher and thus temperature is higher. Water absorbs a great deal of energy before its temperature rises. Increased energy disrupts the hydrogen bonds between water molecules. Because these bonds can be created and disrupted rapidly, water absorbs an increase in energy and temperature changes only minimally. This means that water moderates temperature changes within organisms and in their environments. As energy input continues, the balance between hydrogen-bond formation and destruction swings toward the destruction side. More bonds are broken than are formed. This process results in the release of individual water molecules at the surface of the liquid (such as a body of water, the leaves of a plant, or the skin of an organism) in a process called evaporation. Evaporation of sweat, which is 90 percent water, allows for cooling of an organism, because breaking hydrogen bonds requires an input of energy and takes heat away from the body. Conversely, as molecular motion decreases and temperatures drop, less energy is present to break the hydrogen bonds between water molecules. These bonds remain intact and begin to form a rigid, lattice-like structure (e. , ice) (Figure 2.9a). When frozen, ice is less dense than liquid water (the molecules are farther apart). This means that ice floats on the surface of a body of water (Figure 2.9b). In lakes, ponds, and oceans, ice will form on the surface of the water, creating an insulating barrier to protect the animal and plant life beneath from freezing in the water. If this did not happen, plants and animals living in water would freeze in a block of ice and could not move freely, making life in cold temperatures difficult or impossible. Answer: molecules", "output": [ "Temperature is a measure of the motion (kinetic energy) of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9d299bea9dd54f7a966b177d3b219abb", "input": "Passage: Red litmus paper turns blue when placed in a basic solution. Answer: blue", "output": [ "Red litmus paper turns what color when placed in a basic solution?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1b3b52688ec548c2838030e9eb8fdd1b", "input": "Passage: Eventually plants evolved. Plants produce oxygen as a product of photosynthesis. Oxygen spread around the planet about 2.5 billion years ago. Many organisms died off because they could not handle the oxygen. But this development was extremely important for other life. Animals need oxygen to breathe. If photosynthesis had not evolved there would be no animals. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "Because it produces oxygen, what plant process was necessary for the evolution of animals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9f7d9198257e4a4c92ffd1f6a1491d81", "input": "Passage: CHAPTER REVIEW 19.1 Heart Anatomy The heart resides within the pericardial sac and is located in the mediastinal space within the thoracic cavity. The pericardial sac consists of two fused layers: an outer fibrous capsule and an inner parietal pericardium lined with a serous membrane. Between the pericardial sac and the heart is the pericardial cavity, which is filled with lubricating serous fluid. The walls of the heart are composed of an outer epicardium, a thick myocardium, and an inner lining layer of endocardium. The human heart consists of a pair of atria, which receive blood and pump it into a pair of ventricles, which pump blood into the vessels. The right atrium receives systemic blood relatively low in oxygen and pumps it into the right ventricle, which pumps it into the pulmonary circuit. Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs in the lungs, and blood high in oxygen returns to the left atrium, which pumps blood into the left ventricle, which in turn pumps blood into the aorta and the remainder of the systemic circuit. The septa are the partitions that separate the chambers of the heart. They include the interatrial septum, the interventricular septum, and the atrioventricular septum. Two of these openings are guarded by the atrioventricular valves, the right tricuspid valve and the left mitral valve, which prevent the backflow of blood. Each is attached to chordae tendineae that extend to the papillary muscles, which are extensions of the myocardium, to prevent the valves from being blown back into the atria. The pulmonary valve is located at the base of the pulmonary trunk, and the left semilunar valve is located at the base of the aorta. The right and left coronary arteries are the first to branch off the aorta and arise from two of the three sinuses located near the base of the aorta and are generally located in the sulci. Cardiac veins parallel the small cardiac arteries and generally drain into the coronary sinus. Answer: coronary", "output": [ "Cardiac veins parallel the small cardiac arteries and generally drain into what sinus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f7c1537974f24823a758dc23785301bd", "input": "Passage: From the pharynx, air next passes through the larynx , or voice box. The larynx contains vocal cords, which allow us to produce vocal sounds. Answer: larynx", "output": [ "From the pharynx, air next passes through what structure, also known as the voice box because it contains vocal cords?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b72aa9512a474c4093d59bb3e3918bec", "input": "Passage: Asexual reproduction involves just one parent. It produces offspring that are genetically identical to the parent. Methods of asexual reproduction include binary fission, fragmentation, and budding. Answer: asexual", "output": [ "What type of reproduction only involves one parent?" ] }, { "id": "task594-84b490f74f00499789927c46d9c4ed46", "input": "Passage: During summer in the Northern Hemisphere, the North Pole is tilted toward the Sun. The Sun's rays strike the Northern Hemisphere more directly ( Figure below ). The region gets a lot of sunlight. Summer solstice is June 21 or 22. At that time, the Sun's rays hit directly at the Tropic of Cancer (23.5°N). This is the farthest north that the Sun will be directly overhead. Summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere is winter solstice in the Southern Hemisphere. Answer: sun", "output": [ "During summer in the northern hemisphere, the north pole is tilted toward what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e890e3b60d7146009c0e7a1a70db9011", "input": "Passage: Some Eukarya are also single-celled, but many are multicellular. Some have a cell wall; others do not. However, the cells of all Eukarya have a nucleus and other organelles. Answer: nucleus", "output": [ "The cells of all eukarya have a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-824c178c3531420d8bc961439f78d259", "input": "Passage: All machines make work easier, but they don’t increase the amount of work that is done. You can never get more work out of a machine than you put into it. In fact, a machine always does less work on an object than the user does on the machine. That’s because a machine must use some of the work put into it to overcome friction. Friction is the force that opposes motion between any surfaces that are touching. All machines involve motion, so they all have friction. How much work is needed to overcome friction in a machine depends on the machine’s efficiency. Answer: friction", "output": [ "What is the term for force that opposes motion between any touching surfaces?" ] }, { "id": "task594-31222636e85341e1b9851ed3a45bfcd2", "input": "Passage: If the first three are true but not the fourth, then that object is a dwarf planet . We now call Pluto a dwarf planet. There are other dwarf planets in the solar system. They are Eris, Ceres, Makemake and Haumea. There are many other reasons why Pluto does not fit with the other planets in our solar system. Answer: dwarf planet", "output": [ "What is pluto now called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-85cf0cab1963455f95e64adac471cff0", "input": "Passage: Wavelengths are described by a unit of distance, typically meters. Answer: distance", "output": [ "Wavelengths are described by a unit of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9e88cf60f51c4f75ab3b86dee622c8b1", "input": "Passage: Life on Earth is based on carbon. A possible explanation is that no other element in the periodic table forms compounds that are so diverse in their chemistry and physical properties. Discuss the chemistry of carbon with regard to. Answer: carbon", "output": [ "What element on the periodic table forms the most diverse compounds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b1a08d45dd01410c9866109d84710384", "input": "Passage: 25.4 Seedless Vascular Plants Vascular systems consist of xylem tissue, which transports water and minerals, and phloem tissue, which transports sugars and proteins. With the development of the vascular system, there appeared leaves to act as large photosynthetic organs, and roots to access water from the ground. Small uncomplicated leaves are microphylls. Large leaves with vein patterns are megaphylls. Modified leaves that bear sporangia are sporophylls. Some sporophylls are arranged in cone structures called strobili. Answer: xylem", "output": [ "What type of tissue transports water and minerals in a vascular plant?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0e431f1f66e645b59db5ee33ffdd8c15", "input": "Passage: The bottom of the ocean is called the benthic zone. It includes the sediments on the bottom of the ocean and the water just above it. Organisms living in this zone include clams and crabs. They may be few in number due to relatively scarce nutrients in this zone. Answer: the benthic zone", "output": [ "The bottom of the ocean is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e51019c82e3d41cfa9820ebddeab97d6", "input": "Passage: Bacterial STIs include chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis. These diseases usually can be cured with antibiotics. Answer: antibiotics", "output": [ "Bacterial stis include chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis are diseases that can usually be cured with what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-86ab757aab5241478c5ee765d64a41f6", "input": "Passage: Look at the Figure below of water (H 2 O) and hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ), and read about these two compounds. Both compounds consist of hydrogen and oxygen, but they have different ratios of the two elements. As a result, water and hydrogen peroxide are different compounds with different properties. If you’ve ever used hydrogen peroxide to disinfect a cut, then you know that it is very different from water!. Answer: hydrogen and oxygen", "output": [ "What elements do water and hydrogen peroxide consist of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-565cee90b1984ab180db3cde1d64710b", "input": "Passage: Scientists often study the effects of environment on phenotype by studying identical twins. Identical twins have the same genes, so phenotypic differences between twins often have an environmental cause. Twin studies help understand the relative importance of environmental and genetic influences on individual traits and behaviors. Twins are a valuable source of information concerning the relationship between genes and environment. As monozygotic twins (identical) share their nuclear DNA, their polymorphisms , the nucleotide differences that make their DNA unique, are common to the two individuals. This means that any phenotypic variation, such as in height, intelligence, or any other measurable trait, is due to the environment. What is different about the experiences of the twins? What unique experiences might one twin have that the other twin did not have? By comparing phenotypes of hundreds of twins, researchers can understand the roles of genetics, shared environment and unique experiences in the formation and development of specific traits. Answer: environment", "output": [ "What is often the cause of phenotypic differences between identical twins?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b9916e38ef0047138597cc8c288dd27b", "input": "Passage: Diabetes mellitus is a disorder of glucose metabolism in which insulin production by the pancreas is impaired. Since insulin helps glucose enter the cells, a decrease of this hormone means that glucose cannot be used in its normal fashion. When this happens, the body begins to break down fats, producing a decrease in blood pH. Chemical systems in the body can balance this pH shift for a while, but excessive acid production can create serious problems if not corrected by administering insulin to restore normal glucose use. Answer: diabetes mellitus", "output": [ "What is a disorder of glucose metabolism in which insulin production by the pancreas is impaired?" ] }, { "id": "task594-00cfef19c5f349899d2c3ded1f43efbb", "input": "Passage: Plasma cells are activated B cells that secrete antibodies. Antibodies are large, Y-shaped proteins that recognize and bind to antigens. Plasma cells are like antibody factories, producing many copies of a single type of antibody. The antibodies travel throughout the body in blood and lymph. Each antibody binds to just one kind of antigen. When it does, it forms an antigen-antibody complex (see Figure below ). The complex flags the antigen-bearing cell for destruction by phagocytosis . Answer: antibodies", "output": [ "What do you call large, y-shaped proteins that recognize and bind to antigens?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f760a8daaee944349e23892fc24ff90d", "input": "Passage: Describing the flow of energy within an ecosystem essentially answers this question. To survive, one must eat. Why? To get energy. Food chains and webs describe the transfer of energy within an ecosystem, from one organism to another. In other words, they show who eats whom. Answer: food webs", "output": [ "Food chains and what describe the transfer of energy within an ecosystem, from one organism to another?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8a1a1f31856740a0afdaf934fc11424f", "input": "Passage: In the modern periodic table, each element is represented by its chemical symbol. The number above each symbol is its atomic number. Atomic numbers increase from left to right and from top to bottom in the table. Answer: atomic number", "output": [ "What is denoted by the number above the chemical symbol of each element in a modern periodic table?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3731828a033e48548578da016b65d4e3", "input": "Passage: Control of Catabolic Pathways Enzymes, proteins, electron carriers, and pumps that play roles in glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain tend to catalyze non-reversible reactions. In other words, if the initial reaction takes place, the pathway is committed to proceeding with the remaining reactions. Whether a particular enzyme activity is released depends upon the energy needs of the cell (as reflected by the levels of ATP, ADP, and AMP). Glycolysis The control of glycolysis begins with the first enzyme in the pathway, hexokinase (Figure 7.19). This enzyme catalyzes the phosphorylation of glucose, which helps to prepare the compound for cleavage in a later step. The presence of the negatively charged phosphate in the molecule also prevents the sugar from leaving the cell. When hexokinase is inhibited, glucose diffuses out of the cell and does not become a substrate for the respiration pathways in that tissue. The product of the hexokinase reaction is glucose-6-phosphate, which accumulates when a later enzyme, phosphofructokinase, is inhibited. Answer: non-reversible", "output": [ "Enzymes, proteins, electron carriers, and pumps that play roles in glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain tend to catalyze reactions that are what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5c881cba8b264997b97d9c4d1e2ee095", "input": "Passage: Organisms that live in a hypotonic environment such as freshwater, need a way to prevent their cells from taking in too much water by osmosis. A contractile vacuole is a type of vacuole that removes excess water from a cell. Freshwater protists, such as the paramecia shown in Figure below , have a contractile vacuole. The vacuole is surrounded by several canals, which absorb water by osmosis from the cytoplasm. After the canals fill with water, the water is pumped into the vacuole. When the vacuole is full, it pushes the water out of the cell through a pore. Other protists, such as members of the genus Amoeba , have contractile vacuoles that move to the surface of the cell when full and release the water into the environment. Answer: osmosis", "output": [ "Organisms that live in freshwater environments often possess a contractile vacuole that prevents cells from taking in too much water through what process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f633962f245945edb92a88db35678d2e", "input": "Passage: One dimensional motion describes objects moving in straight lines. Speed is a scalar measure of how quickly an object is moving along this line. Velocity is speed with a direction, making it a vector. If an object’s velocity changes with time, the object is said to be accelerating. When restricted to one dimension, there are only two possible directions for the velocity and acceleration vectors to point in. As we’ll see in the next chapters, understanding an object's acceleration is the key to understanding its motion. Answer: speed", "output": [ "What is the term for a scalar measure of how quickly an object is moving along this line?" ] }, { "id": "task594-62a58520f9fd48b79bbebe674e12a8d5", "input": "Passage: A sex-linked trait is a trait whose allele is found on a sex chromosome. The human X chromosome is significantly larger than the Y chromosome; there are many more genes located on the X chromosome than there are on the Y chromosome. As a result there are many more X-linked traits than there are Y-linked traits. Most sex-linked traits are recessive. Because males carry only one X chromosome, if they inherit a recessive sex-linked gene they will show a sex-linked condition; there is no dominant allele to offset the recessive allele. Answer: sex-linked trait", "output": [ "What is a trait whose allele is found on a sex chromosome called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-af29fbe570504354a217deee67740bcd", "input": "Passage: 31 Respiratory system In humans and other animals, for example, the anatomical features of the respiratory system include airways, lungs, and the respiratory muscles. Other animals, such as insects, have respiratory systems with very simple anatomical features, and in amphibians even the skin plays a vital role in gas exchange. Plants also have respiratory systems but the directionality of gas exchange can be opposite to that in animals. The respiratory system in plants also includes anatomical features such as holes on the undersides of leaves known as stomata. In mammals, the diaphragm divides the body cavity into the abdominal cavity: contains the viscera (e. , stomach and intestines). Answer: respiratory", "output": [ "The airway and the lungs are part of what organ system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0008ac9d7c5c467d8a7f739c66cfce29", "input": "Passage: In binary fission, a cell splits in two. First, the large circular chromosome is copied. Then the cell divides to form two new daughter cells. Each has a copy of the parent cell's chromosome. Answer: two", "output": [ "In binary fission how many times does a cell split?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5a6faa33e3e14d45a48f892824bf8393", "input": "Passage: Technology is the application of knowledge to real-world problems. Engineers are professionals in technology. Answer: technology", "output": [ "What term describes the application of knowledge to real-world problems and is practiced by engineers?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bcaab98738dc49eeb7aecf6348ca1573", "input": "Passage: A monosaccharide is the simplest carbohydrate and cannot be hydrolyzed to produce a smaller carbohydrate molecule. Disaccharides contain two monosaccharide units, and polysaccharides contain many monosaccharide units. Answer: carbohydrate molecule", "output": [ "A monosaccharide is the simplest carbohydrate and cannot be hydrolyzed to produce a smaller what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9cdf5a029381465f955c5fa197972fc8", "input": "Passage: Populations can be described in terms of size, density, and distribution. Population growth may be exponential or logistic. The age-sex structure of a population affects the rate of population growth. Answer: populations", "output": [ "What can be described in terms of size, density, and distribution?" ] }, { "id": "task594-48e9afd1238d4cdd8a5f00574235ecd4", "input": "Passage: Unlike ethers, esters have a carbonyl group. Unlike carboxylic acids, esters have no acidic hydrogen atom; they have a hydrocarbon group in its place. Answer: hydrocarbon group", "output": [ "Carboxylic acids have an acidic hydrogen atom, but esters do not. what do esters have in place of an acidic hydrogen atom?" ] }, { "id": "task594-677ce097e12943089e172e72608d5c5b", "input": "Passage: Evasion of the Immune System by Pathogens It is important to keep in mind that although the immune system has evolved to be able to control many pathogens, pathogens themselves have evolved ways to evade the immune response. An example already mentioned is in Mycobactrium tuberculosis, which has evolved a complex cell wall that is resistant to the digestive enzymes of the macrophages that ingest them, and thus persists in the host, causing the chronic disease tuberculosis. This section briefly summarizes other ways in which pathogens can “outwit” immune responses. But keep in mind, although it seems as if pathogens have a will of their own, they do not. All of these evasive “strategies” arose strictly by evolution, driven by selection. Bacteria sometimes evade immune responses because they exist in multiple strains, such as different groups of Staphylococcus aureus. aureus is commonly found in minor skin infections, such as boils, and some healthy people harbor it in their nose. One small group of strains of this bacterium, however, called methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, has become resistant to multiple antibiotics and is essentially untreatable. Different bacterial strains differ in the antigens on their surfaces. The immune response against one strain (antigen) does not affect the other; thus, the species survives. Another method of immune evasion is mutation. Because viruses’ surface molecules mutate continuously, viruses like influenza change enough each year that the flu vaccine for one year may not protect against the flu common to the next. New vaccine formulations must be derived for each flu season. Genetic recombination—the combining of gene segments from two different pathogens—is an efficient form of immune evasion. For example, the influenza virus contains gene segments that can recombine when two different viruses infect the same cell. Recombination between human and pig influenza viruses led to the 2010 H1N1 swine flu outbreak. Pathogens can produce immunosuppressive molecules that impair immune function, and there are several different types. Viruses are especially good at evading the immune response in this way, and many types of viruses have been shown to suppress the host immune response in ways much more subtle than the wholesale destruction caused by HIV. Answer: resistance", "output": [ "Bacteria may become untreatable if they develop what in response to multiple antibiotics?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a2d65c05118145829f5cbdbb5523882b", "input": "Passage: • The motion of individual molecules in a gas is random in magnitude and direction. However, a gas of many molecules has a predictable distribution of molecular speeds, known as the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution. Answer: maxwell-boltzmann distribution", "output": [ "What do we call the predictable distribution of molecular speeds found in gas of many molecules?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b12eadfcab1a4210b5c24c2181c40373", "input": "Passage: Matched pairs of chromosomes in a diploid organism are called homologous (“same knowledge”) chromosomes. Homologous chromosomes are the same length and have specific nucleotide segments called genes in exactly the same location, or locus. Genes, the functional units of chromosomes, determine specific characteristics by coding for specific proteins. Traits are the variations of those characteristics. For example, hair color is a characteristic with traits that are blonde, brown, or black. Each copy of a homologous pair of chromosomes originates from a different parent; therefore, the genes themselves are not identical. The variation of individuals within a species is due to the specific combination of the genes inherited from both parents. Even a slightly altered sequence of nucleotides within a gene can result in an alternative trait. For example, there are three possible gene sequences on the human chromosome that code for blood type: sequence A, sequence B, and sequence O. Because all diploid human cells have two copies of the chromosome that determines blood type, the blood type (the trait) is determined by which two versions of the marker gene are inherited. It is possible to have two copies of the same gene sequence on both homologous chromosomes, with one on each (for example, AA, BB, or OO), or two different sequences, such as AB. Minor variations of traits, such as blood type, eye color, and handedness, contribute to the natural variation found within a species. However, if the entire DNA sequence from any pair of human homologous chromosomes is compared, the difference is less than one percent. The sex chromosomes, X and Y, are the single exception to the rule of homologous chromosome uniformity: Other than a small amount of homology that is necessary to accurately produce gametes, the genes found on the X and Y chromosomes are different. Answer: genes", "output": [ "What functional units of chromosomes determine specific characteristics by coding for specific proteins?" ] }, { "id": "task594-aa99fea2b8034b6286da9093305b5ee9", "input": "Passage: Amines are bases; they react with acids to form salts. Answer: salts", "output": [ "Amines are bases; they react with acids to form what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-af9ff513d5be40968686b16b2f41c62e", "input": "Passage: Consumers are also called heterotrophs. There are several different types of heterotrophs depending on exactly what they consume. They may be herbivores, carnivores, or omnivores. Answer: consumers", "output": [ "Heterotrophs is another name for what group?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1986365bae2f4df69ecc11407bc7044a", "input": "Passage: temperature. In fact, the magnitudes of the changes in both enthalpy and entropy for dissolution are temperature dependent. Because the solubility of a compound is ultimately determined by relatively small differences between large numbers, there is generally no good way to predict how the solubility will vary with temperature. The variation of solubility with temperature has been measured for a wide range of compounds, and the results are published in many standard reference books. Chemists are often able to use this information to separate the components of a mixture byfractional crystallization, the separation of compounds on the basis of their solubilities in a given solvent. For example, if we have a mixture of 150 g of sodium acetate (CH3CO2Na) and 50 g of KBr, we can separate the two compounds by dissolving the mixture in 100 g of water at 80°C and then cooling the solution slowly to 0°C. According to the temperature curves in Figure 13.9 \"Solubilities of Several Inorganic and Organic Solids in Water as a Function of Temperature\", both compounds dissolve in water at 80°C, and all 50 g of KBr remains in solution at 0°C. Only about 36 g of CH3CO2Na are soluble in 100 g of water at 0°C, however, so approximately 114 g (150 g − 36 g) of CH3CO2Na crystallizes out on cooling. The crystals can then be separated by filtration. Thus fractional crystallization allows us to recover about 75% of the original CH3CO2Na in essentially pure form in only one step. Fractional crystallization is a common technique for purifying compounds as diverse as those shown in Figure 13.9 \"Solubilities of Several Inorganic and Organic Solids in Water as a Function of Temperature\" and from antibiotics to enzymes. For the technique to work properly, the compound of interest must be more soluble at high temperature than at low temperature, so that lowering the temperature causes it to crystallize out of solution. In addition, the impurities must be more soluble than the compound of interest (as was KBr in this example) and preferably present in relatively small amounts. Answer: fractional crystallization", "output": [ "What is the separation of compounds on the basis of their solubilities in a given solvent?" ] }, { "id": "task594-23717f2487174424a03f9981b06928ca", "input": "Passage: Adult sea stars and other echinoderms have obvious radial symmetry. What evidence supports the claim that echinoderms evolved from an ancestor with bilateral symmetry?. Answer: radial symmetry", "output": [ "Adult sea stars have what kind of symmetry?" ] }, { "id": "task594-17fd0ee127854300b402153b2d2c9ff3", "input": "Passage: Animal Bioenergetics All animals must obtain their energy from food they ingest or absorb. These nutrients are converted to adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for short-term storage and use by all cells. Some animals store energy for slightly longer times as glycogen, and others store energy for much longer times in the form of triglycerides housed in specialized adipose tissues. No energy system is one hundred percent efficient, and an animal’s metabolism produces waste energy in the form of heat. If an animal can conserve that heat and maintain a relatively constant body temperature, it is classified as a warm-blooded animal and called an endotherm. The insulation used to conserve the body heat comes in the forms of fur, fat, or feathers. The absence of insulation in ectothermic animals increases their dependence on the environment for body heat. The amount of energy expended by an animal over a specific time is called its metabolic rate. The rate is measured variously in joules, calories, or kilocalories (1000 calories). Carbohydrates and proteins contain about 4.5 to 5 kcal/g, and fat contains about 9 kcal/g. Metabolic rate is estimated as the basal metabolic rate (BMR) in endothermic animals at rest and as the standard metabolic rate (SMR) in ectotherms. Human males have a BMR of 1600 to 1800 kcal/day, and human females have a BMR of 1300 to 1500 kcal/day. Even with insulation, endothermal animals require extensive amounts of energy to maintain a constant body temperature. An ectotherm such as an alligator has an SMR of 60 kcal/day. Energy Requirements Related to Body Size Smaller endothermic animals have a greater surface area for their mass than larger ones (Figure 33.4). Therefore, smaller animals lose heat at a faster rate than larger animals and require more energy to maintain a constant internal temperature. This results in a smaller endothermic animal having a higher BMR, per body weight, than a larger endothermic animal. Answer: warm-blooded (endotherm)", "output": [ "Metabolism produces waste energy in the form of heat, which helps what type of animal conserve and maintain heat at a relatively constant body temperature?" ] }, { "id": "task594-19be3be5d1db4f2a8700b87e9453a81f", "input": "Passage: Nearsightedness, or myopia, is the condition in which nearby objects are seen clearly, but distant objects are blurry. It occurs when the eyeball is longer than normal. This causes images to be focused in front of the retina. Myopia can be corrected with concave lenses. The lenses focus images farther back in the eye, so they are on the retina instead of in front of it. Answer: myopia", "output": [ "What is another term for nearsightedness?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d2d9ce5d0c034068a1d2b2c24a90684d", "input": "Passage: All of our cells contain DNA. Meiosis ensures that each gamete receives a copy of each chromosome. Answer: meiosis", "output": [ "What process within cells makes sure that every gamete receives a copy of every chromosome?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b5989cce2bc04c65b94a08c56e4e6243", "input": "Passage: Syphilis is less common than chlamydia or gonorrhea but more serious if untreated. Early symptoms of syphilis infection include a small sore on or near the genitals. The sore is painless and heals on its own, so it may go unnoticed. If treated early, most cases of syphilis can be cured with antibiotics. Untreated syphilis can cause serious damage to the heart, brain, and other organs. It may eventually lead to death. Answer: antibiotics", "output": [ "Most cases of syphilis can be cured with what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-123a8e9525324aaab20b87ce858f19d0", "input": "Passage: Transition metals form metal complexes, polyatomic species in which a metal ion is bound to one or more ligands, which are groups bound to a metal ion. Complex ions are electrically charged metal complexes, and a coordination compound contains one or more metal complexes. Metal complexes with low coordination numbers generally have only one or two possible structures, whereas those with coordination numbers greater than six can have several different structures. Coordination numbers of two and three are common for d10 metal ions. Tetrahedral and square planar complexes have a coordination number of four; trigonal bipyramidal and square pyramidal complexes have a coordination number of five; and octahedral complexes have a coordination number of six. At least three structures are known for a coordination number of seven, which is generally found for only large metal ions. Coordination numbers of eight and nine are also found for larger metal ions. The stability of metal complexes with first-row transition metals in a +2 oxidation state varies inversely with their ionic radius. Lewis bases can be hard bases, which have small, relatively nonpolarizable donor atoms, orsoft bases, with larger, relatively polarizable donor atoms. Hard acids have the highest affinity for hard bases, and soft acids have the highest affinity for soft bases. Soft metals and soft bases form complexes that are more stable than would be predicted based on electrostatic arguments, which suggests that metal-to-ligand π bonding is important. Ligands that are strong bases form the most stable complexes with metal ions that are hard acids. Exceptionally stable complexes are formed by chelates, which are polyatomic ligands with two or more donor atoms; this enhanced stability is known as the chelate effect. Many metal complexes formisomers, which are two or more compounds with the same formula but different arrangements of atoms. Structural isomers differ in which atoms are bonded to one another, while geometrical isomers differ only in the arrangement of ligands around the metal ion. Ligands adjacent to one another are cis, while ligands across from one another are trans. Answer: chelates", "output": [ "What is the term for polyatomic ligands with two or more donor atoms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c458756d081a4755873cde085a9dea4d", "input": "Passage: Organs may be organized into organ systems. An organ system is a group of organs that work together to do the same job. For example, the heart is part of the cardiovascular system. This system also includes blood vessels and blood. The job of the cardiovascular system is to transport substances in blood to and from cells throughout the body. Answer: an organ system", "output": [ "What is a group of organs that work together to do the same job?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a7765be30784431bbc35cea1ee74ecf4", "input": "Passage: Two other types of mass movement are slump and creep. They usually aren’t as destructive as landslides and mudslides. Slump is the sudden movement of large blocks of rock and soil down a slope. Creep is the very slow movement of rock and soil down a slope. It causes trees, fence posts, and other structures to tilt downhill. Answer: slump", "output": [ "What type of mass movement is a sudden movement of large blocks of rock and soil down a slope?" ] }, { "id": "task594-aa6ed9ad7e4e4f0fa37c612ae6db5e79", "input": "Passage: Poison dart frogs have toxins in their skin. Their bright colors warn potential predators not to take a bite!. Answer: warning predators", "output": [ "The bright color of poison dart frogs serves what purpose?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ab749a7edd714a35881be6b22ec1d043", "input": "Passage: Figure 18.15 Both positive and negative objects attract a neutral object by polarizing its molecules. (a) A positive object brought near a neutral insulator polarizes its molecules. There is a slight shift in the distribution of the electrons orbiting the molecule, with unlike charges being brought nearer and like charges moved away. Since the electrostatic force decreases with distance, there is a net attraction. (b) A negative object produces the opposite polarization, but again attracts the neutral object. (c) The same effect occurs for a conductor; since the unlike charges are closer, there is a net attraction. Answer: opposite polarization", "output": [ "What type of polarization does a negative object create>" ] }, { "id": "task594-0251db3ba1f14c9ab6efeb629127e9ef", "input": "Passage: Algae is the focus of much research. Algae is a very promising alternative to traditional crops for biofuels. Answer: biofuel", "output": [ "Algae is a promising alternative to traditional crops for what type of fuels?" ] }, { "id": "task594-511665a464244321bfa7511ff219c147", "input": "Passage: Figure 3.9 (a) A typical human brain weighs about 1.5 kg and occupies a volume of roughly 1.1 L. (b) Information is transmitted in brain tissue and throughout the central nervous system by specialized cells called neurons (micrograph shows cells at 1600× magnification). Specialized cells called neurons transmit information between different parts of the central nervous system by way of electrical and chemical signals. Chemical signaling occurs at the interface between different neurons. Answer: neurons", "output": [ "What are the specialized cells within the brain called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-07b857272ecf4b819f42e196e3a7ed6f", "input": "Passage: The rod-shaped organisms in Figure below are bacteria called Salmonella . Bacteria (bacterium, singular) are prokaryotes in the Bacteria Domain. The word Salmonella may sound familiar. That's because Salmonella is a common cause of food poisoning. Many other types of bacteria also cause human diseases. But not all bacteria are harmful to people. In fact, we could not survive without many of the trillions of bacteria that live in or on the human body. You'll learn why when you read this lesson. Answer: prokaryotes", "output": [ "Bacteria are what kind of cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0eab42825a314106b89b5558ce21d665", "input": "Passage: Electromagnetic waves vary in wavelength and frequency. Longer wavelength electromagnetic waves have lower frequencies, and shorter wavelength waves have higher frequencies. Higher frequency waves have more energy. Answer: frequency", "output": [ "Electromagnetic waves vary in wavelength and in what property, which is lower in waves of longer wavelengths?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f3d1b06af5bf4beea859da33c2080038", "input": "Passage: The strong affinity of concentrated sulfuric acid for water makes it a good dehydrating agent. It is possible to dry gases and immiscible liquids that do not react with the acid by passing them through the acid. Sulfuric acid is a strong diprotic acid that ionizes in two stages. In aqueous solution, the first stage is essentially complete. The secondary ionization is not nearly so complete, and HSO 4 − is a moderately strong acid (about 25% ionized in solution of a HSO 4 − salt: Ka = 1.2 × 10−2). Being a diprotic acid, sulfuric acid forms both sulfates, such as Na2SO4, and hydrogen sulfates, such as NaHSO4. Most sulfates are soluble in water; however, the sulfates of barium, strontium, calcium, and lead are only slightly soluble in water. Among the important sulfates are Na2SO4⋅10H2O and Epsom salts, MgSO4⋅7H2O. Because the HSO 4 − ion is an acid, hydrogen sulfates, such as NaHSO4, exhibit acidic behavior, and this compound is the primary ingredient in some household cleansers. Hot, concentrated sulfuric acid is an oxidizing agent. Depending on its concentration, the temperature, and the strength of the reducing agent, sulfuric acid oxidizes many compounds and, in the process, undergoes reduction to SO2, HSO 3 −, SO 3 2−, S, H2S, or S2−. Sulfur dioxide dissolves in water to form a solution of sulfurous acid, as expected for the oxide of a nonmetal. Sulfurous acid is unstable, and it is not possible to isolate anhydrous H2SO3. Heating a solution of sulfurous acid expels the sulfur dioxide. Like other diprotic acids, sulfurous acid ionizes in two steps: The hydrogen sulfite ion, HSO 3 −, and the sulfite ion, SO 3 2−, form. Sulfurous acid is a moderately strong acid. Ionization is about 25% in the first stage, but it is much less in the second (Ka1 = 1.2 × 10−2 and Ka2 = 6.2 × 10−8). In order to prepare solid sulfite and hydrogen sulfite salts, it is necessary to add a stoichiometric amount of a base to a sulfurous acid solution and then evaporate the water. These salts also form from the reaction of SO2 with oxides and hydroxides. Heating solid sodium hydrogen sulfite forms sodium sulfite, sulfur dioxide, and water: Δ. Answer: dehydrating", "output": [ "The strong affinity of concentrated sulfuric acid for water makes it a good agent of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1c198e8c64e94d459001bbd6a96e4d24", "input": "Passage: Salmon Larva. This newly hatched salmon larva doesn’t look very fish-like. The structure hanging from the larva is the yolk sac. Answer: yolk sac", "output": [ "What is the structure which hangs from a newly hatched salmon larva?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7863f287660c4b1f8622899b7a654675", "input": "Passage: Blood flows through the heart in two separate loops, which are indicated by the arrows in Figure above. You can think of them as a \"left side loop\" and a \"right side loop. \" The right side of the heart collects oxygen-poor blood from the body and pumps the blood to the lungs. In the lungs, carbon dioxide is released and oxygen obtained by the blood. The left side of the heart carries the oxygen-rich blood back from the lungs and pumps it to the rest of the body. The blood delivers oxygen to the body's cells, returning the oxygen-poor blood back to the heart. Answer: oxygen-poor blood", "output": [ "What type of blood does the right side of the heart collect and then pump to the lungs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-80f37203823f45d4ac324fdfdcced353", "input": "Passage: 27.8 Polarization • Polarization is the attribute that wave oscillations have a definite direction relative to the direction of propagation of the wave. • EM waves are transverse waves that may be polarized. • The direction of polarization is defined to be the direction parallel to the electric field of the EM wave. • Unpolarized light is composed of many rays having random polarization directions. • Light can be polarized by passing it through a polarizing filter or other polarizing material. The intensity I of polarized light after passing through a polarizing filter is I = I 0 cos 2 θ, where I 0 is the original intensity and θ is the angle between the direction of polarization and the axis of the filter. • Polarization is also produced by reflection. • Brewster’s law states that reflected light will be completely polarized at the angle of reflection θ b , known as Brewster’s angle, given by a statement known as Brewster’s law: reflected light travel and. Answer: unpolarized light", "output": [ "What type of light is composed of many rays having random polarization directions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-59d8f20746364ceea1398f19ad51203d", "input": "Passage: Fossils provide a window into the past. They are evidence for evolution. Answer: evolution", "output": [ "Fossils provide a window into the past. they are evidence for what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c061367ab6ce4ba2888f4dcb23e9db33", "input": "Passage: An element is the basic chemical building block of matter; it is the simplest chemical substance. Answer: element", "output": [ "What is the basic chemical building block of matter; it is the simplest chemical substance?" ] }, { "id": "task594-df83d93532a14be8af4f482af4527e79", "input": "Passage: The volume increases as the temperature increases. The result has three significant figures. Answer: volume increases", "output": [ "What happens to volume as the temperature increases?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7ea09c6b1a2641038137ef13218b7f0f", "input": "Passage: A body that is lying down is described as either prone or supine. Prone describes a face-down orientation, and supine describes a face up orientation. These terms are sometimes used in describing the position of the body during specific physical examinations or surgical procedures. Answer: prone", "output": [ "What term describes the orientation of a body lying face-down?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ead6502bfe7743b593930d73e798f10a", "input": "Passage: During the systolic phase of the cardiac cycle, the heart is ________. contracting b. relaxing c. contracting and relaxing d. filling with blood 16. How do arteries differ from veins? a. Arteries have thicker wall layers to accommodate the changes in pressure from the heart. Arteries carry blood. Arteries have thinner wall layers and valves and move blood by the action of skeletal muscle. Arteries are thin walled and are used for gas exchange. Most of the hormones produced by the anterior pituitary perform what function? a. regulate growth b. regulate the sleep cycle c. regulate production of other hormones d. regulate blood volume and blood pressure 18. What is the function of the hormone erythropoietin? a. Answer: muscle", "output": [ "Arteries have thinner wall layers and valves and move blood by the action of skeletal what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fe26a679193843008a6f96913b9d532d", "input": "Passage: They have lots of mitochondria. Mitochondria are called the power plants of the cell, as these organelles are where most of the cell's energy is produced. Cells that need lots of energy have lots of mitochondria. Answer: mitochondria", "output": [ "What organelles are known as the \"power plants\" of the cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-07e3df0897e046f7bd16950227bf21f1", "input": "Passage: Science rests on evidence and logic, so it deals only with things that can be observed. An observation is anything that is detected either through human senses or with instruments and measuring devices that extend human senses. Things that cannot be observed or measured by current means—such as supernatural beings or events—are outside the bounds of science. Consider these two questions about life on Earth:. Answer: observation", "output": [ "What term means anything that is detected either through human senses or with instruments and measuring devices that extend human senses?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a7eaefa2a337488594de29c6c8ab49f4", "input": "Passage: Continental glaciers are large ice sheets that cover relatively flat ground. These glaciers flow outward from where the greatest amounts of snow and ice accumulate. Answer: continental glaciers", "output": [ "What are large sheets of ice that cover relatively flat ground called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-531d094e668b4762a1a0b4a687957346", "input": "Passage: Electrical energy consumed can be determined by multiplying power by time . Recall the equations for mechanical and thermal energy/work . An important idea is the efficiency of an electrical device: the fraction of electrical energy consumed that goes into doing useful work , expressed as a percentage. Answer: time", "output": [ "Electrical energy consumed can be expressed as the product of power multiplied by what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4eb6998fb8074e8fb5d43b94c3ae2927", "input": "Passage: Colon The cecum blends seamlessly with the colon. Upon entering the colon, the food residue first travels up the ascending colon on the right side of the abdomen. At the inferior surface of the liver, the colon bends to form the right colic flexure (hepatic flexure) and becomes the transverse colon. The region defined as hindgut begins with the last third of the transverse colon and continues on. Food residue passing through the transverse colon travels across to the left side of the abdomen, where the colon angles sharply immediately inferior to the spleen, at the left colic flexure (splenic flexure). From there, food residue passes through the descending colon, which runs down the left side of the posterior abdominal wall. After entering the pelvis inferiorly, it becomes the s-shaped sigmoid colon, which extends medially to the midline (Figure 23.21). The ascending and descending colon, and the rectum (discussed next) are located in the retroperitoneum. The transverse and sigmoid colon are tethered to the posterior abdominal wall by the mesocolon. Answer: colon", "output": [ "What organ is subdivided into ascending, descending, transverse and sigmoid parts?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a71f35345f5d473d825bc0b9755e78a8", "input": "Passage: The Celsius scale is the standard SI temperature scale. It is equal to the Kelvin scale if you minus 273 from the Celsius reading. Water has a boiling point of and a freezing point of . Answer: kelvin scale", "output": [ "What temperature scale is obtained by adding 273 degrees from the corresponding celsius temperature?" ] }, { "id": "task594-881365430d2a4d25a4eaeb91a785944a", "input": "Passage: Because energy is a product, energy is given off by the reaction. Therefore, this reaction is exothermic. Because energy is a reactant, energy is absorbed by the reaction. Therefore, this reaction is endothermic. Answer: energy", "output": [ "In an endothermic reaction, what is absorbed by the reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-199ef7000a374f7ab82c48822f65c17e", "input": "Passage: Characteristics of Amphibians As tetrapods, most amphibians are characterized by four well-developed limbs. Some species of salamanders and all caecilians are functionally limbless; their limbs are vestigial. An important characteristic of extant amphibians is a moist, permeable skin that is achieved via mucus glands that keep the skin moist; thus, exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide with the environment can take place through it ( cutaneous respiration). Additional characteristics of amphibians include pedicellate teeth—teeth in which the root and crown are calcified, separated by a zone of noncalcified tissue—and a papilla amphibiorum and papilla basilaris, structures of the inner ear that are sensitive to frequencies below and above 10,00 hertz, respectively. Amphibians also have an auricular operculum, which is an extra bone in the ear that transmits sounds to the inner ear. All extant adult amphibians are carnivorous, and some terrestrial amphibians have a sticky tongue that is used to capture prey. Answer: cutaneous respiration", "output": [ "Amphibians have permeable skin which allows for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide, what is this \"breathing called?\"" ] }, { "id": "task594-1c56341484264460adb3a963dabe68c2", "input": "Passage: The vapor pressure of a solution is lower than that of the pure solvent at the same temperature. This decrease in vapor pressure is one example of a colligative property . Colligative properties are properties of solutions that depend only on the concentration of dissolved particles and not on their identity. Answer: colligative properties", "output": [ "What are the properties of solutions called that depend only on the concentration of dissolved particles and not on their identity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-07cc2c9394304c2badabb7e45cf74984", "input": "Passage: Tubeworms deep in the Galapagos Rift get their energy from chemosynthetic bacteria. Tubeworms have no mouth, eyes, or stomach. Their survival depends on a symbiotic relationship with the billions of bacteria that live inside them. These bacteria convert the chemicals that shoot out of the hydrothermal vents into food for the worm. Answer: chemosynthetic", "output": [ "Tubeworms deep in the galapagos rift get their energy from what type of bacteria?" ] }, { "id": "task594-248349fc10504324812db24d9ccdf366", "input": "Passage: There are many career options in physical science. Examples include pharmacist and surveyor. Answer: physical", "output": [ "Pharmacist and surveyor are two career options based in what type of science?" ] }, { "id": "task594-220b153d89474f879735dba587c60a19", "input": "Passage: Using Prokaryotes to Clean up Our Planet: Bioremediation Microbial bioremediation is the use of prokaryotes (or microbial metabolism) to remove pollutants. Bioremediation has been used to remove agricultural chemicals (pesticides and fertilizers) that leach from soil into groundwater. Certain toxic metals, such as selenium and arsenic compounds, can also be removed from water by bioremediation. The reduction of − − SeO 24 to SeO 23 and to Se0 (metallic selenium) is a method used to remove selenium ions from water. Mercury is an example of a toxic metal that can be removed from an environment by bioremediation. Mercury is an active ingredient of some pesticides; it is used in industry and is also a byproduct of certain industries, such as battery production. Mercury is usually present in very low concentrations in natural environments but it is highly toxic because it accumulates in living tissues. Several species of bacteria can carry out the biotransformation of toxic mercury into nontoxic forms. These bacteria, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, can convert Hg2+ to Hg0, which is nontoxic to humans. Probably one of the most useful and interesting examples of the use of prokaryotes for bioremediation purposes is the cleanup of oil spills. The importance of prokaryotes to petroleum bioremediation has been demonstrated in several oil spills in recent years, such as the Exxon Valdez spill in Alaska (1989) (Figure 13.10), the Prestige oil spill in Spain (2002), the spill into the Mediterranean from a Lebanon power plant (2006,) and more recently, the BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico (2010). To clean up these spills, bioremediation is promoted by adding inorganic nutrients that help bacteria already present in the environment to grow. Hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria feed on the hydrocarbons in the oil droplet, breaking them into inorganic compounds. Some species, such as Alcanivorax borkumensis, produce surfactants that solubilize the oil, while other bacteria degrade the oil into carbon dioxide. In the case of oil spills in the ocean, ongoing, natural bioremediation tends to occur, inasmuch as there are oil-consuming bacteria in the ocean prior to the spill. Under ideal conditions, it has been reported that up to 80 percent of the nonvolatile components in oil can be degraded within 1 year of the spill. Other oil fractions containing aromatic and highly branched hydrocarbon chains are more difficult to remove and remain in the environment for longer periods of time. Researchers have genetically engineered other bacteria to consume petroleum products; indeed, the first patent application for a bioremediation application in the U. was for a genetically modified oileating bacterium. Answer: bioremediation", "output": [ "Use of oil-consuming bacteria to clean up an oil spill is an example of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-20257ed7cdb145be878d8ae609ef7044", "input": "Passage: Amino acids contain both a carboxylic acid group and an amine group. Answer: amine", "output": [ "Amino acids contain both a carboxylic acid group and what other group?" ] }, { "id": "task594-32de4713f0444bfd8c12775405bdad75", "input": "Passage: Motility The majority of protists are motile, but different types of protists have evolved varied modes of movement (Figure 23.8). Some protists have one or more flagella, which they rotate or whip. Others are covered in rows or tufts of tiny cilia that they coordinately beat to swim. Still others form cytoplasmic extensions called pseudopodia anywhere on the cell, anchor the pseudopodia to a substrate, and pull themselves forward. Some protists can move toward or away from a stimulus, a movement referred to as taxis. Movement toward light, termed phototaxis, is accomplished by coupling their locomotion strategy with a light-sensing organ. Answer: phototaxis", "output": [ "What is the term for movement toward light?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3a9b86b7e4be46e4ad39923041e8e1fd", "input": "Passage: Figure 33.3 Apodemes are ingrowths on arthropod exoskeletons to which muscles attach. The apodemes on this crab leg are located above and below the fulcrum of the claw. Contraction of muscles attached to the apodemes pulls the claw closed. Answer: apodemes", "output": [ "What are ingrowths on arthropod exoskeletons to which muscles attach?" ] }, { "id": "task594-02b7f1e3c3624efba069bbe2486773ce", "input": "Passage: Digestion of polysaccharides and disaccharides in the small intestine produces glucose and other monosaccharides. Answer: monosaccharides", "output": [ "Digestion of polysaccharides and disaccharides in the small intestine produces glucose and other?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4a4ab2d63867417b9a6376e635480518", "input": "Passage: solid waste that remains after food is digested and is eliminated from the body through the anus. Answer: solid", "output": [ "What type of waste is eliminated from the body through the anus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-03f20f89b6254e0b95a42ab9a88b207b", "input": "Passage: Figure 29.17 shows a comet with two prominent tails. What most people do not know about the tails is that they always point away from the Sun rather than trailing behind the comet (like the tail of Bo Peep’s sheep). Comet tails are composed of gases and dust evaporated from the body of the comet and ionized gas. The dust particles recoil away from the Sun when photons scatter from them. Evidently, photons carry momentum in the direction of their motion (away from the Sun), and some of this momentum is transferred to dust particles in collisions. Gas atoms and molecules in the blue tail are most affected by other particles of radiation, such as protons and electrons emanating from the Sun, rather than by the momentum of photons. Answer: dust particles recoil", "output": [ "Why do comet tails always point away from the sun instead of trailing behind the comet?" ] }, { "id": "task594-33862d36e8624aa4a7fdf0f85e94379a", "input": "Passage: Earthquakes may take place every day near a volcano. But before an eruption the number and size of earthquakes increases. This is the result of magma pushing upward into the magma chamber. This motion causes stresses on neighboring rock to build up. Eventually the ground shakes. A continuous string of earthquakes may indicate that a volcano is about to erupt. Scientists use seismographs to record the length and strength of each earthquake. Answer: seismograph", "output": [ "What instrument is used to record the length and strength of an earthquake?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a0d204a7b9b949ef99a7fc7a12820818", "input": "Passage: Nutrients are substances that the body needs for energy, building materials, and control of body processes. Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and water are nutrients needed in relatively large amounts. Vitamins and minerals are nutrients needed in much smaller amounts. Answer: nutrients", "output": [ "What are substances that the body needs for energy, building materials, and control of body processes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ee9e658271434fbebfaf0b21c5dea2f6", "input": "Passage: The cell wall is a rigid layer that surrounds the plasma membrane of a plant cell. It supports and protects the cell. Tiny holes, or pores, in the cell wall allow water, nutrients, and other substances to move into and out of the cell. The cell wall is made up mainly of complex carbohydrates, including cellulose. Answer: the cell wall", "output": [ "What is a rigid layer that surrounds the plasma membrane of a plant cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-babc40a242394f1bb18583d3462294ce", "input": "Passage: There are two main types of air pollutants: primary and secondary. Most air pollutants come from burning fossil fuels. Some come from burning forests. Some are due to the evaporation of chemicals. Answer: primary and secondary", "output": [ "What are the two main types of air pollutants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-daa6d1534d7f438d9eb08029efb9bd0d", "input": "Passage: Environmental science deals with the effects people have on the environment. Answer: environmental science", "output": [ "What branch of science deals with the effects people have on the environment?" ] }, { "id": "task594-77775ad295444550b146e4279a810b19", "input": "Passage: Nervous tissue is made up of neurons , or nerve cells, that carry electrical messages. Nervous tissue makes up the brain and the nerves that connect the brain to all parts of the body. Answer: neurons", "output": [ "What is the nervous tissue in the brain and in the rest of the nervous system made up of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-83310f123bd24c58ac90f46763733ecc", "input": "Passage: When a wave meets a barrier, it reflects and travels back the way it came. The reflected wave may interfere with the original wave. If this occurs in precisely the right way, a standing wave can be created. The types of standing waves that can form depend strongly on the speed of the wave and the size of the region in which it is traveling. Answer: reflected wave", "output": [ "A standing wave is created when what type of wave interferes with the original wave?" ] }, { "id": "task594-31028ef77a0f4f1cbc7e5d7678afa4b4", "input": "Passage: Animals not only have specialized cells. Most animals also have tissues and organs. In many animals, organs form organ systems, such as a nervous system. Higher levels of organization allow animals to perform many complex functions. What can animals do that most other living things cannot? Here are some examples. All of them are illustrated in Figure below . Answer: organ systems", "output": [ "Groups of related organs form what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-95ce8858775c4f13acc8510d59b62333", "input": "Passage: There are several other examples of objects that increase their rate of spin because something reduced their moment of inertia. Tornadoes are one example. Storm systems that create tornadoes are slowly rotating. When the radius of rotation narrows, even in a local region, angular velocity increases, sometimes to the furious level of a tornado. Earth is another example. Our planet was born from a huge cloud of gas and dust, the rotation of which came from turbulence in an even larger cloud. Gravitational forces caused the cloud to contract, and the rotation rate increased as a result. (See Figure 10.24. Answer: it is slow", "output": [ "What is said about the speed of rotation in systems that create tornadoes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9d01b829123d4e50be1998422a886a0c", "input": "Passage: Briefly describe how viruses depend on host cells. Answer: host cells", "output": [ "Viruses depend on what type of cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b4674e6a172a426b8ec74bd2a5ee9855", "input": "Passage: Another barrier is the saliva in the mouth, which is rich in lysozyme—an enzyme that destroys bacteria by digesting their cell walls. The acidic environment of the stomach, which is fatal to many pathogens, is also a barrier. Additionally, the mucus layer of the gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, reproductive tract, eyes, ears, and nose traps both microbes and debris, and facilitates their removal. In the case of the upper respiratory tract, ciliated epithelial cells move potentially contaminated mucus upwards to the mouth, where it is then swallowed into the digestive tract, ending up in the harsh acidic environment of the stomach. Considering how often you breathe compared to how often you eat or perform other activities that expose you to pathogens, it is not surprising that multiple barrier mechanisms have evolved to work in concert to protect this vital area. Answer: by digesting their cell walls", "output": [ "How does lysozyme destroy bacteria?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fac88f0613294dee8ceb15de42b56b7f", "input": "Passage: 37.5 Endocrine Glands The pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain and is attached to the hypothalamus by the infundibulum. The anterior pituitary receives products from the hypothalamus by the hypophyseal portal system and produces six hormones. The posterior pituitary is an extension of the brain and releases hormones (antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin) produced by the hypothalamus. The thyroid gland is located in the neck and is composed of two lobes connected by the isthmus. The thyroid is made up of follicle cells that produce the hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine. Parafollicular cells of the thyroid produce calcitonin. The parathyroid glands lie on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland and produce parathyroid hormone. The adrenal glands are located on top of the kidneys and consist of the renal cortex and renal medulla. The adrenal cortex is the outer part of the adrenal gland and produces the corticosteroids, glucocorticoids, and mineralocorticoids. The adrenal medulla is the inner part of the adrenal gland and produces the catecholamines epinephrine and norepinephrine. The pancreas lies in the abdomen between the stomach and the small intestine. Clusters of endocrine cells in the pancreas form the islets of Langerhans, which are composed of alpha cells that release glucagon and beta cells that release insulin. Some organs possess endocrine activity as a secondary function but have another primary function. The heart produces the hormone atrial natriuretic peptide, which functions to reduce blood volume, pressure, and Na + concentration. The gastrointestinal tract produces various hormones that aid in digestion. The kidneys produce renin, calcitriol, and erythropoietin. Adipose tissue produces leptin, which promotes satiety signals in the brain. Answer: endocrine", "output": [ "The pituitary gland is associated with what bodily system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5b46e52159024ca584d13d83ca76e084", "input": "Passage: Mushrooms and other fungi obtain energy from other organisms. That’s why you often see fungi growing on a fallen tree; the rotting tree is their source of energy ( Figure below ). Answer: other organisms", "output": [ "Mushrooms and other fungi obtain energy from what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-497f497b7cd9471caf580945df42ea3c", "input": "Passage: Trophic level 3 = secondary consumers that eat primary consumers. Answer: trophic level 3", "output": [ "What trophic level are secondary consumers (which eat primary consumers) considered to be?" ] }, { "id": "task594-de9928bc38ba4767bb622d06cf155b7b", "input": "Passage: Discussions of colors can sometimes become confusing because of the difference between light emitters and light absorbers. Light absorbers, such as dyes and pigments, absorb frequencies from those that you see, while light emitters add frequencies to what you see. If I were to shine red light, green light, and blue light into your eye all at the same time, you would likely see some variation of white. If I were to mix red paint, green paint, and blue paint together, you would likely see black or some very dark color. Answer: add frequencies", "output": [ "What do light emitters do to what you see?" ] }, { "id": "task594-681fb7e9e5f34de18aa03b5abf1038a2", "input": "Passage: In the winter, the temperature often gets well below the freezing point of water. This condition can create problem in car radiators. If the water freezes, water hoses will break, the engine block can crack, and significant damage can be done to the car. Answer: freeze", "output": [ "In winter, water does what, becoming solid and causing hoses to rupture and engine blocks to crack?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7fa11e7181d04f208bbc910562147757", "input": "Passage: When a colorless solution of lead(II) nitrate is added to a colorless solution of potassium iodide, a yellow solid called a precipitate is instantly produced ( Figure below ). A precipitate is a solid product that forms from a reaction and settles out of a liquid mixture. The formation of a precipitate may also indicate the occurrence of a chemical reaction. Answer: yellow solid precipitate", "output": [ "What is produced when a colorless solution of lead nitrate is added to a colorless solution of potassium iodide?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f0181bf6c104400781864ab79e89acc0", "input": "Passage: Chapter 22 1 Figure 22.8 The extracellular matrix and outer layer of cells protects the inner bacteria. The close proximity of cells also facilitates lateral gene transfer, a process by which genes such as antibiotic resistance genes are transferred from one bacterium to another. And even if lateral gene transfer does not occur, one bacterium that produces an exo-enzyme that destroys antibiotic may save neighboring bacteria. 3 Figure 22.19 D 4 A 6 A 8 B 10 B 12 A 14 B 16 C 18 B 20 D 22 D 24 B 25 As the organisms are non-culturable, the presence could be detected through molecular techniques, such as PCR. 27 Responses will vary. A possible answer is: Bacteria contain peptidoglycan in the cell wall; archaea do not. The cell membrane in bacteria is a lipid bilayer; in archaea, it can be a lipid bilayer or a monolayer. Bacteria contain fatty acids on the cell membrane, whereas archaea contain phytanyl. 29 Responses will vary. In a deep-sea hydrothermal vent, there is no light, so prokaryotes would be chemotrophs instead of phototrophs. The source of carbon would be carbon dioxide dissolved in the ocean, so they would be autotrophs. There is not a lot of organic material in the ocean, so prokaryotes would probably use inorganic sources, thus they would be chemolitotrophs. The temperatures are very high in the hydrothermal vent, so the prokaryotes would be thermophilic. 31 E. coli colonizes the surface of the leaf, forming a biofilm that is more difficult to remove than free (planktonic) cells. Additionally, bacteria can be taken up in the water that plants are grown in, thereby entering the plant tissues rather than simply residing on the leaf surface. Answer: lack of light", "output": [ "Why would prokaryotes be chemotrophs instead of phototrophs in a deep-sea hydrothermal vent?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2aa23e63538c4df7aa0e594aec2f0251", "input": "Passage: Air quality is a measure of the pollutants in the air. More pollutants mean poorer air quality. Poor air quality started to become a serious problem after the Industrial Revolution. Factories burned coal for energy. Gasoline burned by cars and trucks added greatly to air pollution. By the mid-1900s, air quality in many big cities was very bad. Incidents in London and in U. S. cities alerted people to the extent of the problem. It was clear that air quality needed to be protected. Answer: pollutants", "output": [ "Air quality is a measure of what in the air?" ] }, { "id": "task594-19faee47308f467ea680ef132057ccb8", "input": "Passage: In measuring quantities we always aim for high accuracy . Estimates that fall within the range of uncertainty for a given instrument are said to be accurate. In our previous example, all of the values between and including 52.4 mL and 53.4 mL would be considered accurate. Estimates that fall outside this range are inaccurate. Accuracy describes how close an estimate is to a known standard. Answer: accuracy", "output": [ "What describes how close an estimate is to a known standard?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ce2b3302ae9842608c32d697c6342a4c", "input": "Passage: frequent algal blooms d. little or no vegetation 12. Which of the following is an example of a weather event? a. The hurricane season lasts from June 1 through November 30. The amount of atmospheric CO2 has steadily increased during the last century. A windstorm blew down trees in the Boundary Waters Canoe Area in Minnesota on July 4, 1999. Deserts are generally dry ecosystems having very little rainfall. Which of the following natural forces is responsible for the release of carbon dioxide and other atmospheric gases? a. the Milankovitch cycles b. volcanoes c. solar intensity d. burning of fossil fuels. Answer: rainfall", "output": [ "Deserts are generally dry ecosystems having very little what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-303eeaf2618d475eade1f0cb15ff2649", "input": "Passage: The male reproductive system consists of structures that produce sperm and secrete testosterone. Answer: structures that produce sperm and secrete testosterone", "output": [ "What does the male reproductive system consist of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a4d2a2dfb2134696a46a1554eb54dbcc", "input": "Passage: The weight of an object is the force pulling the object downward. On Earth, this would be the gravitational force of the Earth on the object. On the moon, this would be the gravitational force of the moon on the object. The gravitational force of the moon is one-sixth the magnitude of the gravitational force of the Earth; the weight of the moon rock on the moon will be one-sixth the weight of the moon rock on the Earth’s surface. Weight is measured in force units—newtons—by a calibrated spring scale as shown here. Answer: weight", "output": [ "What is the force pulling an object downward called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8da410ecc89e47d5958e70813fe3d3ea", "input": "Passage: The largest known virus, called mimivirus, is so large that scientists first mistook it for a bacterium. It was first discovered in amoeba, in 1992, and was identified as a virus in 2003. Scientists believe that mimivirus may cause certain types of pneumonia in humans. The core contains DNA, with the majority of the DNA in genes, and only 10% DNA of unknown function (\"junk\" DNA). Answer: mimivirus", "output": [ "What is the largest known virus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-49d0e83a703a473aa268bab0381334d5", "input": "Passage: Endocytosis is the process of capturing a substance or particle from outside the cell by engulfing it with the cell membrane. The membrane folds over the substance and it becomes completely enclosed by the membrane. At this point a membrane-bound sac, or vesicle pinches off and moves the substance into the cytosol. There are two main kinds of endocytosis:. Answer: endocytosis", "output": [ "What is the process of capturing a substance or particle from outside the cell by engulfing it with the cell membrane?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e73931c9b9b54d7a999660c737240894", "input": "Passage: Temperature is the quantity measured by a thermometer. Temperature is related to the average kinetic energy of atoms and molecules in a system. Absolute zero is the temperature at which there is no molecular motion. There are three main temperature scales: Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin. Temperatures on one scale can be converted to temperatures on another scale using the following equations:. Answer: temperature", "output": [ "What does a thermometer measure?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2bbcfc706050463793db6b44cbd67c57", "input": "Passage: Omnivores eat both producers and consumers. Most people are omnivores, since they eat fruits, vegetables, and grains from plants, and also meat and dairy products from animals. Dogs, bears, and raccoons are also omnivores. Answer: omnivores", "output": [ "What is the name for creatures such as bears and humans that eat both consumers and producers?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c9342f7784f944759ce2cec1451227d7", "input": "Passage: Gene cloning is making an exact copy of a gene. Answer: gene cloning", "output": [ "What artificial process involves making an exact copy of a gene?" ] }, { "id": "task594-747ee88799f8497783cefd4be21dee92", "input": "Passage: Red blood cells ( Figure below ) are made in the red marrow of long bones, rib bones, the skull, and vertebrae. Each red blood cell lives for only 120 days (about four months). After this time, they are destroyed in the liver and spleen. Mature red blood cells do not have a nucleus or other organelles. Lacking these components allows the cells to have more hemoglobin and carry more oxygen. Answer: carry more oxygen", "output": [ "Red blood cells don't have a nucleus. this allows them to do what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a151d5998c68495e88000a756c4edb2c", "input": "Passage: A ramp like the one in the Figure below is another example of an inclined plane. Inclined planes make it easier to move objects to a higher elevation. The sloping surface of the inclined plane supports part of the weight of the object as it moves up the slope. As a result, it takes less force to move the object uphill. The trade-off is that the object must be moved over a greater distance than if it were moved straight up to the higher elevation. You can see several other examples of inclined planes at this URL:. Answer: inclined plane", "output": [ "A ramp is an example of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d29be445ec65494b8822b468803c0bb5", "input": "Passage: All amphibians have digestive, excretory, and reproductive systems. All three of these organ systems use a single body cavity, called the cloaca. Wastes enter the cloaca from the digestive and excretory systems. Gametes enter the cloaca from the reproductive system. A single external opening in the cloaca allows the wastes and gametes to exit the body. (Many other four legged vertebrates also have a cloaca. ). Answer: cloaca", "output": [ "An external opening in the what of amphibians allows wastes and gametes to exit the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8a57154a6a4a4af982aed9c12e183f3e", "input": "Passage: 35.5 Growth, morphogenesis, and cell differentiation produce the plant body. Answer: body", "output": [ "Growth, morphogenesis, and cell differentiation produce the plant what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-65b48b87f86241de84ad96f70a378d53", "input": "Passage: A piston having a certain pressure and volume (left piston) will have half the volume when its pressure is twice as much (right piston). One can also plot P versus V for a given amount of gas at a certain temperature; such a plot will look like the graph on the right. Boyle’s law is an example of a second type of mathematical problem we see in chemistry—one based on a mathematical formula. Tactics for working with mathematical formulas are different from tactics for working with conversion factors. First, most of the questions you will have to answer using formulas are word-type questions, so the first step is to identify what quantities are known and assign them to variables. Second, in most formulas, some mathematical rearrangements (i. , algebra) must be performed to solve for an unknown variable. The rule is that to find the value of the unknown variable, you must mathematically isolate the unknown variable by itself and in the numerator of one side of the equation. Finally, units must be consistent. For example, in Boyle’s law there are two pressure variables; they must have the same unit. There are also two volume variables; they also must have the same unit. In most cases, it won’t matter what the unit is, but the unit must be the same on both sides of the equation. Answer: gas", "output": [ "Boyle’s law applies to matter which is in what state?" ] }, { "id": "task594-85a6fc52ff6a47c59aecd3f57057b083", "input": "Passage: Note that like most other cells, these nerve cells have a nucleus. They also have other organelles. However, the long, threadlike extensions of the nerve cells are unique. This is where the nerve impulses are transmitted. Answer: long, threadlike extensions", "output": [ "Which part of the nerve cell helps transmit nerve impulses?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d30f2f0972de41be9908708a08dd2b67", "input": "Passage: Longshore drift continually moves sand along the shore. Deposition occurs where the water motion slows. The smallest particles, such as silt and clay, are deposited away from shore. This is where the water is calmer. Larger particles are deposited onshore. This is where waves and other motions are strongest. Answer: deposition", "output": [ "What occurs where the water motion slows?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c437e4e1b9544f36b9c9d43f517c45f0", "input": "Passage: Mutualism is a symbiotic relationship in which both species benefit. An example of mutualism involves goby fish and shrimp (see Figure below ). The nearly blind shrimp and the fish spend most of their time together. The shrimp maintains a burrow in the sand in which both the fish and shrimp live. When a predator comes near, the fish touches the shrimp with its tail as a warning. Then, both fish and shrimp retreat to the burrow until the predator is gone. From their relationship, the shrimp gets a warning of approaching danger. The fish gets a safe retreat and a place to lay its eggs. Answer: mutualism", "output": [ "What is a symbiotic relationship in which both species benefit?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b9b13b54aac6488298e9e597d4cb4d40", "input": "Passage: Early in the development of a human fetus, the skeleton is made entirely of cartilage . The relatively soft cartilage gradually turns into hard bone through ossification . This is a process in which mineral deposits replace cartilage. As shown in Figure below , ossification of long bones, which are found in the arms and legs, begins at the center of the bones and continues toward the ends. By birth, several areas of cartilage remain in the skeleton, including growth plates at the ends of the long bones. This cartilage grows as the long bones grow, so the bones can keep increasing in length during childhood. Answer: ossification", "output": [ "Soft cartilage gradually turns into hard bone through what process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ac5a17bbe5b7413e851d38873abf6ab0", "input": "Passage: Caffeine is an example of a psychoactive drug. It is found in coffee and many other products (see Table below ). Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant . Like other stimulant drugs, it makes you feel more awake and alert. Other psychoactive drugs include alcohol, nicotine, and marijuana. Each has a different effect on the central nervous system. Alcohol, for example, is a depressant . It has the opposite effects of a stimulant like caffeine. Answer: psychoactive drug", "output": [ "What term describes a drug that has an effect on the central nervous system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-20e1b4b32f8040dab4fe8bb3aa108b8d", "input": "Passage: Commensalism is a symbiotic relationship in which one species benefits while the other species is not affected. One species typically uses the other for a purpose other than food. For example, mites attach themselves to larger flying insects to get a “free ride. ” Hermit crabs use the shells of dead snails for homes. Answer: commensalism", "output": [ "What is the name of the symbiotic relationship in which one species benefits while the other species is not affected?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d9d0d469d0be4baeb9b09c9e9673eba0", "input": "Passage: Types of friction include static friction, sliding friction, rolling friction, and fluid friction. Fluid friction with air is called air resistance. Answer: air resistance", "output": [ "What is fluid friction with air called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-58ff8693c1e845f7be3a1831692fbc35", "input": "Passage: The first year of life after birth is called infancy. During infancy, a baby grows very quickly. The baby’s length typically doubles and her weight triples by her first birthday. Many other important changes also occur during infancy:. Answer: infancy", "output": [ "What is the first year of life following birth called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-87635684640843d4ae5427f54370390e", "input": "Passage: Hundreds of thousands of asteroids have been found in our solar system. They are still being discovered at a rate of about 5,000 new asteroids per month! The majority are located in between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. This region is called the asteroid belt , as shown in Figure below . There are many thousands of asteroids in the asteroid belt. Still, their total mass adds up to only about 4 percent of Earth’s Moon. Answer: mars and jupiter", "output": [ "What two planets is the asteroid belt found between?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2a7bf0c8828b4aefb08101dbbfa9e17b", "input": "Passage: The amino acid sequence is the primary structure of a protein. As explained in Figure below , a protein may have up to four levels of structure, from primary to quaternary. The complex structure of a protein allows it to carry out its biological functions. Answer: amino acid sequence", "output": [ "What sequence is the primary structure of a protein?" ] }, { "id": "task594-12baa6f3931e4406ad89ebb8ec3c2f0d", "input": "Passage: Intrinsic Muscles of the Hand The intrinsic muscles of the hand both originate and insert within it (Figure 11.28). These muscles allow your fingers to also make precise movements for actions, such as typing or writing. These muscles are divided into three groups. The thenar muscles are on the radial aspect of the palm. The hypothenar muscles are on the medial aspect of the palm, and the intermediate muscles are midpalmar. The thenar muscles include the abductor pollicis brevis, opponens pollicis, flexor pollicis brevis, and the adductor pollicis. These muscles form the thenar eminence, the rounded contour of the base of the thumb, and all act on the thumb. The movements of the thumb play an integral role in most precise movements of the hand. The hypothenar muscles include the abductor digiti minimi, flexor digiti minimi brevis, and the opponens digiti minimi. These muscles form the hypothenar eminence, the rounded contour of the little finger, and as such, they all act on the little finger. Finally, the intermediate muscles act on all the fingers and include the lumbrical, the palmar interossei, and the dorsal interossei. Answer: intrinsic muscles", "output": [ "Which muscles allow your fingers to also make precise movements for actions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c77dafbb67bb48b8bfe399b2c299d54a", "input": "Passage: As a cell prepares to divide, its DNA first forms one or more structures called chromosomes. A chromosome consists of DNA and protein molecules coiled into a definite shape. Chromosomes are circular in prokaryotes and rodlike in eukaryotes. You can see an example of a human chromosome in Figure below . The rest of the time, DNA looks like a tangled mass of strings. In this form, it would be very difficult to copy and divide. Answer: chromosome", "output": [ "What structure is made from dna and protein molecules coiled together?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7f5c7db0a2da406c9ae1ff9301aba800", "input": "Passage: Carbaminohemoglobin About 20 percent of carbon dioxide is bound by hemoglobin and is transported to the lungs. Carbon dioxide does not bind to iron as oxygen does; instead, carbon dioxide binds amino acid moieties on the globin portions of hemoglobin to form carbaminohemoglobin, which forms when hemoglobin and carbon dioxide bind. When hemoglobin is not transporting oxygen, it tends to have a bluish-purple tone to it, creating the darker maroon color typical of deoxygenated blood. The following formula depicts this reversible reaction:. Answer: lungs", "output": [ "About 20 percent of carbon dioxide is bound by hemoglobin and is transported where?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2b0d67112736415eb84620251a6aae8f", "input": "Passage: Male reproductive structures include the penis, testes, and epididymis. Answer: epididymis", "output": [ "What is the third male reprodutive structure after the penis and testes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-946e7fa597594f14bd4c573c8f6e8566", "input": "Passage: Levels of Organization of Living Things Living things are highly organized and structured, following a hierarchy that can be examined on a scale from small to large. The atom is the smallest and most fundamental unit of matter. It consists of a nucleus surrounded by electrons. Atoms form molecules. A molecule is a chemical structure consisting of at least two atoms held together by one or more chemical bonds. Many molecules that are biologically important are macromolecules, large molecules that are typically formed by polymerization (a polymer is a large molecule that is made by combining smaller units called monomers, which are simpler than macromolecules). An example of a macromolecule is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (Figure 1.15), which contains the instructions for the structure and functioning of all living organisms. Answer: atom", "output": [ "What is the smallest and most fundamental unit of matter, consisting of a nucleus surrounded by electrons?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1f67b8ae50644d1c8627c86034cbb67c", "input": "Passage: We learned in the previous concept, \"Scientific Explanations and Interpretations,\" that the average global temperature has been on the rise. Scientists know that carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas . Greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere. This leads us to a question:. Answer: atmosphere", "output": [ "Where do greenhouse gases trap heat?" ] }, { "id": "task594-47077a805f3043e1b059f9bc90be6fa8", "input": "Passage: Hurricanes move with the prevailing winds. In the Northern Hemisphere, they originate in the trade winds and are blown to the west. When they reach the westerlies, they switch direction. So they travel toward the north or northeast. You can look at a map of hurricane tracks to see this happen ( Figure below ). Hurricanes may cover 800 km (500 miles) in one day. Answer: hurricanes", "output": [ "What weather events move with the prevailing winds and originate in the trade winds in the northern hemisphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-be6ed0ab482e4ed591070809de0254c4", "input": "Passage: The energy of motion is called kinetic energy. Answer: kinetic energy", "output": [ "What do we call the energy of motion?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ee8fca2cf2054ec0b36408f7bb712620", "input": "Passage: Biotic factors are all of the living or once-living aspects of the environment. They include all the organisms that live there as well as the remains of dead organisms. Answer: biotic factors", "output": [ "What are all of the living or once-living aspects of the environment called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eb0bc029ef9c40ddba7b5bd1f68f7f9e", "input": "Passage: Air pollution may also cause acid rain. This is rain that is more acidic (has a lower pH) than normal rain. Acids form in the atmosphere when nitrogen and sulfur oxides mix with water in air. Nitrogen and sulfur oxides come mainly from motor vehicle exhaust and coal burning. Answer: air pollution", "output": [ "Acid rain may be caused by what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-518613431e8a4bceb7189eb205472f6e", "input": "Passage: 45.3 Environmental Limits to Population Growth Populations with unlimited resources grow exponentially, with an accelerating growth rate. When resources become limiting, populations follow a logistic growth curve. The population of a species will level off at the carrying capacity of its environment. Answer: carrying capacity", "output": [ "While populations with unlimited resources grow exponentially, the population of a species will level off when what limit of its environment is reached?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1974608d142743f2b986173fc65fd395", "input": "Passage: Physical science can be defined as the study of matter and energy. Matter refers to all the \"stuff\" that exists in the universe. It includes everything you can see and many things that you cannot see, including the air around you. Energy is what gives matter the ability to move and change. Energy can take many forms, such as electricity, heat, and light. Physical science can be divided into chemistry and physics. Chemistry focuses on matter and energy at the scale of atoms and molecules. Physics focuses on matter and energy at all scales, from atoms to outer space. Answer: energy", "output": [ "Physical science can be defined as the study of matter and what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-15b1f78e6f2e44a189d648bb7f0e8418", "input": "Passage: Combustion reactions involve the reaction of a hydrocarbon with oxygen gas to produce water and carbon dioxide. Answer: combustion reactions", "output": [ "What involves the reaction of a hydrocarbon with oxygen gas to produce water and carbon dioxide?" ] }, { "id": "task594-12de7f9dde864fe78bc57fc9d582c654", "input": "Passage: Few genetic disorders are controlled by dominant alleles. A mutant dominant allele is expressed in every individual who inherits even one copy of it. If it causes a serious disorder, affected people may die young and fail to reproduce. Therefore, the mutant dominant allele is likely to die out of the population. Answer: genetic disorders", "output": [ "Dominant alleles rarely cause what type of disorders, since the mutant allele is likely to die out of the population?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ecf13f8debbd446597d67fd9a8ac2d5a", "input": "Passage: 16.3 Circulatory and Respiratory Systems Animal respiratory systems are designed to facilitate gas exchange. In mammals, air is warmed and humidified in the nasal cavity. Air then travels down the pharynx and larynx, through the trachea, and into the lungs. In the lungs, air passes. Answer: nasal cavity", "output": [ "In mammals, air is warmed and humidified in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1e82a5870840420392b3a8e5f6fab65e", "input": "Passage: Osmosis is the special case of the diffusion of water. It's an important means of transport in cells because the fluid inside and outside cells is mostly water. Water can pass through the cell membrane by simple diffusion, but it can happen more quickly with the help of channel proteins. Water moves in or out of a cell by osmosis until its concentration is the same on both sides of the cell membrane. Answer: osmosis", "output": [ "What is the diffusion of water known as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5a38f41f6e964af2b6e48c31b4cebebc", "input": "Passage: Light microscopes continued to improve and are still used today. However, to see extremely small objects, a different type of microscope, such as an electron microscope, must be used. Answer: electron microscope", "output": [ "What type of microscope is used to see extremely small objects?" ] }, { "id": "task594-64c9c457ef8d400480c015449648bdbf", "input": "Passage: Wind-blown pollen might land anywhere and be wasted. Another adaptation solved this problem. Plants evolved traits that attract specific animal pollinators . Like the bee in Figure below , a pollinator picks up pollen on its body and carries it directly to another plant of the same species. This greatly increases the chance that fertilization will occur. Answer: pollen", "output": [ "What does a pollinator pick from its body and carry directly to another plant of the same species?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e290c7ebc4634eb7a30c2ad45e95d950", "input": "Passage: Another example of cooperation is seen with meerkats. Meerkats are small mammals that live in Africa. They also live in groups and cooperate with one another. For example, young female meerkats act as babysitters. They take care of the baby meerkats while their parents are away looking for food. Answer: africa", "output": [ "In which continent are meerkats most likely to be found?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c277bd8975344cfaa16f09063d640396", "input": "Passage: Efforts to control population growth led to the one-child policy in China, which used to include more severe consequences, but now imposes fines on urban couples who have more than one child. Due to the fact that some couples wish to have a male heir, many Chinese couples continue to have more than one child. The policy itself, its social impacts, and the effectiveness of limiting overall population growth are controversial. In spite of population control policies, the human population continues to grow. At some point the food supply may run out because of the subsequent need to produce more and more food to feed our population. The United Nations estimates that future world population growth may vary from 6 billion (a decrease) to 16 billion people by the year 2100. There is no way to know whether human population growth will moderate to the point where the crisis described by Dr. Ehrlich will be averted. Another result of population growth is the endangerment of the natural environment. Many countries have attempted to reduce the human impact on climate change by reducing their emission of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide. However, these treaties have not been ratified by every country, and many underdeveloped countries trying to improve their economic condition may be less likely to agree with such provisions if it means slower economic development. Furthermore, the role of human activity in causing climate change has become a hotly debated socio-political issue in some developed countries, including the United States. Thus, we enter the future with considerable uncertainty about our ability to curb human population growth and protect our environment. Answer: carbon dioxide", "output": [ "Many countries have attempted to reduce the human impact on climate change by reducing their emission of what greenhouse gas?" ] }, { "id": "task594-490ef63d6e7f4610bdff27473eb7d762", "input": "Passage: Echinoderms lack respiratory and excretory systems. Instead, the thin walls of their tube feet allow oxygen to diffuse in and wastes to diffuse out. Echinoderms also lack a centralized nervous system. They have an open circulatory system and lack a heart. On the other hand, echinoderms have a well-developed coelom and a complete digestive system. Echinoderms use pheromones to communicate with each other. They detect the chemicals with sensory cells on their body surface. Some echinoderms also have simple eyes ( ocelli ) that can sense light. Like annelids, echinoderms have the ability to regenerate a missing body part. Answer: centralized nervous system", "output": [ "Echinoderms lack what type of system that in humans consists of the brain and spinal cord?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cfec252d2f8f4fa29a6cbe7ad7741b04", "input": "Passage: During asexual reproduction, fungi produce haploid spores by mitosis of a haploid parent cell. A haploid cell has just one of each pair of chromosomes. The haploid spores are genetically identical to the parent cell. Spores may be spread by moving water, wind, or other organisms. Wherever the spores land, they will develop into new hyphae only when conditions are suitable for growth. Answer: mitosis", "output": [ "During asexual reproduction, fungi produce haploid spores by what process involving a haploid parent cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6897226ea6214eb1bebdc3325edf92eb", "input": "Passage: Sexual reproduction involves two parents. It produces offspring that are all genetically unique. It requires the production of haploid gametes. The union of gametes is called fertilization. It results in a diploid zygote. Answer: fertilization", "output": [ "The union of gametes is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8b70d732246c4858b784934b8512bf4c", "input": "Passage: No, not all animals have two parents. Sometimes animals can be made from just one parent. This Komodo dragon, for example, only has a mother and reproduces by parthenogenesis. Asexual reproduction is the process of creating offspring from just one parent. Answer: asexual reproduction", "output": [ "Parthenogenis in komodo dragons is an example of what kind of reproduction, whereby offspring are created from just one parent?" ] }, { "id": "task594-950bd9c74b8c4b23b4df8f2927e7fcbd", "input": "Passage: Scientific experiments involve controls , or subjects that are not tested during the investigation. In this way, a scientist limits the factors, or variables that can cause the results of an investigation to differ. A variable is a factor that can change over the course of an experiment. Independent variables are factors whose values are controlled by the experimenter to determine their relationship with an observed phenomenon. Dependent variables are the observed phenomenon, and change in response to the independent variable. Controlled variables are also important to identify in experiments. They are the variables that are kept constant to prevent them from influencing the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. Answer: constant", "output": [ "Controlled variables are kept what to prevent them from influencing the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ef9c1ef863814d81917d0461a836ed1b", "input": "Passage: Animal behavior is any way that animals act, either alone or with other animals. Answer: animal behavior", "output": [ "What do we call any way that animals act, either alone or with other animals." ] }, { "id": "task594-8754383b2b5b4f519adba329bc71ff50", "input": "Passage: The process in which an atom becomes an ion is called ionization. It may occur when atoms are exposed to high levels of radiation or when atoms transfer electrons to or from other atoms. Answer: ionization", "output": [ "What process can occur when atoms are exposed to high levels of radiation or when atoms transfer electrons to or from other atoms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4885fb11d9b541e88eb7fb5d987d283f", "input": "Passage: Compact bone makes up the dense outer layer of bone. Its functional unit is the osteon . Compact bone is very hard and strong. Answer: osteon", "output": [ "What is the functional unit of compact bone?" ] }, { "id": "task594-edcaaafe970e49e3b40adbf20648a65e", "input": "Passage: A changing magnetic field produces an electric current in the process of electromagnetic induction. Current is generated whenever an electric conductor crosses magnetic field lines. Answer: magnetic field lines", "output": [ "What does an electric conductor cross to generate current?" ] }, { "id": "task594-70dbc34677d44b14bf3568240ee21744", "input": "Passage: Most turtle bodies are covered by a special bony or cartilaginous shell developed from their ribs. Answer: ribs", "output": [ "Most turtle bodies are covered by a special bony or cartilaginous shell developed from their what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6bcb5ac71297475db1cba98186034c0e", "input": "Passage: Like the cells of all eukaryotes, animal cells have a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Unlike the cells of eukaryotes in the Plant and Fungus Kingdoms, animal cells lack a cell wall. This gives animal cells flexibility. It lets them take on different shapes. This in turn allows them to become specialized for particular jobs. Answer: eukaryotes", "output": [ "Which kinds of cells have nuclei and other membrane bound organelles?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bd50c60afc224919be7092168b51973b", "input": "Passage: 7.2 | Glycolysis By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Describe the overall result in terms of molecules produced in the breakdown of glucose by glycolysis • Compare the output of glycolysis in terms of ATP molecules and NADH molecules produced You have read that nearly all of the energy used by living cells comes to them in the bonds of the sugar, glucose. Glycolysis is the first step in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy for cellular metabolism. Nearly all living organisms carry out glycolysis as part of their metabolism. The process does not use oxygen and is therefore anaerobic. Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Glucose enters heterotrophic cells in two ways. One method is through secondary active transport in which the transport takes place against the glucose concentration gradient. The other mechanism uses a group of integral proteins called GLUT proteins, also known as glucose transporter proteins. These transporters assist in the facilitated diffusion of glucose. Glycolysis begins with the six carbon ring-shaped structure of a single glucose molecule and ends with two molecules of a three-carbon sugar called pyruvate. Glycolysis consists of two distinct phases. The first part of the glycolysis pathway traps the glucose molecule in the cell and uses energy to modify it so that the six-carbon sugar molecule can be split evenly into the two three-carbon molecules. The second part of glycolysis extracts energy from the molecules and stores it in the form of ATP and NADH, the reduced form of NAD. Answer: glycolysis", "output": [ "What is the first step in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy for cellular metabolism?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b47b80311b63469d8f66a72cf40aaf2b", "input": "Passage: Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with at least one double bond between carbon atoms. Answer: alkenes", "output": [ "What are unsaturated hydrocarbons with at least one double bond between carbon atoms called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0f1e15b01b294752889e38009b826dc6", "input": "Passage: Mirrors and lenses are used in optical instruments to reflect or refract light. Optical instruments include microscopes, telescopes, cameras, and lasers. Answer: mirrors and lenses", "output": [ "What two things are used in optical instruments to reflect or refract light?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8b93d4ae70c24f9d91253cdb243e4052", "input": "Passage: The marine west coast climate gets lots of rain from the nearby ocean. Answer: the ocean", "output": [ "The marine west coast climate gets lots of rain because of what being nearby?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8a8815a6730e488397c9540b51b19b93", "input": "Passage: The regular, rhythmic contractions of the diaphragm are controlled by the brain stem. It sends nerve impulses to the diaphragm through the autonomic nervous system. The brain stem monitors the level of carbon dioxide in the blood. If the level becomes too high, it “tells” the diaphragm to contract more often. Breathing speeds up, and the excess carbon dioxide is released into the air. The opposite events occur when the level of carbon dioxide in the blood becomes too low. In this way, breathing keeps blood pH within a narrow range. Answer: the brain stem", "output": [ "What monitors the level of carbon dioxide in the blood?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a59a65ce1b964b3e9476e94c540af58a", "input": "Passage: Figure 16.19 Neurons contain organelles common to other cells, such as a nucleus and mitochondria. They also have more specialized structures, including dendrites and axons. Answer: neurons", "output": [ "What contain organelles common to other cells, such as a nucleus and mitochondria, and also have more specialized structures, including dendrites and axons?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5db25e89b7bc4c1cb99126e42a95e7a7", "input": "Passage: In order to absorb oxygen from the water, fish use gills ( Figure below ). Gills take dissolved oxygen from water as the water flows over the surface of the gill. Answer: gills", "output": [ "What part of the body do fish use to absorb oxygen?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f0f12d6ca16c48d1b71e70311d490ef8", "input": "Passage: Generators may produce either alternating or direct current, but they all change kinetic energy to electrical energy. Answer: electrical energy", "output": [ "Generators usually transform kinetic energy into what kind of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4bf460576f7e49a08a6cbe95bb9d341e", "input": "Passage: The Coriolis effect describes how Earth’s rotation steers winds and surface ocean currents. Unlike land, air and water move freely (in the absence of obstacles). The Coriolis effect causes the path of a freely moving object to appear to curve. This is because Earth is rotating beneath the object. So even though the object's path is straight, it appears to curve. The curve appears to be to the right in the Northern Hemisphere. It appears to be to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. Answer: coriolis", "output": [ "What effect describes how earth’s rotation steers winds and surface ocean currents?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4551155caa624519bc6d3563449ebac2", "input": "Passage: Fossil fuels are non-renewable sources of energy that produce environmental damage. Answer: fossil fuels", "output": [ "What are non-renewable sources of energy that produce environmental damage?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d7c624832a8d4f24b7491e7042accaa4", "input": "Passage: Amphibians! In order for water-dwelling animals to adapt to life on land, many new adaptations had to take place. First, they needed to be able to breathe air instead of obtaining oxygen from water. And fins don't work well as legs! They needed to be able to move around well on land. Answer: amphibians", "output": [ "What broad category of animals shows adaptations from water-dwelling to land-dweller, including the ability to breathe air and legs to move on land?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a6ef065ccd31448990955f1599a39498", "input": "Passage: Carbohydrates include sugars, starches, and fiber. Sugars and starches are used by the body for energy. One gram of sugar or starch provides 4 Calories of energy. Fiber doesn’t provide energy, but it is needed for other uses. At age 13 years, you need about 130 grams of carbohydrates a day. Figure below shows good food sources of each type. Answer: 4", "output": [ "How many calories of energy does one gram of sugar or starch provide?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d00d2211ff7d4040847fb64439f0a55b", "input": "Passage: Nuclear Fuels Nuclear fuel consists of a fissionable isotope, such as uranium-235, which must be present in sufficient quantity to provide a self-sustaining chain reaction. In the United States, uranium ores contain from 0.05–0.3% of the uranium oxide U3O8; the uranium in the ore is about 99.3% nonfissionable U-238 with only 0.7% fissionable U-235. Nuclear reactors require a fuel with a higher concentration of U-235 than is found in nature; it is normally enriched to have about 5% of uranium mass as U-235. At this concentration, it is not possible to achieve the supercritical mass necessary for a nuclear explosion. Uranium can be enriched by gaseous diffusion (the only method currently used in the US), using a gas centrifuge, or by laser separation. In the gaseous diffusion enrichment plant where U-235 fuel is prepared, UF6 (uranium hexafluoride) gas at low pressure moves through barriers that have holes just barely large enough for UF6 to pass through. The slightly lighter 235UF6 molecules diffuse through the barrier slightly faster than the heavier 238UF6 molecules. This process is repeated through hundreds of barriers, gradually increasing the concentration of 235UF6 to the level needed by the nuclear reactor. The basis for this process, Graham’s law, is described in the chapter on gases. The enriched UF6 gas is collected, cooled until it solidifies, and then taken to a fabrication facility where it is made into fuel assemblies. Each fuel assembly consists of fuel rods that contain many thimble-sized, ceramic-encased, enriched uranium (usually UO2) fuel pellets. Modern nuclear reactors may contain as many as 10 million fuel pellets. The amount of energy in each of these pellets is equal to that in almost a ton of coal or 150 gallons of oil. Answer: nuclear", "output": [ "Uranium is an important part of the process used to harness which type of power?" ] }, { "id": "task594-89b29ee25dac47419edc5168f870f71b", "input": "Passage: Some people have low levels of the neurotransmitter called serotonin in their brain. Scientists think that this is one cause of depression. Medications called antidepressants help bring serotonin levels back to normal. For many people with depression, antidepressants control the symptoms of their depression and help them lead happy, productive lives. Answer: low serotonin levels", "output": [ "What according to scientists is the major cause of depression?" ] }, { "id": "task594-65a0db3b1d3248b4ba09de89ca53a26e", "input": "Passage: Solids have a fixed volume and a fixed shape. Liquids have a fixed volume but take the shape of their container. Gases take both the volume and the shape of their container. Answer: gases", "output": [ "What takes both the shape and the volume of their container?" ] }, { "id": "task594-45e0819030ab4ee0ac7aa5a546552c5c", "input": "Passage: The volume of a regularly shaped solid can be calculated from its dimensions. For example, the volume of a rectangular solid is the product of its length, width, and height. Answer: dimensions", "output": [ "The volume of a regularly shaped solid can be calculated from its what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-77435d29bae9498cb4c59e58b04c92fb", "input": "Passage: Force is defined as a push or pull acting on an object. There are several fundamental forces in the universe, including the force of gravity, electromagnetic force, and weak and strong nuclear forces. When it comes to the motion of everyday objects, however, the forces of interest include mainly gravity, friction, and applied force. Applied force is force that a person or thing applies to an object. Answer: force", "output": [ "Push or pull acting on an object is also called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7693149e35534d0a9926c5d293d46bff", "input": "Passage: It is actually the Yellow Christmas tree worm. These animals are colorful, and can be red, orange, yellow, blue, and white. The Christmas tree worm lives on tropical coral reefs throughout the world. The Christmas tree worm's plumes are used for feeding and respiration. These worms use their plumes to catch plankton and other small particles passing in the water. Cilia then pass the food to the worm's mouth. Answer: tropical coral reefs", "output": [ "Where does the christmas tree worm live?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7ccf0960d0b04bdeafbded38a2b8d2b9", "input": "Passage: The cerebellum is just below the cerebrum. It coordinates body movements. Many nerve pathways link the cerebellum with motor neurons throughout the body. Answer: cerebellum", "output": [ "What is just below the cerebrum and coordinates body movements?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3f5d1bf18910474bb6007713d7608ab3", "input": "Passage: Infiltration is the process by which water soaks into the ground. Some of the water may seep deep underground. Some may stay in the soil, where plants can absorb it with their roots. Answer: infiltration", "output": [ "Water seeping into the ground is known as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6f8a1ed9a8af4ce7a87c20823ed3c879", "input": "Passage: After Einstein proposed his theory, evidence was discovered to support it. For example, scientists shone laser light through two slits in a barrier made of a material that blocked light. You can see the setup of this type of experiment in the Figure below . Using a special camera that was very sensitive to light, they took photos of the light that passed through the slits. The photos revealed tiny pinpoints of light passing through the double slits. This seemed to show that light consists of particles. However, if the camera was exposed to the light for a long time, the pinpoints accumulated in bands that resembled interfering waves. Therefore, the experiment showed that light seems to consist of particles that act like waves. Answer: waves", "output": [ "According to one of einstein's theory, while light consists of particles, it behaves like this." ] }, { "id": "task594-d0726a68f2d641ad8a06f2131191d953", "input": "Passage: Gregor Mendel was born in 1822 and grew up on his parents’ farm in Austria. He did well in school and became a monk. He also went to the University of Vienna, where he studied science and math. His professors encouraged him to learn science through experimentation and to use math to make sense of his results. Mendel is best known for his experiments with the pea plant Pisum sativum (see Figure below ). You can watch a video about Mendel and his research at the following link: http://www. metacafe. com/watch/hl-19246625/milestones_in_science_engineering_gregor_mendel_and_classical_genetics/ . Answer: gregor mendel", "output": [ "What scientist and monk is best known for his experiments with pea plants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2d6510aae8ff4dfd9598f730321a2fbd", "input": "Passage: Epidemiologist Epidemiology is the study of the occurrence, distribution, and determinants of health and disease in a population. It is, therefore, related to public health. An epidemiologist studies the frequency and distribution of diseases within human populations and environments. Epidemiologists collect data about a particular disease and track its spread to identify the original mode of transmission. They sometimes work in close collaboration with historians to try to understand the way a disease evolved geographically and over time, tracking the natural history of pathogens. They gather information from clinical records, patient interviews, and any other available means. That information is used to develop strategies and design public health policies to reduce the incidence of a disease or to prevent its spread. Epidemiologists also conduct rapid investigations in case of an outbreak to recommend immediate measures to control it. Epidemiologists typically have a graduate-level education. An epidemiologist often has a bachelor’s degree in some field and a master’s degree in public health (MPH). Many epidemiologists are also physicians (and have an MD) or they have a PhD in an associated field, such as biology or epidemiology. Answer: epidemiology", "output": [ "What science is the study of the occurrence, distribution, and determinants of health and disease in a population?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7fe7b44ef4c24e30909554e78ce562cc", "input": "Passage: Figure 19.4 Survivorship curves show the distribution of individuals in a population according to age. Humans and most mammals have a Type I survivorship curve, because death primarily occurs in the older years. Birds have a Type II survivorship curve, as death at any age is equally probable. Trees have a Type III survivorship curve because very few survive the younger years, but after a certain age, individuals are much more likely to survive. Answer: age", "output": [ "Survivorship curves show the distribution of individuals in a population according to what metric?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b9532b35fb254fcfa33ca5ab393b21c5", "input": "Passage: Make sure formulas of all reactants and products are correct before balancing the equation. Oxygen gas is a diatomic molecule. Potassium oxide is an ionic compound and so its formula is constructed by the crisscross method. Potassium as an ion becomes K + , while the oxide ion is O 2− . Answer: diatomic", "output": [ "What kind of atomic molecule is oxygen gas?" ] }, { "id": "task594-68bf9cc23ce441e2bf100fc7cafb1b21", "input": "Passage: Mass The property of a body to remain at rest or to remain in motion with constant velocity is called inertia. Newton’s first law is often called the law of inertia. As we know from experience, some objects have more inertia than others. It is obviously more difficult to change the motion of a large boulder than that of a basketball, for example. The inertia of an object is measured by its mass. Roughly speaking, mass is a measure of the amount of “stuff” (or matter) in something. The quantity or amount of matter in an object is determined by the numbers of atoms and molecules of various types it contains. Unlike weight, mass does not vary with location. The mass of an object is the same on Earth, in orbit, or on the surface of the Moon. In practice, it is very difficult to count and identify all of the atoms and molecules in an object, so masses are not often determined in this manner. Operationally, the masses of objects are determined by comparison with the standard kilogram. Answer: law of inertia", "output": [ "What is the other name of newton’s first law?" ] }, { "id": "task594-979e7eda89514cf1ab1b8d6a3df0c9d1", "input": "Passage: The marsupial embryo is nourished inside the uterus with food from a yolk sac instead of through a placenta. The yolk sac stores enough food for the short period of time the embryo remains in the uterus. After the embryo is born, it moves into the mother’s pouch, where it clings to a nipple. It remains inside the pouch for several months while it continues to grow and develop. Even after the offspring is big enough to leave the pouch, it may often return to the pouch for warmth and nourishment ( Figure below ). Eventually, the offspring is mature enough to remain outside the pouch on its own. Answer: placenta", "output": [ "A yolk sac replaces what structure for nourishing a marsupial embryo?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e8d8e0936b5d491fbe315f01c6d8983f", "input": "Passage: Most fungi are multicellular, but some exist as single cells. Single-celled fungi are known as yeasts. Fungi spend most of their life cycle in the haploid state. They form diploid cells only during sexual reproduction. Like the cells of protists and plants, the cells of fungi have cell walls. But fungi are unique in having cell walls made of chitin instead of cellulose. Chitin is a tough carbohydrate that also makes up the exoskeleton (outer skeleton) of insects and related organisms. Answer: yeasts", "output": [ "What is the common term for single-celled fungi?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2435f5838797499497c0fa0d109cef00", "input": "Passage: Even if you don’t live in a place where leaves turn color in the fall, no doubt you’ve seen photos of their “fall colors” (see Figure below ). The leaves of many plants turn from green to other, glorious colors during autumn each year. The change is triggered by shorter days and cooler temperatures. Leaves respond to these environmental stimuli by producing less chlorophyll . This allows other leaf pigments—such as oranges and yellows—to be seen. Answer: chlorophyll", "output": [ "When plants lose their leaves in the fall, what chemical is produced less to cause the change?" ] }, { "id": "task594-84a0ebe718f74f6b84e9b365b0d10517", "input": "Passage: Frost is solid water that forms when water vapor undergoes deposition. Answer: frost", "output": [ "What is solid water that forms when water vapor undergoes deposition?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fa277b012064474baaf878dd5c74cfdf", "input": "Passage: Humans could not live on Earth if it were not for protists. Why? Plant-like protists produce almost one-half of the oxygen on the planet through photosynthesis. Other protists decompose and recycle nutrients that humans need to live. All protists make up a huge part of the food chain. Answer: protists", "output": [ "What produces almost one-half of the earth's oxygen through photosynthesis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-51ac862127cc4f9d9512970fc7bcace2", "input": "Passage: Homeostasis is maintaining a constant internal environment. Answer: constant internal", "output": [ "What type of environment is maintained in homeostasis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3cc417fcb7064980933c0c089868efc2", "input": "Passage: A food chain is a simple diagram that shows one way energy flows through an ecosystem. Pictured below is an example of a food chain ( Figure below ). Producers form the base of all food chains. The consumers that eat producers are called primary consumers. The consumers that eat primary consumers are secondary consumers. This chain can continue to multiple levels. Answer: food chain", "output": [ "What is a diagram that shows a single way that energy flows throughout an ecosystem?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fe774b4a56644de299a4e18456de3aa3", "input": "Passage: Hormones of the Zona Reticularis The deepest region of the adrenal cortex is the zona reticularis, which produces small amounts of a class of steroid sex hormones called androgens. During puberty and most of adulthood, androgens are produced in the gonads. The androgens produced in the zona reticularis supplement the gonadal androgens. They are produced in response to ACTH from the anterior pituitary and are converted in the tissues to testosterone or estrogens. In adult women, they may contribute to the sex drive, but their function in adult men is not well understood. In post-menopausal women, as the functions of the ovaries decline, the main source of estrogens becomes the androgens produced by the zona reticularis. Answer: androgens", "output": [ "The deepest region of the adrenal cortex is the zona reticularis, which produces small amounts of a class of steroid sex hormones called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3a92e1436a6e4dfb970d0ec7ffa6ea02", "input": "Passage: The depression that allows water to collect to form a lake may come about in a variety of ways. The Great Lakes, for example, are glacial lakes. A glacial lake forms when a glacier scrapes a large hole in the ground. When the glacier melts, the water fills the hole and forms a lake. Over time, water enters the lake from the sources mentioned above as well. Answer: glacial lake", "output": [ "What forms when a glacier scrapes a large hole in the ground?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0a611f50d9fc4a3e804f4280dfb39a7f", "input": "Passage: Formed when elements either gain or lose electrons. Answer: climate", "output": [ "What is the most important factor determining soil type?" ] }, { "id": "task594-aef01b77189349cf8956f3c6235ad7e9", "input": "Passage: The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute in a given amount of solution. A dilute solution has a low concentration of solute. A concentrated solution has a high concentration of solute. Answer: concentration", "output": [ "What term describes the amount of solute in a given amount of solution?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d4bc169e94b54f6baa1a1fd855d6a298", "input": "Passage: Diseases caused by roundworms are more common in developing countries. Many parasitic diseases caused by roundworms result from poor personal hygiene. Contributing factors may include. Answer: personal hygiene", "output": [ "More common in developing countries, parasitic diseases caused by roundworms often result from poor practice of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-974bac21f95f40ae8c9cba92d6c22e2b", "input": "Passage: Figure 42.10 An antigen is a macromolecule that reacts with components of the immune system. A given antigen may contain several motifs that are recognized by immune cells. Each motif is an epitope. In this figure, the entire structure is an antigen, and the orange, salmon and green components projecting from it represent potential epitopes. Answer: immune system", "output": [ "An antigen is a macromolecule that reacts with components of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5dc4c950e2364fb08dd0610f7b009ff6", "input": "Passage: The radiative zone is the next layer out. It has a temperature of about 4 million degrees C. Energy from the core travels through the radiative zone. The rate the energy travels is extremely slow. Light particles, called photons, can only travel a few millimeters before they hit another particle. The particles are absorbed and then released again. It may take 50 million years for a photon to travel all the way through the radiative zone. Answer: photons", "output": [ "What do you call the light particles that travel through the radiative zone?" ] }, { "id": "task594-639d89c871bd4b11aeb8a5daf603b7be", "input": "Passage: 10.9 Development and Regeneration of Muscle Tissue Muscle tissue arises from embryonic mesoderm. Somites give rise to myoblasts and fuse to form a myotube. The nucleus of each contributing myoblast remains intact in the mature skeletal muscle cell, resulting in a mature, multinucleate cell. Satellite cells help to repair skeletal muscle cells. Smooth muscle tissue can regenerate from stem cells called pericytes, whereas dead cardiac muscle tissue is replaced by scar tissue. Aging causes muscle mass to decrease and be replaced by noncontractile connective tissue and adipose tissue. Answer: scar tissue", "output": [ "While smooth muscle tissue can regenerate from stem cells called pericytes, dead cardiac muscle tissue is replaced by what type of tissue?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cbad20ece3e54d4ca160a915d7b7d924", "input": "Passage: How the Work-Energy Theorem Applies Now let us consider what form the work-energy theorem takes when both conservative and nonconservative forces act. We will see that the work done by nonconservative forces equals the change in the mechanical energy of a system. As noted in Kinetic Energy and the Work-Energy Theorem, the work-energy theorem states that the net work on a system equals the change in its kinetic energy, or W net = ΔKE . The net work is the sum of the work by nonconservative forces plus the work by conservative forces. That is,. Answer: kinetic energy", "output": [ "The work-energy theorem states that the net work on a system equals the change in what type of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-37e438b8247041b09e8fa4faced2cf72", "input": "Passage: The period of a wave and its frequency are reciprocals of each other. Answer: period", "output": [ "The frequency of a wave is the reciprocal of what other attribute of the wave?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dee9a2659b9b46f48ab62bf80d77740b", "input": "Passage: Take a close look at this gorilla hand. The similarities to a human hand are remarkable. Comparing anatomy, and characterizing the similarities and differences, provides evidence of evolution. Answer: evolution", "output": [ "Comparing anatomy, and characterizing the similarities and differences, provides evidence of what process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f359520f564043c6af1aaa22d5201a5c", "input": "Passage: Fish show great diversity in body size. They range in length from about 8 millimeters (0.3 inches) to 16 meters (about 53 feet). Most are ectothermic and covered with scales. Scales protect fish from predators and parasites and reduce friction with the water. Multiple, overlapping scales provide a flexible covering that allows fish to move easily while swimming. Answer: fish", "output": [ "What broad category of animals is primarily ectothermic and covered with scales that facilitate swimming?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0dc136c645a6457da1c14498a7c9f215", "input": "Passage: Generators and motors are almost identical in construction but convert energy in opposite directions. Generators convert mechanical energy to electrical energy and motors convert electrical energy to mechanical. Answer: electrical", "output": [ "Generators convert mechanical energy to which kind?" ] }, { "id": "task594-950724e3e24a4a59a187257217b6923a", "input": "Passage: Parasitic roundworms may have plant, vertebrate, or invertebrate hosts. Several species have human hosts. For example, hookworms, like the one in Figure below , are human parasites. They infect the human intestine. They are named for the hooks they use to grab onto the host’s tissues. Hookworm larvae enter the host through the skin. They migrate to the intestine, where they mature into adults. Adults lay eggs, which pass out of the host in feces. Then the cycle repeats. Answer: through the skin", "output": [ "Through which organ do hookworm larvae enter the human body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9fe035e2abc64ac1a8bbe71d68913eb0", "input": "Passage: A camp fire is an example of basic thermochemistry. The reaction is initiated by the application of heat from a match. The reaction converting wood to carbon dioxide and water (among other things) continues, releasing heat energy in the process. This heat energy can then be used to cook food, roast marshmallows, or just keep warm when it’s cold outside. Answer: heat", "output": [ "What kind of energy is released when the thermochemical reaction of a campfire converts wood to carbon dioxide and water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e1ccbc5dd29f4a08b67dec9e3cb7c32b", "input": "Passage: The variable is the speed of light. For the relationship to hold mathematically, if the speed of light is used in m/s, the wavelength must be in meters and the frequency in Hertz. Answer: hertz", "output": [ "The variable is the speed of light. for the relationship to hold mathematically, if the speed of light is used in m/s, the wavelength must be in meters and the frequency in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9eb8805eac95442cb25bc924269b3530", "input": "Passage: Hydrostatic Pressure The primary force driving fluid transport between the capillaries and tissues is hydrostatic pressure, which can be defined as the pressure of any fluid enclosed in a space. Blood hydrostatic pressure is the force exerted by the blood confined within blood vessels or heart chambers. Even more specifically, the pressure exerted by blood against the wall of a capillary is called capillary hydrostatic pressure (CHP), and is the same as capillary blood pressure. CHP is the force that drives fluid out of capillaries and into the tissues. As fluid exits a capillary and moves into tissues, the hydrostatic pressure in the interstitial fluid correspondingly rises. This opposing hydrostatic pressure is called the interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure (IFHP). Generally, the CHP originating from the arterial pathways is considerably higher than the IFHP, because lymphatic vessels are continually absorbing excess fluid from the tissues. Thus, fluid generally moves out of the capillary and into the interstitial fluid. This process is called filtration. Answer: hydrostatic pressure", "output": [ "What is the primary force driving fluid transport between the capillaries and tissues?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f0f2cbaf8d6e4eb8a2cde60609e99fa2", "input": "Passage: Osmotic Pressure The net pressure that drives reabsorption—the movement of fluid from the interstitial fluid back into the capillaries—is called osmotic pressure (sometimes referred to as oncotic pressure). Whereas hydrostatic pressure forces fluid out of the capillary, osmotic pressure draws fluid back in. Osmotic pressure is determined by osmotic concentration gradients, that is, the difference in the solute-to-water concentrations in the blood and tissue fluid. A region higher in solute concentration (and lower in water concentration) draws water across a semipermeable membrane from a region higher in water concentration (and lower in solute concentration). As we discuss osmotic pressure in blood and tissue fluid, it is important to recognize that the formed elements of blood do not contribute to osmotic concentration gradients. Rather, it is the plasma proteins that play the key role. Solutes also move across the capillary wall according to their concentration gradient, but overall, the concentrations should be similar and not have a significant impact on osmosis. Because of their large size and chemical structure, plasma proteins are not truly solutes, that is, they do not dissolve but are dispersed or suspended in their fluid medium, forming a colloid rather than a solution. Answer: hydrostatic", "output": [ "Which type of pressure forces fluid out of the capillary?" ] }, { "id": "task594-93024931454d4e998a86e9fd34e6017c", "input": "Passage: An atom’s protons and electrons carry electrical charges. Protons, with their positive charge, are designated p+. Electrons, which have a negative charge, are designated e–. An atom’s neutrons have no charge: they are electrically neutral. Just as a magnet sticks to a steel refrigerator because their opposite charges attract, the positively charged protons attract the negatively charged electrons. This mutual attraction gives the atom some structural stability. The attraction by the positively charged nucleus helps keep electrons from straying far. The number of protons and electrons within a neutral atom are equal, thus, the atom’s overall charge is balanced. Answer: neutrons", "output": [ "What part of an atom is electrically neutral?" ] }, { "id": "task594-758876e69cb44f59a75e07fae4c40f8e", "input": "Passage: Pollution that enters water at just one point is called point source pollution . For example, chemicals from a factory might empty into a stream through a pipe or set of pipes (see Figure below ). Pollution that enters in many places is called non-point source pollution . This means that the pollution is from multiple sources. With non-point source pollution, runoff may carry the pollution into a body of water. Which type of pollution do you think is harder to control?. Answer: point source pollution", "output": [ "What is pollution that enters water at just one point called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-65575dad88224473a8f65129e26c75b2", "input": "Passage: Water density increases as salinity and pressure increase, or as temperature decreases. Answer: increases", "output": [ "When salinity and pressure increase, or when temperature decreases, what happens to water density?" ] }, { "id": "task594-de7a50869d924169971d5cfa0379df87", "input": "Passage: In addition to sunlight, aquatic producers also need dissolved oxygen and nutrients. Water near the surface generally contains more dissolved oxygen than deeper water. Many nutrients enter the water from the land. Therefore, water nearer shore usually contains more dissolved nutrients than water farther from shore. Answer: oxygen", "output": [ "Aquatic producers need nutrients and what dissolved gas, which is more abundant near the surface of water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8ba829052c2f44929acbaacf8bee1c02", "input": "Passage: A solution is a mixture of two or more substances that has the same composition throughout. Some solutions are acids, some are bases. Answer: ph", "output": [ "Acidity is measured by what physical property?" ] }, { "id": "task594-791b1fd86d034310a9f28d39be3cba10", "input": "Passage: Energy Budgets, Reproductive Costs, and Sexual Selection in Drosophila Research into how animals allocate their energy resources for growth, maintenance, and reproduction has used a variety of experimental animal models. Some of this work has been done using the common fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster. Studies have shown that not only does reproduction have a cost as far as how long male fruit flies live, but also fruit flies that have already mated several times have limited sperm remaining for reproduction. Fruit flies maximize their last chances at reproduction by selecting optimal mates. In a 1981 study, male fruit flies were placed in enclosures with either virgin or inseminated females. The males that mated with virgin females had shorter life spans than those in contact with the same number of inseminated females with which they were unable to mate. This effect occurred regardless of how large (indicative of their age) the males were. Thus, males that did not mate lived longer, allowing them more opportunities to find mates in the future. More recent studies, performed in 2006, show how males select the female with which they will mate and [3] how this is affected by previous matings (Figure 45.8). Males were allowed to select between smaller and larger females. Findings showed that larger females had greater fecundity, producing twice as many offspring per mating as the smaller females did. Males that had previously mated, and thus had lower supplies of sperm, were termed “resource-depleted,” while males that had not mated were termed “nonresource-depleted. ” The study showed that although non-resource-depleted males preferentially mated with larger females, this selection of partners was more pronounced in the resource-depleted males. Thus, males with depleted sperm supplies, which were limited in the number of times that they could mate before they replenished their sperm supply, selected larger, more fecund females, thus maximizing their chances for offspring. This study was one of the first to show that the physiological state of the male affected its mating behavior in a way that clearly maximizes its use of limited reproductive resources. Answer: sperm", "output": [ "Studies have shown that not only does reproduction have a cost as far as how long male fruit flies live, but also fruit flies that have already mated several times have limited amounts of this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-81104f3e88ec491096ea2748dfde7518", "input": "Passage: These brilliant red “feathers” are actually animals called tube worms. They live in an extreme environment on the deep ocean floor, thousands of meters below the water’s surface. Their world is always very cold and completely dark. Without sunlight, photosynthesis is not possible. So what do organisms eat at these depths? Tube worms depend on chemosynthetic microorganisms that live inside them for food. In this and other ways, tube worms have adapted to the extreme conditions of their environment. Answer: chemosynthetic microorganisms", "output": [ "What do tube worms rely on for food?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fa819004df4e4edfa4dd14b84460033e", "input": "Passage: Plants maintain the atmosphere. They produce oxygen and absorb carbon dioxide during photosynthesis. Oxygen is essential for cellular respiration for all aerobic organisms. It also maintains the ozone layer that helps protect Earth’s life from damaging UV radiation. Removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere reduces the greenhouse effect and global warming. Answer: uv radiation", "output": [ "The ozone layer protects the earth from what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fc843b9997a6405b9812691b720854e3", "input": "Passage: connection is the basis of somatic reflexes. The corneal reflex is contraction of the orbicularis oculi muscle to blink the eyelid when something touches the surface of the eye. Stretch reflexes maintain a constant length of muscles by causing a contraction of a muscle to compensate for a stretch that can be sensed by a specialized receptor called a muscle spindle. Answer: somatic", "output": [ "Triggering a blink when something touches the surface of the eye, the corneal reflex is what type of reflex?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d70953959a6c40eb8d2f75a2c0b8e7e0", "input": "Passage: Electromagnetic radiation is a form of energy. Answer: energy", "output": [ "Electromagnetic radiation is a form of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0fb716e31bb94cd1ae9fbad8858f80a4", "input": "Passage: A cirque is a rounded hollow carved in the side of a mountain by a glacier. The highest cliff of a cirque is called the headwall. Answer: a cirque", "output": [ "A rounded hollow carved in the side of a mountain by a glacier is known as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0732d33f4dab407fb31ddc1e20f2ff79", "input": "Passage: The vertebral column is the core of the vertebrate endoskeleton, or internal skeleton. You can see a human skeleton as an example of the vertebrate endoskeleton in Figure below . In addition to the vertebral column, the vertebrate endoskeleton includes:. Answer: internal skeleton", "output": [ "The vertebrate endoskeleton can also be called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-aaee7944d2d74cb3918c762030f683a2", "input": "Passage: When light rays diverge in front of a mirror, a virtual image is formed. A virtual image is formed by your brain tracing diverging rays backwards and is kind of a trick, like the person you see “behind” a mirror’s surface when you brush your teeth (there's obviously no real light focused behind a mirror!). Since virtual images aren’t actually “anywhere,” you can’t place photographic film anywhere to capture them. Answer: virtual", "output": [ "What type of image is formed when light rays diverge in front of a mirror?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b0bbc313114744cf989db6a40ae4b227", "input": "Passage: The brain is a marvelous organ. And it’s a hungry one, too. The major fuel for the brain is the carbohydrate glucose. The average adult brain represents about 2% of our body’s weight, but uses 25% of the glucose in the body. Moreover, specific areas of the brain use glucose at different rates. If you are concentrating hard, (taking a test, for example) certain parts of the brain need a lot of extra glucose while other parts of the brain only use their normal amount. Something to think about. Answer: glucose", "output": [ "The major fuel for the brain is which carbohydrate?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0182065b010045aba6e55bc02111b4d4", "input": "Passage: Like bacteria, reproduction in archaea is asexual. Archaea can reproduce through binary fission , where a parent cell divides into two genetically identical daughter cells. Archaea can also reproduce asexually through budding and fragmentation, where pieces of the cell break off and form a new cell, also producing genetically identical organisms. Answer: fragmentation", "output": [ "Pieces of the cell break off and form a new cell in what type of reproduction that produces genetically identical organisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b7ddaff5daed4d62a927f7d2df0a8703", "input": "Passage: It was not until the era of the ancient Greeks that we have any record of how people tried to explain the chemical changes they observed and used. At that time, natural objects were thought to consist of only four basic elements: earth, air, fire, and water. Then, in the fourth century BC, two Greek philosophers, Democritus and Leucippus, suggested that matter was not infinitely divisible into smaller particles but instead consisted of fundamental, indivisible particles called atoms. Unfortunately, these early philosophers did not have the technology to test their hypothesis. They would have been unlikely to do so in any case because the ancient Greeks did not conduct experiments or use the scientific method. They believed that the nature of the universe could be discovered by rational thought alone. Over the next two millennia, alchemists, who engaged in a form of chemistry and speculative philosophy during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, achieved many advances in chemistry. Their major goal was to convert certain elements into others by a process they called transmutation (Figure 1.13 \"An Alchemist at Work\"). In particular, alchemists wanted to find a way to transform cheaper metals into gold. Although most alchemists did not approach chemistry systematically and many appear to have been outright frauds, alchemists in China, the Arab kingdoms, and medieval Europe made major contributions, including the discovery of elements such as quicksilver (mercury) and the preparation of several strong acids. Answer: water", "output": [ "It was not until the era of the ancient greeks that we have any record of how people tried to explain the chemical changes they observed and used. at that time, natural objects were thought to consist of only four basic elements: earth, air, fire, and this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5c2e082991044afa8034e2b9e05c39f4", "input": "Passage: U-235 nuclei can capture neutrons and disintegrate more efficiently if the neutrons are moving slower than the speed at which they are released. Fission reactors use a moderator surrounding the fuel rods to slow down the neutrons. Water is not only a good coolant but also a good moderator, so a common type of fission reactor has the fuel core submerged in a huge pool of water. This type of reactor is called a light water reactor or LWR. All public electricity generating fission reactors in the United States are LWRs. Answer: moderator", "output": [ "What do fission reactors use to slow down the neutrons?" ] }, { "id": "task594-213d469f215242e2a44473cb412b8f1d", "input": "Passage: Each hemisphere of the cerebrum is divided into four parts, called lobes. The four lobes are the:. Answer: 4", "output": [ "How many lobes is each hemisphere of the cerebrum divided into?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5b1d364dfed34b24bef970050f3a43d4", "input": "Passage: The Mars Rover pictured here is a wheeled robot developed by NASA. Its job is to explore the surface of Mars. The rover contains a lot of complex modern technology. But how it moves by rolling on wheels is a very old invention. The wheel was probably invented many times in different cultures, beginning at least 10,000 years ago. In addition to wheeled carts and chariots, early wheels were used for water wheels, grinding wheels, and wheels for spinning pottery. Wheels really changed human life. They revolutionized transportation and made it much easier to do many different kinds of work. Answer: mars rover", "output": [ "What is the wheeled robot developed by nasa to explore the surface of mars?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f65b1987d2744a1e9d090dc5bade1af5", "input": "Passage: Some places inside Earth are so hot that rock melts. Melted rock inside the Earth is called magma. Magma can be hotter than 1,000 o C. When magma erupts onto Earth’s surface, it is known as lava ( Figure below ). Minerals form when magma and lava cool. Some minerals crystallize at hotter temperatures. These minerals form first. Other minerals form at cooler temperatures. These minerals form later. Answer: lava", "output": [ "What is the term for magma that erupts onto earth's surface?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0cbccbb80b6e4e1fb28f68378eae6d55", "input": "Passage: The fluffy white fibers on this plant look like cotton balls because that’s what they are. The plant is a cotton plant, and the fibers are used to make cotton fabric. Cotton fibers consist of one of the most common compounds on Earth: cellulose. Cellulose is a biochemical compound found in all plants. It belongs to the class of biochemical compounds called carbohydrates. Answer: cellulose", "output": [ "What is one of the most common biochemical compounds on earth and is found in all plants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3c905d79e13745528546cd67edb1600c", "input": "Passage: The trp Operon: A Repressor Operon Bacteria such as E. coli need amino acids to survive. Tryptophan is one such amino acid that E. coli can ingest from the environment. coli can also synthesize tryptophan using enzymes that are encoded by five genes. These five genes are next to each other in what is called the tryptophan (trp) operon (Figure 16.3). If tryptophan is present in the environment, then E. coli does not need to synthesize it and the switch controlling the activation of the genes in the trp operon is switched off. However, when tryptophan availability is low, the switch controlling the operon is turned on, transcription is initiated, the genes are expressed, and tryptophan is synthesized. Answer: amino", "output": [ "E. coli need what kind of acids to survive?" ] }, { "id": "task594-146c2f218f1b4df28ff4393be2404b8c", "input": "Passage: Immovable joints do not allow the bones to move at all. In these joints, the bones are fused together by very tough collagen. Examples of immovable joints include the joints between bones of the skull. You can see them in Figure below . Answer: immovable joints", "output": [ "The joints that are between the bones that make up the skull are what kind of joints?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b763910f1f944bd3a299d4b9c27a9f7a", "input": "Passage: Summary Real crystals contain large numbers of defects. Defects may affect only a single point in the lattice (a point defect), a row of lattice points (a line defect), or a plane of atoms (a plane defect). A point defect can be an atom missing from a site in the crystal (a vacancy) or an impurity atom that occupies. Answer: vacancy", "output": [ "A point defect can be an atom missing from a site in the crystal known as a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2663eb1302524615bf7d3cc943686799", "input": "Passage: Myriapoda, which includes centipedes and millipedes. All of these animals live on land, and can have anywhere from ten to nearly 200 pairs of appendages. Answer: myriapoda", "output": [ "What class are centipedes and millipedes in?" ] }, { "id": "task594-05555cdc89744f8aa1b204fd4a0b04ad", "input": "Passage: That may depend on the plant. Start with moss. The typical nonvascular plant. But such a simple plant has a very interesting life cycle. Whereas most kinds of plants have two sets of chromosomes in their vegetative cells, mosses have only a single set of chromosomes. So, how does meiosis occur?. Answer: single set", "output": [ "How many set of chromosomes do moss have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d01b98f6cd6d406097b19fc02c419e77", "input": "Passage: Figure 9.11 The ends of linear chromosomes are maintained by the action of the telomerase enzyme. Answer: telomerase", "output": [ "The ends of linear chromosomes are maintained by the action of which enzyme?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9fdbdfb996fd44fdb2bc9f356dcbe5b6", "input": "Passage: In this lesson, you read that air density and pressure change with altitude. The temperature of the air also changes with altitude. Air temperature measures the heat energy of air molecules. Answer: average kinetic energy of molecules", "output": [ "What does temperature measure?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c19bdf5fa7fe45ee91aa639896fdec55", "input": "Passage: Recall that air pollution is due to chemical substances and particles released into the air mainly by human actions. When most people think of air pollution, they think of the pollution outdoors. But it is just as easy to have indoor air pollution. Your home or school classroom probably doesn't get much fresh air. Sealing up your home reduces heating and cooling costs. But this also causes air pollution to stay trapped indoors. And people today usually spend a majority of their time indoors. So exposure to indoor air pollution can become a significant health risk. Answer: air pollution", "output": [ "What is caused by human actions that releases chemical substances and particles into the air?" ] }, { "id": "task594-626679c921ad4708a823739eb53d968e", "input": "Passage: Several types of stratified deposits form in glacial regions but are not formed directly by the ice. Varves form where lakes are covered by ice in the winter. Dark, fine-grained clays sink to the bottom of the lake in winter. Melting ice in the spring brings running water that deposits lighter colored sands. Each alternating dark/light layer represents one year of deposits. Answer: varves", "output": [ "What type of stratified deposit is formed where lakes are covered by ice in the winter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-956ce6cb6e4c4fb5a7fa700dc512c1d5", "input": "Passage: Connections of Other Sugars to Glucose Metabolism Glycogen, a polymer of glucose, is an energy storage molecule in animals. When there is adequate ATP present, excess glucose is shunted into glycogen for storage. Glycogen is made and stored in both liver and muscle. The glycogen will be hydrolyzed into glucose monomers (G-1-P) if blood sugar levels drop. The presence of glycogen as a source of glucose allows ATP to be produced for a longer period of time during exercise. Glycogen is broken down into G-1-P and converted into G-6-P in both muscle and liver cells, and this product enters the glycolytic pathway. Answer: liver and muscles", "output": [ "Where is glycogen created and stored in the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1e23d0c26ad444679a135f9e358838ff", "input": "Passage: About 67 percent of the water, Na+, and K+ entering the nephron is reabsorbed in the PCT and returned to the circulation. Almost 100 percent of glucose, amino acids, and other organic substances such as vitamins are normally recovered here. Some glucose may appear in the urine if circulating glucose levels are high enough that all the glucose transporters in the PCT are saturated, so that their capacity to move glucose is exceeded (transport maximum, or Tm). In men, the maximum amount of glucose that can be recovered is about 375 mg/min, whereas in women, it is about 300 mg/min. This recovery rate translates to an arterial concentration of about 200 mg/dL. Though an exceptionally high sugar intake might cause sugar to appear briefly in the urine, the appearance of glycosuria usually points to type I or II diabetes mellitus. The transport of glucose from the lumen of the PCT to the interstitial space is similar to the way it is absorbed by the small intestine. Both glucose and Na+ bind simultaneously to the same symport proteins on the apical surface of the cell to be transported in the same direction, toward the interstitial space. Sodium moves down its electrochemical and concentration gradient into the cell and takes glucose with it. Na+ is then actively pumped out of the cell at the basal surface of the cell into the interstitial space. Glucose leaves the cell to enter the interstitial space by facilitated diffusion. The energy to move glucose comes from the Na+/K+ ATPase that pumps Na+ out of the cell on the basal surface. Fifty percent of Cl– and variable quantities of Ca++, Mg++, and HPO 24 − are also recovered in the PCT. Recovery of bicarbonate (HCO3–) is vital to the maintenance of acid–base balance, since it is a very powerful and fast-acting buffer. An important enzyme is used to catalyze this mechanism: carbonic anhydrase (CA). This same enzyme and reaction is used in red blood cells in the transportation of CO2, in the stomach to produce hydrochloric acid, and in the pancreas to produce HCO3– to buffer acidic chyme from the stomach. In the kidney, most of the CA is located within the cell, but a small amount is bound to the brush border of the membrane on the apical surface of the cell. In the lumen of the PCT,. Answer: enzyme", "output": [ "Carbonic anhydrase plays what role to achieve a variety of results involving different organs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9f579080ff874fc7abcbbddcab48f49c", "input": "Passage: Neptune is very cold and has very strong winds. It had a large dark spot that disappeared. Another dark spot appeared on another part of the planet. These dark spots are storms in Neptune’s atmosphere. Answer: storms", "output": [ "The planet neptune has strange dark spots that sometimes appear on its surface? what are these spots?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6938a719d53942729387c9aabdfc75ed", "input": "Passage: Gravity has traditionally been defined as a force of attraction between things that have mass. According to this conception of gravity, anything that has mass, no matter how small, exerts gravity on other matter. Gravity can act between objects that are not even touching. In fact, gravity can act over very long distances. However, the farther two objects are from each other, the weaker is the force of gravity between them. Less massive objects also have less gravity than more massive objects. Answer: gravity", "output": [ "What is the term for the force of attraction between things that have a mass?" ] }, { "id": "task594-049392db13cf4574af5e08b226d7c94d", "input": "Passage: The Moon has no atmosphere. With no atmosphere, the Moon is not protected from extreme temperatures. The average surface temperature during the day is approximately 107°C (225°F). Daytime temperatures can reach as high as 123°C (253°F). At night, the average temperature drops to -153°C (-243°F). The lowest temperatures measured are as low as -233°C (-397°F). Answer: atmosphere", "output": [ "What does the moon not have to protect it from extreme temperatures?" ] }, { "id": "task594-24e993d4814243b59efc90268b0c0c78", "input": "Passage: The most common two-lens telescope, like the simple microscope, uses two convex lenses and is shown in Figure 26.23(b). The object is so far away from the telescope that it is essentially at infinity compared with the focal lengths of the lenses ( d o ≈ ∞ ). The first image is thus produced at. Answer: convex", "output": [ "The most common two-lens telescope, like the simple microscope, uses lenses of what shape?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7df0e4ab93d349e0b254b5842cc5a782", "input": "Passage: Could a mineral be made by a process that was not natural? People make gemstones in a laboratory. Synthetic diamond is a common one. But that stone is not a mineral. That's because a mineral must be created by natural processes. This is part of the definition of a mineral. Answer: minerals must be created naturally", "output": [ "Why is a synthetic diamond not considered a mineral?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4481fc5604994e609afa74d835c98a7c", "input": "Passage: Figure 29.17 The tails of the Hale-Bopp comet point away from the Sun, evidence that light has momentum. Dust emanating from the body of the comet forms this tail. Particles of dust are pushed away from the Sun by light reflecting from them. The blue ionized gas tail is also produced by photons interacting with atoms in the comet material. (credit: Geoff Chester, U. Navy, via Wikimedia Commons). Answer: momentum", "output": [ "The tails of the hale-bopp comet point away from the sun, evidence that light has what property of motion?" ] }, { "id": "task594-16b55f0ef81f42b19f203158cb9b10b2", "input": "Passage: Most amphibians breathe with gills as larvae and with lungs as adults. Additional oxygen is absorbed through the skin in most species. The skin is kept moist by mucus, which is secreted by mucous glands. In some species, mucous glands also produce toxins, which help protect the amphibians from predators. The golden frog shown in Figure below is an example of a toxic amphibian. Answer: gills", "output": [ "What do most amphibians breathe with as larvae?" ] }, { "id": "task594-22ee19f4f2224157821c88c482d770f8", "input": "Passage: Human organ systems work together to carry out many of their functions. The skeletal and muscular systems are no exception. Answer: systems", "output": [ "Groupings of related organs in the human body are referred to as \"organ\" what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8584896dcce5469394ae3db2875303c9", "input": "Passage: Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty Acids. Saturated fatty acids include arachidic, stearic, and palmitic fatty acids. Unsaturated fatty acids include all the other fatty acids in the figure. Notice how all the unsaturated fatty acids have bent chains, whereas the saturated fatty acids have straight chains. Answer: saturated", "output": [ "Arachidic, stearic, and palmitic fatty acids are examples of what type of fatty acid?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f7c6c0b9a7104f4587dea75bd232c834", "input": "Passage: Note that in fragmentation, there is generally a noticeable difference in the size of the individuals, whereas in fission, two individuals of approximate size are formed. Parthenogenesis Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction where an egg develops into a complete individual without being fertilized. The resulting offspring can be either haploid or diploid, depending on the process and the species. Parthenogenesis occurs in invertebrates such as water flees, rotifers, aphids, stick insects, some ants, wasps, and bees. Bees use parthenogenesis to produce haploid males (drones) and diploid females (workers). If an egg is fertilized, a queen is produced. The queen bee controls the reproduction of the hive bees to regulate the type of bee produced. Some vertebrate animals—such as certain reptiles, amphibians, and fish—also reproduce through parthenogenesis. Although more common in plants, parthenogenesis has been observed in animal species that were segregated by sex in terrestrial or marine zoos. Two female Komodo dragons, a hammerhead shark, and a blacktop shark have produced parthenogenic young when the females have been isolated from males. Answer: invertebrates", "output": [ "In which kind of animals does parthenogenesis occur?" ] }, { "id": "task594-865637a5715d45a78434ae855d4fa707", "input": "Passage: Fungus-like protists share many features with fungi. Like fungi, they are heterotrophs, meaning they must obtain food outside themselves. They also have cell walls and reproduce by forming spores, just like fungi. Fungus-like protists usually do not move, but a few develop movement at some point in their lives. Two major types of fungus-like protists are slime molds and water molds . Answer: water molds", "output": [ "Two major types of fungus-like protists are slime molds and which other?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fd84600e713c4cee9802daa8a6070016", "input": "Passage: Typical elliptical galaxies are oval shaped, red or yellow, and contain mostly old stars. Answer: typical elliptical", "output": [ "What type of galaxies are oval shaped, red or yellow, and contain mostly old stars?" ] }, { "id": "task594-82c205fa2c1149588b209ba18e67dee8", "input": "Passage: The largest, most complex covalent molecules have thousands of atoms. Examples include proteins and carbohydrates, which are compounds in living things. The smallest, simplest covalent compounds have molecules with just two atoms. An example is hydrogen chloride (HCl). It consists of one hydrogen atom and one chlorine atom, as you can see in the Figure below . You can watch an animation of hydrogen chloride forming at the following URL. Answer: covalent", "output": [ "What type of compound is hydrogen chloride?" ] }, { "id": "task594-016473353e8c49e9996ef2a452a71382", "input": "Passage: A chemical change occurs whenever matter changes into an entirely different substance with different chemical properties. Burning is an example of a chemical change. Answer: chemical change", "output": [ "What kind of change occurs whenever matter changes into an entirely different substance with different chemical properties?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2f30ef81c4be49509f28db4fed52c365", "input": "Passage: Summary Four quantities must be known for a complete physical description of a sample of a gas: temperature, volume, amount, and pressure. Pressure is force per unit area of surface; the SI unit for pressure is the pascal (Pa), defined as 1 newton per square meter (N/m2). The pressure exerted by an object is proportional to the force it exerts and inversely proportional to the area on which the force is exerted. The pressure exerted by Earth’s atmosphere, called atmospheric pressure, is about 101 kPa or 14.7 lb/in.2 at sea level. Atmospheric pressure can be measured with abarometer, a closed, inverted tube filled with mercury. The height of the mercury column is proportional to atmospheric pressure, which is often reported in units ofmillimeters of mercury (mmHg), also called torr. Standard atmospheric pressure, the pressure required to support a column of mercury 760 mm tall, is yet. Answer: pascal", "output": [ "What is the si unit for pressure?" ] }, { "id": "task594-330648f954384ec784677bb996b99877", "input": "Passage: Scientists think that protists are the oldest eukaryotes. If so, they must have evolved from prokaryotic cells. How did this happen? The endosymbiotic theory provides the most widely-accepted explanation. That’s because it is well supported by evidence. Answer: protists", "output": [ "What do many scientists think are the oldest eukaryotes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-394744d159804f2fa17137ce7d5d4dc5", "input": "Passage: An organ is a structure composed of two or more types of tissues that work together to do a specific task. Most modern plants have several organs that help them survive and reproduce in a variety of habitats. Major organs of most plants include roots, stems, and leaves. These and other plant organs generally contain all three major tissue types. Answer: organ", "output": [ "What do you call a structure composed of two or more types of tissues that work together to do a specific task?" ] }, { "id": "task594-82e0ec154b8b4f59a0b6477b408b1710", "input": "Passage: Starches are one of the more common polysaccharides. Starch is made up of a mixture of amylose (15–20%) and amylopectin (80–85%). Amylose consists of a linear chain of several hundred glucose molecules and amylopectin is a branched molecule made of several thousand glucose units. Starches can be digested by hydrolysis reactions , catalyzed by enzymes called amylases , which can break the glycosidic bonds. Humans and other animals have amylases, so they can digest starches. Potato, rice, wheat, and maize are major sources of starch in the human diet. The formations of starches are the ways that plants store glucose. Glycogen is sometimes referred to as animal starch. Glycogen is used for long-term energy storage in animal cells. Glycogen is made primarily by the liver and the muscles. Answer: glycogen", "output": [ "What type of starch is used for long-term energy storage in animal cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c70288d1eed94c03a650584323680299", "input": "Passage: The size of particles determines how they are carried by flowing water. This is illustrated in Figure below . Answer: size", "output": [ "What characteristic of particles determines how they are carried by flowing water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c854fc0b0cfa4dccabc3eeffda724519", "input": "Passage: The average composition of continental crust is granite. Answer: granite", "output": [ "What is the general composition of the continental crust?" ] }, { "id": "task594-23e264426f08433b8edbd744b87723a5", "input": "Passage: The mouth of a sea anemone is surrounded by tentacles that bear cnidocytes. The slit-like mouth opening and pharynx are lined by a groove called a siphonophore. The pharynx is the muscular part of the digestive system that serves to ingest as well as egest food, and may extend for up to two-thirds the length of the body before opening into the gastrovascular cavity. This cavity is divided into several chambers by longitudinal septa called mesenteries. Each mesentery consists of one ectodermal and one endodermal cell layer with the mesoglea sandwiched in between. Mesenteries do not divide the gastrovascular cavity completely, and the smaller cavities coalesce at the pharyngeal opening. The adaptive benefit of the mesenteries appears to be an increase in surface area for absorption of nutrients and gas exchange. Sea anemones feed on small fish and shrimp, usually by immobilizing their prey using the cnidocytes. Some sea anemones establish a mutualistic relationship with hermit crabs by attaching to the crab’s shell. In this relationship, the anemone gets food particles from prey caught by the crab, and the crab is protected from the predators by the stinging cells of the anemone. Anemone fish, or clownfish, are able to live in the anemone since they are immune to the toxins contained within the nematocysts. Anthozoans remain polypoid throughout their lives and can reproduce asexually by budding or fragmentation, or sexually by producing gametes. Both gametes are produced by the polyp, which can fuse to give rise to a free-swimming planula larva. The larva settles on a suitable substratum and develops into a sessile polyp. Answer: mutualistic", "output": [ "Some sea anemones establish what kind of relationship with hermit crabs by attaching to the crab’s shell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-94e43fb020fe4c9aa0f6dc2b44998ebe", "input": "Passage: Tadpoles go through many changes to become adult frogs. Answer: adult frogs", "output": [ "What do tadpoles change into?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e4956882045f4900a19be376492147bd", "input": "Passage: Investigation is at the heart of science. It is how scientists do research. Scientific investigations produce evidence that helps answer questions and solve problems. If the evidence cannot provide answers or solutions, it may still be useful. It may lead to new questions or problems for investigation. As more knowledge is discovered, science advances. Answer: investigation", "output": [ "In science, what process produces evidence that helps answer questions and solve problems?" ] }, { "id": "task594-98a288e188dd44c68cbdea528b0d4731", "input": "Passage: The first vertebrates to live fully on land were amniotes. Amniotes are animals that produce eggs with waterproof membranes. The membranes let gases but not water pass through. They allow embryos to breathe without drying out. Amniotic eggs were the first eggs that could be laid on land. The earliest amniotes evolved about 350 million years ago. Amniotes would eventually evolve into modern reptiles, mammals, and birds. Answer: waterproof", "output": [ "Amniotes are animals that produce eggs with membranes possessing what property, which allowed them to lay eggs on land?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d3daedc5bd4848869809abb64d86b564", "input": "Passage: As shown in Figure below , transcription is controlled by regulatory proteins . The proteins bind to regions of DNA, called regulatory elements , which are located near promoters. After regulatory proteins bind to regulatory elements, they can interact with RNA polymerase, the enzyme that transcribes DNA to mRNA. Regulatory proteins are typically either activators or repressors. Answer: regulatory", "output": [ "Dna transcription is controlled by what type of proteins?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5f80df8c3dfe4c6dafc006a727286f18", "input": "Passage: Vesicles are much smaller than vacuoles and have a variety of functions. Some vesicles pinch off from the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus. These vesicles store and transport proteins and lipids. Other vesicles are used as chambers for biochemical reactions. Answer: smaller", "output": [ "Are vesicles larger or smaller than vacuoles?" ] }, { "id": "task594-68eecaa175c54373a8deff84549c905d", "input": "Passage: These include anterior-posterior movements of the arm at the shoulder, the forearm at the elbow, the hand at the wrist, and the fingers at the metacarpophalangeal and interphalangeal joints. For the thumb, extension moves the thumb away from the palm of the hand, within the same plane as the palm, while flexion brings the thumb back against the index finger or into the palm. These motions take place at the first carpometacarpal joint. In the lower limb, bringing the thigh forward and upward is flexion at the hip joint, while any posterior-going motion of the thigh is extension. Note that extension of the thigh beyond the anatomical (standing) position is greatly limited by the ligaments that support the hip joint. Knee flexion is the bending of the knee to bring the foot toward the posterior thigh, and extension is the straightening of the knee. Flexion and extension movements are seen at the hinge, condyloid, saddle, and ball-and-socket joints of the limbs (see Figure 9.12a-d). Hyperextension is the abnormal or excessive extension of a joint beyond its normal range of motion, thus resulting in injury. Similarly, hyperflexion is excessive flexion at a joint. Hyperextension injuries are common at hinge joints such as the knee or elbow. In cases of “whiplash” in which the head is suddenly moved backward and then forward, a patient may experience both hyperextension and hyperflexion of the cervical region. Answer: hyperextension", "output": [ "What term means the abnormal or excessive extension of a joint - particularly a hinged joint - beyond its normal range of motion, thus resulting in injury?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4955d03234cb420798a2f1ed8b6f71c2", "input": "Passage: the bottom of the cell. In roots, a high concentration of IAA inhibits cell elongation. The effect slows growth on the lower side of the root, while cells develop normally on the upper side. IAA has the opposite effect in shoots, where a higher concentration at the lower side of the shoot stimulates cell expansion, causing the shoot to grow up. After the shoot or root begin to grow vertically, the amyloplasts return to their normal position. Other hypotheses—involving the entire cell in the gravitropism effect—have been proposed to explain why some mutants that lack amyloplasts may still exhibit a weak gravitropic response. Answer: cell elongation", "output": [ "In plants, a high concentration of iaa inhibits what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0fb13fda96ff45bbb5e188a2555bf482", "input": "Passage: 22.3 Magnetic Fields and Magnetic Field Lines Einstein is said to have been fascinated by a compass as a child, perhaps musing on how the needle felt a force without direct physical contact. His ability to think deeply and clearly about action at a distance, particularly for gravitational, electric, and magnetic forces, later enabled him to create his revolutionary theory of relativity. Since magnetic forces act at a distance, we define a magnetic field to represent magnetic forces. The pictorial representation of magnetic field lines is very useful in visualizing the strength and direction of the magnetic field. As shown in Figure 22.15, the direction of magnetic field lines is defined to be the direction in which the north end of a compass needle points. The magnetic field is traditionally called the Bfield. Answer: bfield", "output": [ "What is the magnetic field traditionally referred to as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-054bc52ea7ef43a9a1e7a1a2f5ab9585", "input": "Passage: The mass number is the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in an atom. For example, most atoms of helium have 2 neutrons, so their mass number is 2 + 2 = 4. This mass number means that an atom of helium has a mass of about 4 amu. Answer: protons and neutrons", "output": [ "What makes up the mass number of an atom?" ] }, { "id": "task594-34107ac1f02a4dc8877c59407ea160e0", "input": "Passage: As the organism grows more sophisticated, gene regulation becomes more complex, though prokaryotic organisms possess some highly regulated systems. Some human genes are controlled by many activators and repressors working together. Obviously, a mutation in a cis-regulatory region, such as the promoter, can greatly affect the proper expression of a gene. It may keep the gene permanently off, such that no protein can be made, or it can keep the gene permanently on, such that the corresponding protein is constantly made. Both of these can have detremental effects on the cell. Answer: becomes more complex", "output": [ "As the organism grows more sophisticated, what happens to the process of gene regulation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a51e24e7becd4ee3a6457d98337f07a8", "input": "Passage: repeating bony units that make up the vertebral column of vertebrates. Answer: vertebral column", "output": [ "What do vertebrates possess that is made up of repeating bony units?" ] }, { "id": "task594-86307a1a17e54f89a670af043d5d77cf", "input": "Passage: Since Jupiter is a gas giant, could a spacecraft land on its surface? The answer is no. There is no solid surface at all! Jupiter is made mostly of hydrogen, with some helium, and small amounts of other elements. The outer layers of the planet are gas. Deeper within the planet, the intense pressure condenses the gases into a liquid. Jupiter may have a small rocky core at its center. Answer: a gas giant", "output": [ "What type of planet is jupiter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-702b35efea614568a6de17ff25809d44", "input": "Passage: Figure 7.10 Cations are formed when atoms lose electrons, represented by fewer Lewis dots, whereas anions are formed by atoms gaining electrons. The total number of electrons does not change. Answer: anions", "output": [ "What are formed by atoms gaining electrons?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a324a99f58d84c40a11001f1014ea08c", "input": "Passage: The plasma membrane also contains other molecules, primarily other lipids and proteins. The green molecules in Figure above , for example, are the lipid cholesterol. Molecules of cholesterol help the plasma membrane keep its shape. Many of the proteins in the plasma membrane assist other substances in crossing the membrane. Answer: molecules of cholesterol", "output": [ "What helps the plasma membrane keep its shape?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bb30b047c1a74e28a6672a62190b5bdf", "input": "Passage: Models may be physical, conceptual, or mathematical. Answer: mathematical", "output": [ "Models may be physical, conceptual, or what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-107a3fdf2de24434aaa874bad21c81ab", "input": "Passage: The inheritance of traits is not always as simple as Mendel's rules. Each characteristic Mendel investigated was controlled by one gene that had only two possible alleles, one of which was completely dominant over the other. We now know that inheritance is often more complicated than this. In blood types, for example, there are actually three alleles instead of two. And some traits even have more than three alleles. Answer: mass", "output": [ "What measures the amount of matter in an object?" ] }, { "id": "task594-73b86462f60b49a0afe3e4aa0699e2e3", "input": "Passage: A type of lipid called trans fat is found in many processed foods. Trans fat is rare in nature but is manufactured and added to foods to preserve freshness. Eating foods that contain trans fat increases the risk of heart disease. Trans fat may be found in such foods as cookies, doughnuts, crackers, fried foods, ground beef, and margarine. Answer: trans fat", "output": [ "What is manufactured and added to foods to preserve freshness?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c25bcd7bc47041e29bf996d82aab1791", "input": "Passage: Weathering may concentrate some resources. In tropical climates, chemical weathering can be intense. Some minerals dissolve and water carries them away. This leaves behind the materials that are not soluble. Bauxite is aluminum oxide that collects this way. Bauxite is our main source of aluminum ore. Answer: bauxite", "output": [ "What is our main source of aluminum ore?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c19e8e03fc3142fdbaa2d7f0a25108d5", "input": "Passage: A: All chemical equations must be balanced. This means that there must be the same number of each type of atom on both sides of the arrow. That’s because mass is always conserved in chemical reactions. Count the number of hydrogen and oxygen atoms on each side of the arrow. There are two hydrogen atoms in both reactants and products. There are two oxygen atoms in the reactants but only one in the product. Therefore, equation 1 is not balanced. Answer: mass", "output": [ "What is always conserved in chemical reactions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-10c4bca01ac0462e9ef6f3e5f7e00ca5", "input": "Passage: Since sodium fluoride is soluble, the sodium ion is a spectator ion in the neutralization reaction. The fluoride ion is capable of reacting, to a small extent, with water, accepting a proton. Answer: spectator ion", "output": [ "What is the role of the sodium ion in the neutralization reaction of sodium flouride?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e81774054cd0470d80f5cc58cdc4551b", "input": "Passage: Without Coriolis Effect the global winds would blow north to south or south to north. But Coriolis makes them blow northeast to southwest or the reverse in the Northern Hemisphere. The winds blow northwest to southeast or the reverse in the southern hemisphere. Answer: coriolis effect", "output": [ "What phenomenon makes global winds blow northeast to southwest or the reverse in the northern hemisphere and northwest to southeast or the reverse in the southern hemisphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-119536a4914e4236b035e8661d9490c6", "input": "Passage: Magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca) are also important macronutrients. The role of calcium is twofold: to regulate nutrient transport, and to support many enzyme functions. Magnesium is important to the photosynthetic process. These minerals, along with the micronutrients, which are described below, also contribute to the plant’s ionic balance. In addition to macronutrients, organisms require various elements in small amounts. These micronutrients, or trace elements, are present in very small quantities. They include boron (B), chlorine (Cl), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni), silicon (Si), and sodium (Na). Deficiencies in any of these nutrients—particularly the macronutrients—can adversely affect plant growth (Figure 31.4. Depending on the specific nutrient, a lack can cause stunted growth, slow growth, or chlorosis (yellowing of the leaves). Extreme deficiencies may result in leaves showing signs of cell death. Answer: photosynthetic", "output": [ "What process is magnesium important to?" ] }, { "id": "task594-99c3b844c4b949789dfb1db508addacb", "input": "Passage: The stratosphere contains a layer of ozone gas. Ozone consists of three oxygen atoms (O 3 ). The ozone layer absorbs high-energy UV radiation. As you can see in Figure below , UV radiation splits the ozone molecule. The split creates an oxygen molecule (O 2 ) and an oxygen atom (O). This split releases heat that warms the stratosphere. By absorbing UV radiation, ozone also protects Earth’s surface. UV radiation would harm living things without the ozone layer. Answer: ozone layer", "output": [ "What is the name for the stratospheric gas layer that protects living things from uv radiation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-88053ba7d8c24debb680ec3f0545add7", "input": "Passage: The related field of biochemistry overlaps to some extent with organic chemistry. Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry of living systems. Many biochemical compounds are considered to be organic chemicals. Both of the molecules shown above are biochemical materials in terms of their use in the body, but organic chemicals in terms of their structure and chemical reactivity. Answer: living systems", "output": [ "Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-381bd02252b740c08aa70e88e162baa6", "input": "Passage: The concentration of hydronium ions in a solution is known as acidity . In pure water, the concentration of hydronium ions is very low; only about 1 in 10 million water molecules naturally breaks down to form a hydronium ion. As a result, pure water is essentially neutral. Acidity is measured on a scale called pH , as shown in Figure below . Pure water has a pH of 7, so the point of neutrality on the pH scale is 7. Answer: acidity", "output": [ "The concentration of hydronium ions in a solution is known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f537dd18d9c8455fba68ebf43b866b6b", "input": "Passage: In seed plants, the gametophyte generation takes place in a cone or flower, which forms on the mature sporophyte plant. Each male gametophyte is just a few cells inside a grain of pollen. Each female gametophyte produces an egg inside an ovule. Pollination must occur for fertilization to take place. Zygotes develop into embryos inside seeds, from which the next sporophyte generation grows. Answer: zygotes", "output": [ "What develops into embryos inside seeds, from which the next sporophyte generation grows?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e8afc0afd59b4c188c76ccdc837aee7c", "input": "Passage: Glaciers modify the landscape by erosion. They also modify the landscape by deposition. Glaciers carry an enormous amount of material and dump it. The features they leave behind show where they were and what happened as they were melting away. Answer: erosion", "output": [ "Glaciers modify the landscape by what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-004c74a08b7c481f94049968620b0fd6", "input": "Passage: Nephrologist A nephrologist studies and deals with diseases of the kidneys—both those that cause kidney failure (such as diabetes) and the conditions that are produced by kidney disease (such as hypertension). Blood pressure, blood volume, and changes in electrolyte balance come under the purview of a nephrologist. Nephrologists usually work with other physicians who refer patients to them or consult with them about specific diagnoses and treatment plans. Patients are usually referred to a nephrologist for symptoms such as blood or protein in the urine, very high blood pressure, kidney stones, or renal failure. Nephrology is a subspecialty of internal medicine. To become a nephrologist, medical school is followed by additional training to become certified in internal medicine. An additional two or more years is spent specifically studying kidney disorders and their accompanying effects on the body. Answer: kidneys", "output": [ "A nephrologist studies and deals with diseases of what organ?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a1c0557ec62e4cb09b92e434929bd188", "input": "Passage: Viruses can be found almost anywhere there is life, including living within prokaryotes. A phage is a virus that infects prokaryotes. Phages are estimated to be the most widely distributed and diverse entities in the biosphere, even more numerous than prokaryotic organisms. Phages can be found everywhere their hosts are found, such as in soil, in the intestine of animals, or seawater. Up to 10 9 virions have been found in a milliliter of seawater, and up to 70 percent of marine bacteria may be infected by phages. They are also found in drinking water and in some foods, including fermented vegetables and meats, where they control the growth of bacteria. Answer: phages", "output": [ "What is the most widely distributed organism around?" ] }, { "id": "task594-23fcf12b583b40f5bf1a03e46f224239", "input": "Passage: One way to test a cause and effect hypothesis is to perform a controlled experiment. In a controlled experiment, two identical experiments are carried out side-by-side. In one of the experiments, the independent variable being tested is used, and in the other experiment, the control, the independent variable is not used. Answer: controlled experiment", "output": [ "What type of experiment involves two identical experiments carried out side-by-side, with and without an independent variable?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e0ecfe450d6b494897601ddab0dfc99a", "input": "Passage: Some extrusive igneous rocks cool so rapidly that crystals do not develop at all. These form a glass, such as obsidian. Others, such as pumice, contain holes where gas bubbles were trapped in the lava. The holes make pumice so light that it actually floats in water. The most common extrusive igneous rock is basalt. It is the rock that makes up the ocean floor. Shown below are three types of extrusive igneous rocks ( Figure below ). Answer: gas bubble holes", "output": [ "What helps pumice float in water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-18e856ef317f4a8381c55a395ab1012e", "input": "Passage: The frequency, is the number of cycles an object goes through in second. Frequency is measured in Hertz . cycle per sec. Answer: hertz", "output": [ "What cycle is frequency measured in per second?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e4f4b1f4a0bb4359b0839d561095af5d", "input": "Passage: From left to right across the periodic table, each element has one more proton than the element to its left. Because atoms are always electrically neutral, for each added proton, one electron is also added. Electrons are added first to the lowest energy level possible until that level is full. Only then are electrons added to the next higher energy level. Answer: electron", "output": [ "Because atoms are always electrically neutral, for each added proton, one of what is also added?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8d91dc6b81314f1397a024b99bbed97a", "input": "Passage: Chemistry is based on the modern atomic theory, which states that all matter is composed of atoms. Answer: chemistry", "output": [ "What branch of science is based on the modern atomic theory, which states that all matter is composed of atoms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-389cab1fdd134ef39da8469b6c7381ed", "input": "Passage: Cecum The first part of the large intestine is the cecum, a sac-like structure that is suspended inferior to the ileocecal valve. It is about 6 cm (2.4 in) long, receives the contents of the ileum, and continues the absorption of water and salts. The appendix (or vermiform appendix) is a winding tube that attaches to the cecum. Although the 7.6-cm (3-in) long appendix contains lymphoid tissue, suggesting an immunologic function, this organ is generally considered vestigial. However, at least one recent report postulates a survival advantage conferred by the appendix: In diarrheal illness, the appendix may serve as a bacterial reservoir to repopulate the enteric bacteria for those surviving the initial phases of the illness. Moreover, its twisted anatomy provides a haven for the accumulation and multiplication of enteric bacteria. The mesoappendix, the mesentery of the appendix, tethers it to the mesentery of the ileum. Answer: cecum", "output": [ "What is the first part of the large intestine called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f687b4d2436e490c84c501503b29d503", "input": "Passage: Did you ever see a scene like the one in Figure below ? In many parts of the world, trees lose their leaves in autumn. The leaves turn color and then fall from the trees to the ground. As the leaves are falling, they have kinetic energy. While they are still attached to the trees they also have energy, but it’s not because of motion. Instead, they have stored energy, called potential energy . An object has potential energy because of its position or shape. For example leaves on trees have potential energy because they could fall due to the pull of gravity. Answer: potential energy", "output": [ "What is another term for stored energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0581328191ab43bf9cef0d43288cbf6e", "input": "Passage: Like animals, protozoa are heterotrophic and capable of moving. Answer: moving", "output": [ "Like animals, protozoa are heterotrophic and capable of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bafe056a9ef3418ebde751a26a0b29f6", "input": "Passage: Moving into an area, or immigration, is a key factor in the growth of populations. Shown above is actual vintage luggage left by some of the millions of immigrants who came through Ellis Island and into the United States. Answer: immigration", "output": [ "What is a key factor in the growth of populations?" ] }, { "id": "task594-07af12680452430a8d85a399f89dec3c", "input": "Passage: The chain of amino acids keeps growing until a stop codon is reached. Then the chain is released from the ribosome. Answer: released from the ribosome", "output": [ "What happens to a chain of amino acids after it reaches a stop codon?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1b25c7338c664051aa55e5dad50ad03f", "input": "Passage: 19.2 Population Genetics Both genetic and environmental factors can cause phenotypic variation in a population. Different alleles can confer different phenotypes, and different environments can also cause individuals to look or act differently. Only those differences encoded in an individual’s genes, however, can be passed to its offspring and, thus, be a target of natural selection. Natural selection works by selecting for alleles that confer beneficial traits or behaviors, while selecting against those for deleterious qualities. Genetic drift stems from the chance occurrence that some individuals in the germ line have more offspring than others. When individuals leave or join the population, allele frequencies can change as a result of gene flow. Mutations to an individual’s DNA may introduce new variation into a population. Allele frequencies can also be altered when individuals do not randomly mate with others in the group. Answer: natural selection", "output": [ "What works by selecting for alleles that confer beneficial traits or behaviors, while selecting against those for deleterious qualities?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b7a90fde7f4a41fbbd442b7883984a1a", "input": "Passage: Contact metamorphism occurs when a rock is altered by heat from a nearby magma. Answer: contact metamorphism", "output": [ "When a rock is altered by heat from a nearby magma, what occurs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-364b4a7b5b9344f6a0393a010aefc39a", "input": "Passage: Accidentally introduced in the 1900s, the fungus decimated elm trees across the continent. Many European and Asiatic elms are less susceptible to Dutch elm disease than American elms. In humans, fungal infections are generally considered challenging to treat. Unlike bacteria, fungi do not respond to traditional antibiotic therapy, since they are eukaryotes. Fungal infections may prove deadly for individuals with compromised immune systems. Fungi have many commercial applications. The food industry uses yeasts in baking, brewing, and cheese and wine making. Many industrial compounds are byproducts of fungal fermentation. Fungi are the source of many commercial enzymes and antibiotics. Answer: american", "output": [ "Many european and asiatic elms are less susceptible to dutch elm disease than which elms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a91c5aa8aa7e40b8b16de0f7a3d43069", "input": "Passage: The octopi in the above two videos are both opening jars. Observe their behavior closely. Do you think they are both displaying the same type of learning? Explain your reasoning fully, and be as specific as you can be. Answer: bilateral", "output": [ "What type of symmetry does an octopus have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-49fa65fd369443f1a1cc448a5413b9f7", "input": "Passage: Metals can conduct electricity because they have free electrons. Answer: electricity", "output": [ "Because they have free electrons, metals are able to conduct what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6478f04bd40e40098d2623fe888f239c", "input": "Passage: Reptiles can be found on every continent except Antarctica. Answer: antarctica", "output": [ "Reptiles can be found on every continent except which one?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0b780bd8e6734f5c9d6f8f2fab39bb1c", "input": "Passage: A resource is renewable if it is remade by natural processes at the same rate that humans use it up. Sunlight and wind are renewable resources because they will not be used up ( Figure below ). The rising and falling of ocean tides is another example of a resource in unlimited supply. A sustainable resource is a resource that is used in a way that meets the needs of the present without keeping future generations from meeting their needs. People can sustainably harvest wood, cork, and bamboo. Farmers can also grow crops sustainably by not planting the same crop in their soil year after year. Planting the same crop each year can remove nutrients from the soil. This means that wood, cork, bamboo, and crops can be sustainable resources. Answer: sustainable", "output": [ "What is the term for a resource that is used in a way that meets the needs of the present without keeping future generations from meeting their needs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0c14b18ff22f4157869fb76bd62009d7", "input": "Passage: Water is an essential part of most metabolic processes within organisms. Metabolism is the sum total of all body reactions, including those that build up molecules ( anabolic reactions ) and those that break down molecules ( catabolic reactions ). In anabolic reactions, water is generally removed from small molecules in order to make larger molecules. In catabolic reactions, water is used to break bonds in larger molecules in order to make smaller molecules. Answer: metabolism", "output": [ "What is the sum total of all body reactions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ce40ca1b252c4e9983421173a7836963", "input": "Passage: Following the discovery of the electron, J. J. Thomson developed what became known as the “ plum pudding ” model in 1904. Plum pudding is an English dessert similar to a blueberry muffin. In Thomson’s plum pudding model of the atom, the electrons were embedded in a uniform sphere of positive charge like blueberries stuck into a muffin. The positive matter was thought to be jelly- like or a thick soup. The electrons were somewhat mobile. As they got closer to the outer portion of the atom, the positive charge in the region was greater than the neighboring negative charges and the electron would be pulled back more toward the center region of the atom. Answer: atom", "output": [ "Thomson’s plum pudding model shows the structure of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fe690fbe160f44cfb6c80a41a9944dce", "input": "Passage: Autism has a wide phenotypic spectrum of disability. Twin studies have been instrumental in demonstrating an environmental component in autism. Answer: environmental", "output": [ "Twin studies have been instrumental in demonstrating what type of component in autism?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b131ff5287e74c06a1f2cb02d0011882", "input": "Passage: An allergy occurs when the immune system attacks a harmless substance that enters the body from the outside. A substance that causes an allergy is called an allergen. It is the immune system, not the allergen, that causes the symptoms of an allergy. Answer: allergy", "output": [ "What occurs when the immune system attacks a harmless substance that enters the body from the outside?" ] }, { "id": "task594-05faf1e1a39749f5b52d6163d783047a", "input": "Passage: 28.5 Red algae and green algae are the closest relatives of land plants. Answer: land plants", "output": [ "Red algae and green algae are the closest relatives of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0a4593ce6991481ca4ee33229c83c92f", "input": "Passage: Linear or tangential acceleration refers to changes in the magnitude of velocity but not its direction. We know from Uniform Circular Motion and Gravitation that in circular motion centripetal acceleration, a c , refers to changes in the direction of the velocity but not its magnitude. An object undergoing circular motion experiences centripetal acceleration, as seen in Figure 10.5. Thus, a t and a c are perpendicular and independent of one another. Tangential acceleration a t is directly related to the angular acceleration. Answer: acceleration", "output": [ "An object undergoing circular motion experiences centripetal what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7ca382cdaf9b486a83510d55db6d45c6", "input": "Passage: All combustion reactions are exothermic reactions. During a combustion reaction, a substance burns as it combines with oxygen. When substances burn, they usually give off energy as heat and light. Look at the big bonfire in the Figure below . The combustion of wood is an exothermic reaction that releases a lot of energy as heat and light. You can see the light energy the fire is giving off. If you were standing near the fire, you would also feel its heat. Answer: exothermic", "output": [ "All combustion reactions are what type of reactions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7ff9d25cb17c46cb9500aa3174b6030a", "input": "Passage: Parasitism is a symbiotic relationship in which one species (the parasite ) benefits while the other species (the host ) is harmed. Many species of animals are parasites, at least during some stage of their life. Most species are also hosts to one or more parasites. Answer: parasitism", "output": [ "What is the term for a symbiotic relationship in which the parasite benefits while the host is harmed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b915ad80680f40da975fa5b695dd9788", "input": "Passage: During the water cycle, water occurs in three different states: gas (water vapor), liquid (water), and solid (ice). Many processes are involved as water changes state in the water cycle. Answer: ice", "output": [ "Water in its solid state is commonly known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7dbec2ae9eee44c984512e94e627a517", "input": "Passage: Telomerase and Aging Cells that undergo cell division continue to have their telomeres shortened because most somatic cells do not make telomerase. This essentially means that telomere shortening is associated with aging. With the advent of modern medicine, preventative health care, and healthier lifestyles, the human life span has increased, and there is an increasing demand for people to look younger and have a better quality of life as they grow older. In 2010, scientists found that telomerase can reverse some age-related conditions in mice. This may have potential in [2] regenerative medicine. Telomerase-deficient mice were used in these studies; these mice have tissue atrophy, stem 2. Jaskelioff et al. , “Telomerase reactivation reverses tissue degeneration in aged telomerase-deficient mice,” Nature 469 (2011): 102-7. Answer: aging", "output": [ "Cells that undergo cell division continue to have their telomeres shortened, thus telomere shortening is associated with what life process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7fcd81fd39ae4fdc8c7288fa34ebc9c3", "input": "Passage: Carbon is one of the most common elements found in living organisms. Chains of carbon molecules form the backbones of many organic molecules, such as carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. Carbon is constantly cycling between living organisms and the atmosphere ( Figure below ). The cycling of carbon occurs through the carbon cycle . Answer: carbon", "output": [ "Which common element is the most found in living organisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3e6d963144ab4c17b3f1da2b992bd97a", "input": "Passage: The boy in Figure below is working out on a hot day. He’s losing a lot of water in sweat. To maintain homeostasis, his body can balance the water lost in sweat by excreting less water in urine. The amount of water lost in urine is controlled by the kidneys. The kidneys are organs of excretion. Answer: kidneys", "output": [ "Which organ in the body controls the amount of water loss in urine in response to maintaining homeostasis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4b439d97451443459c89c9c16ae98edb", "input": "Passage: There are several dietary sources of carbohydrates. Starch is found in many vegetables (especially potatoes) and baked goods. Sucrose (table sugar) is included as part of many prepared foods. Lactose is found in milk products, and maltose is present in some vegetables. Answer: sucrose", "output": [ "What is the chemical name of table sugar?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5adddaa2b2274e60a24621aab04ccc24", "input": "Passage: Waves interact not only with matter in the ways described above. Waves also interact with other waves. This is called wave interference . Wave interference may occur when two waves that are traveling in opposite directions meet. The two waves pass through each other, and this affects their amplitude. How amplitude is affected depends on the type of interference. Interference can be constructive or destructive. Answer: wave interference", "output": [ "What is it called when waves interact with other waves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e510f78326d64664bca932c87882a685", "input": "Passage: The Moon has a crust, mantle, and core. Answer: core", "output": [ "The moon has a crust, mantle, and a?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9a4ad0c2cb7b4b76ad914880de117281", "input": "Passage: The length traveled by an object moving in any direction or even changing direction is called distance. Answer: distance", "output": [ "The length that an object has travelled in one or multiple directions can also be called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-43a83fcd01a1476cb2c3bc5116887d17", "input": "Passage: The mass spectrometer measures the percent abundance of different isotopes in a given sample. Answer: isotopes", "output": [ "He mass spectrometer measures the percent abundance of different what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5712ffe8032d4bdb9ac11c36d78baa9c", "input": "Passage: The embryo, which begins as a flat sheet of cells, begins to acquire a cylindrical shape through the process of embryonic folding (Figure 28.14). The embryo folds laterally and again at either end, forming a C-shape with distinct head and tail ends. The embryo envelops a portion of the yolk sac, which protrudes with the umbilical cord from what will become the abdomen. The folding essentially creates a tube, called the primitive gut, that is lined by the endoderm. The amniotic sac, which was sitting on top of the flat embryo, envelops the embryo as it folds. Answer: amniotic sac", "output": [ "What sac, which was sitting on top of the flat embryo, envelops the embryo as it folds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3a9be801b62d4ae78418625f9082e877", "input": "Passage: Erosion moves sediments after they have formed. The sediments are transported away from the place where they form. There are several agents of erosion. Flowing water moves and deposits sediments. Water erodes far more material than any other erosional agent. Wind is important as an agent of erosion. This is especially true in arid climates. Ice, in glaciers, can erode enormous quantities of sediments. Gravity as a force of erosion pulls material downhill. Answer: erosion", "output": [ "What moves sediments after they have formed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-83d703f92cb0440da687fc77e37bd50d", "input": "Passage: When two continental plates converge, they smash together and create mountains. Answer: mountains", "output": [ "The converging of continental plates can form what kind of geological feature?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8ae2c4b155c54fe2af3038c7377ab9e3", "input": "Passage: The generation of an isolated but open system, which we might call a protocell, was a critical step in the origin of life. Such an isolated system has important properties that are likely to have facilitated the further development of life. For example, because of the membrane boundary, changes that occur within one such structure will not be shared with neighboring systems. Rather, they accumulated in, and favor the survival of, one system over its neighbors. Such systems can also reproduce in a crude way by fragmentation. If changes within one such system improved its stability, its ability to accumulate resources, or its ability to survive and reproduce, that system, and its progeny, would be likely to become more common. As these changes accumulate and are passed from parent to offspring, the organisms will inevitably evolve, as we will see in detail in the next chapter. As in living systems today, the earliest steps in the formation of the first organisms required a source of energy to maintain the non-equilibrium living system. There are really two choices for the source of this energy, either light (electromagnetic radiation from the sun) or thermodynamically unstable chemicals present in the environment. There have been a number of plausible scenarios, based on various observations, for the steps leading to life. For example, a recent study based on the analysis of the genes (and the proteins that they encode) found in modern organisms, suggests that the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) arose in association with hydrothermal vents.60 But whether this reflects LUCA or an ancestor of LUCA that became adapted to living is association with hydrothermal vents is difficult (and perhaps impossible) to resolve unambiguously, particularly since LUCA lived ~3.4-3.8 billion years ago and cannot be studied directly. Mapping the history of life on earth Assuming, as seems likely, that life arose spontaneously, we can now look at what we know about the fossil record to better understand the diversification of life and life’s impact on the Earth. This is probably best done by starting with what we know about where the Universe and Earth came from. The current scientific model for the origin of the universe is known as the “Big Bang” (also known as the “primeval atom” or the “cosmic egg”), an idea originally proposed by the priest, physicist and astronomer Georges Lemaître (1894-1966).61 The Big Bang model arose from efforts to answer the question of whether the fuzzy nebulae identified by astronomers were located within or outside of our galaxy. This required some way to determine how far these nebulae were from Earth. Edwin Hubble (1889-1953) and his co-workers were the first to realize that nebulae were in fact galaxies in their own right, each very much like our own Milky Way and each is composed of many billions of stars. This was a surprising result. It made Earth, sitting on the edge of one (the Milky Way) among many, many galaxies seem less important – a change in cosmological perspective similar to that associated with the idea that the Sun, rather than Earth, was the center of the solar system (and the Universe). To measure the movement of galaxies with respect to Earth, Hubble and colleagues combined to types of observations. The first of these allowed them to estimate the distance from the Earth to. Answer: big bang", "output": [ "What is the theoretical event that began the universe often called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2c89d4659fad49ccbdf335a40f7f41a5", "input": "Passage: Geology is the study of the solid Earth. Geologists study how rocks and minerals form. The way mountains rise up is part of geology. The way mountains erode away is another part. Geologists also study fossils and Earth’s history. There are many other branches of geology. There is so much to know about our home planet that most geologists become specialists in one area. For example, a mineralogist studies minerals, as seen in ( Figure below ). Answer: geology", "output": [ "What is the name of the scientific field that deals with the general study of the solid earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7917bfb234094cb4bc99977b3d1ddc1d", "input": "Passage: An electromagnetic wave consists of vibrating electric and magnetic fields. Answer: magnetic field", "output": [ "In addition to a vibrating electric field what does an electromagnetic wave consist of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d5a042a6f12746c29cbccc63d896985f", "input": "Passage: The Gaia hypothesis states that the biosphere is its own living organism. Answer: the gaia hypothesis", "output": [ "What hypothesis states that the biosphere is its own living organism" ] }, { "id": "task594-44d7f49834024c94b94d3bead7870365", "input": "Passage: The Pharynx The pharynx (throat) is involved in both digestion and respiration. It receives food and air from the mouth, and air from the nasal cavities. When food enters the pharynx, involuntary muscle contractions close off the air passageways. A short tube of skeletal muscle lined with a mucous membrane, the pharynx runs from the posterior oral and nasal cavities to the opening of the esophagus and larynx. It has three subdivisions. The most superior, the nasopharynx, is involved only in breathing and speech. The other two subdivisions, the oropharynx and the laryngopharynx, are used for both breathing and digestion. The oropharynx begins inferior to the nasopharynx and is continuous below with the laryngopharynx (Figure 23.12). The inferior border of the laryngopharynx connects to the esophagus, whereas the anterior portion connects to the larynx, allowing air to flow into the bronchial tree. Answer: throat", "output": [ "Digestion and respiration are both facilitated by the pharynx, more commonly called the what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-448233d71f1649d8af08cdf580313435", "input": "Passage: The top layer of water farther from shore is called the limnetic zone. There is enough light for photosynthesis and plenty of dissolved oxygen. However, dissolved nutrients tend not to be as plentiful as they are in the littoral zone. Producers here are mainly phytoplankton. A variety of zooplankton and fish also occupy this zone. Answer: limnetic zone", "output": [ "What is the top layer of water farther from shore called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eb1952b816a2448688cf2d96eb193f61", "input": "Passage: Most animals are capable of learning, but animals that are more intelligent are better at learning and depend more on learned behaviors. The big advantage of learned behaviors over innate behaviors is that learned behaviors are flexible. They can be changed to suit changing conditions. Answer: learned behavior", "output": [ "What type of behavior has the advantage of being flexible and capable of changing to suit changing conditions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-30fac6e4d99348b2a71bdac60b8fba2c", "input": "Passage: Sexual reproduction involves two parents. As you can see from Figure below , in sexual reproduction, parents produce reproductive cells—called gametes —that unite to form an offspring. Gametes are haploid cells. This means they contain only half the number of chromosomes found in other cells of the organism. Gametes are produced by a type of cell division called meiosis, which is described in detail below. The process in which two gametes unite is called fertilization . The fertilized cell that results is referred to as a zygote . A zygote is diploid cell, which means that it has twice the number of chromosomes as a gamete. Answer: meiosis", "output": [ "What type of cell division produces gametes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-014df396ab3b4287b6d627343c6e5548", "input": "Passage: The spiral structure in the picture is a large organic molecule. Can you guess what it is? Here’s a hint: molecules like this one determine who you are. They contain genetic information that controls your characteristics. They determine your eye color, facial features, and other physical attributes. What molecule is it?. Answer: spiral", "output": [ "What is the distinctive shape of the molecule that contains genetic information?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e499e6ba1b2c46978e87aff8497c7b36", "input": "Passage: All the atoms of a given element have the same number of protons in their nucleus, but they may have different numbers of neutrons. Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. Many elements have one or more isotopes that are radioactive. These isotopes are called radioisotopes . Their nuclei are unstable, so they break down, or decay, and emit radiation. Answer: protons", "output": [ "All the atoms of a given element have the same number of what in their nucleus, though they may have different numbers of neutrons?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bf599665f26b4a3491608a018ee0f411", "input": "Passage: The cell wall grows toward the center of the cell. The cytoplasm splits apart, and the cell pinches in two. This is called cytokinesis . Answer: cytokinesis", "output": [ "The process of the cytoplasm splitting apart and the cell pinching in two is known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-518088e07ed94f51951a253ca7681630", "input": "Passage: Ice wedging and abrasion are two important processes of mechanical weathering. Answer: mechanical", "output": [ "Abrasion is a process of what type of weathering?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8a1d0cd53e9642b389dabc96fb2c81f0", "input": "Passage: Avian Respiration Birds have evolved a respiratory system that enables them to fly. Flying is a high-energy process and requires a lot of oxygen. Furthermore, many birds fly in high altitudes where the concentration of oxygen in low. How did birds evolve a respiratory system that is so unique? Decades of research by paleontologists have shown that birds evolved from therapods, meat-eating dinosaurs (Figure 39.14). In fact, fossil evidence shows that meat-eating dinosaurs that lived more than 100 million years ago had a similar flow-through respiratory system with lungs and air sacs. Archaeopteryx and Xiaotingia, for example, were flying dinosaurs and are believed to be early precursors of birds. Answer: oxygen", "output": [ "Birds have evolved a respiratory system that enables them to fly. flying is a high-energy process and requires a lot of this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8f4e600e20664b72a42f3b03c15404c7", "input": "Passage: Characteristics of Amniotes The amniotic egg is the key characteristic of amniotes. In amniotes that lay eggs, the shell of the egg provides protection for the developing embryo while being permeable enough to allow for the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen. The albumin, or egg white, provides the embryo with water and protein, whereas the fattier egg yolk is the energy supply for the embryo, as is the case with the eggs of many other animals, such as amphibians. However, the eggs of amniotes contain three additional extra-embryonic membranes: the chorion, amnion, and allantois (Figure 29.20). Extra-embryonic membranes are membranes present in amniotic eggs that are not a part of the body of the developing embryo. While the inner amniotic membrane surrounds the embryo itself, the chorion surrounds the embryo and yolk sac. The chorion facilitates exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the embryo and the egg’s external environment. The amnion protects the embryo from mechanical shock and supports hydration. The allantois stores nitrogenous wastes produced by the embryo and also facilitates respiration. In mammals, membranes that are homologous to the extra-embryonic membranes in eggs are present in the placenta. Answer: oxygen", "output": [ "In amniotes that lay eggs, the shell of the egg provides protection for the developing embryo while being permeable enough to allow for the exchange of carbon dioxide and this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8c1ac66a7792481cb91d8f1bc865a16e", "input": "Passage: Diamonds like the one pictured in the Figure below are the hardest of all minerals. Is a diamond a crystalline or an amorphous solid? How do you know?. Answer: diamonds", "output": [ "What is the hardest of all minerals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-87e1c8bcdffa4b6c827fcce0ae63f1ac", "input": "Passage: Hydrogen bonds between water molecules explain some of water’s properties. For example, hydrogen bonds explain why water molecules tend to stick together. Have you ever watched water drip from a leaky faucet or from a melting icicle? If you have, then you know that water always falls in drops rather than as separate molecules. The dew drops in Figure below are another example of water molecules sticking together. Answer: hydrogen bonds", "output": [ "What explains why water molecules tend to stick together?" ] }, { "id": "task594-81f7d86ac4a045fd9860d6e5ab4189d9", "input": "Passage: Metals have a wide range of melting points, but most are quite high. Only one metal (mercury) melts below room temperature. Others (such as gallium) are solid at room temperature but would melt at body temperature, so they can be melted simply by holding them in your hand. On the other end of the spectrum, tungsten has a melting point of 3422°C. Figure below shows the melting points of various elements in their most common pure form. Answer: mercury", "output": [ "Name the one metal that melts below room temperature?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4e0a91bd4f7f4a208f6a90798713988d", "input": "Passage: 18.3 Erythrocytes The most abundant formed elements in blood, erythrocytes are red, biconcave disks packed with an oxygen-carrying compound called hemoglobin. The hemoglobin molecule contains four globin proteins bound to a pigment molecule called heme, which contains an ion of iron. In the bloodstream, iron picks up oxygen in the lungs and drops it off in the tissues; the amino acids in hemoglobin then transport carbon dioxide from the tissues back to the lungs. Erythrocytes live only 120 days on average, and thus must be continually replaced. Worn-out erythrocytes are phagocytized by macrophages and their hemoglobin is broken down. The breakdown products are recycled or removed as wastes: Globin is broken down into amino acids for synthesis of new proteins; iron is stored in the liver or spleen or used by the bone marrow for production of new erythrocytes; and the remnants of heme are converted into bilirubin, or other waste products that are taken up by the liver and excreted in the bile or removed by the kidneys. Anemia is a deficiency of RBCs or hemoglobin, whereas polycythemia is an excess of RBCs. Answer: hemoglobin", "output": [ "The most abundant formed elements in blood, erythrocytes are red, biconcave disks packed with an oxygen-carrying compound called this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a01eedd3aed84a8e85195d8f47ad3c34", "input": "Passage: Prenatal diagnosis refers to the diagnosis of a disease or condition before the baby is born. Answer: prenatal", "output": [ "What type of diagnosis happens before a baby is born?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ae0b7e90047648c89faa616f5f282167", "input": "Passage: work: A force is said to do work when it acts on a body so that there is a displacement of the point of application, however small, in the direction of the force. Thus a force does work when it results in movement. The work done by a constant force of magnitude on a point that moves a distance in the direction of the force is the product, . Answer: movement", "output": [ "What results when a force does work?" ] }, { "id": "task594-44df4a4612f54418986e4b29a0e383c3", "input": "Passage: Gamma emission is the release of energy in the form of high energy electromagnetic waves. Answer: gamma emission", "output": [ "What is the release of energy in the form of high energy electromagnetic waves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-653beff9f5694cec91f77659ae92e6d5", "input": "Passage: Earth is warmed by energy that radiates from the sun. Earth radiates some of the energy back into space. Greenhouse gases (GHGs) trap much of the re-radiated energy, causing an increase in the temperature of the atmosphere close to the surface. Answer: the sun", "output": [ "What is the major source of warmth for earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-66ba46fbecce462293ec240218dbeb21", "input": "Passage: When was the last time you enjoyed yogurt on your breakfast cereal, or had a tetanus shot? These experiences may appear unconnected, but both relate to bacteria which do not use oxygen to make ATP. In fact, tetanus bacteria cannot survive if oxygen is present. However, Lactobacillus acidophilus (bacteria which make yogurt) and Clostridium tetani (bacteria which cause tetanus or lockjaw) share with nearly all organisms the first stage of cellular respiration, glycolysis ( Figure below ). Because glycolysis is universal, whereas aerobic (oxygen-requiring) cellular respiration is not, most biologists consider it to be the most fundamental and primitive pathway for making ATP. Answer: glycolysis", "output": [ "What is the first stage of cellular respiration called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f737527f3cf3448eb1da04c04e4f5b62", "input": "Passage: Kidney diseases include kidney stones, infections, and kidney failure due to diabetes. Kidney failure may be treated with dialysis. Answer: kidney", "output": [ "Which organ's diseases include kidney stones, infections, and kidney failure due to diabetes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e5892925ead24c028b2a4da072329b12", "input": "Passage: Metals are elements that can conduct electricity. They are one of three classes of elements (the other two classes are nonmetals and metalloids). Metals are by far the largest of the three classes. In fact, most elements are metals. All of the elements on the left side and in the middle of the periodic table, except for hydrogen, are metals. There are several different types of metals, including alkali metals in group 1 of the periodic table, alkaline Earth metals in group 2, and transition metals in groups 3–12. The majority of metals are transition metals. Answer: metalloids", "output": [ "The three classes of elements are metals, nonmetals, and what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a5a838986bc944d29f45f0bfcb8cad46", "input": "Passage: Cells share the same needs: the need to get energy from their environment, the need to respond to their environment, and the need to reproduce. Cells must also be able to separate their relatively stable interior from the ever-changing external environment. They do this by coordinating many processes that are carried out within organelles, or other cellular structures. Structures that are common to many different cells indicate the common history shared by cell-based life. Examples of these common structures include the components of both the cell (or plasma) membrane and the cytoskeleton, and other structures shown in Figure above . Answer: the external environment", "output": [ "Cells must also be able to separate their relatively stable interior from what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-377cd01c39b246bc9e3593a619b1c2e7", "input": "Passage: Lysosomes Some of the protein products packaged by the Golgi include digestive enzymes that are meant to remain inside the cell for use in breaking down certain materials. The enzyme-containing vesicles released by the Golgi may form new lysosomes, or fuse with existing, lysosomes. A lysosome is an organelle that contains enzymes that break down and digest unneeded cellular components, such as a damaged organelle. (A lysosome is similar to a wrecking crew that takes down old and unsound buildings in a neighborhood. ) Autophagy (“self-eating”) is the process of a cell digesting its own structures. Lysosomes are also important for breaking down foreign material. For example, when certain immune defense cells (white blood cells) phagocytize bacteria, the bacterial cell is transported into a lysosome and digested by the enzymes inside. As one might imagine, such phagocytic defense cells contain large numbers of lysosomes. Under certain circumstances, lysosomes perform a more grand and dire function. In the case of damaged or unhealthy cells, lysosomes can be triggered to open up and release their digestive enzymes into the cytoplasm of the cell, killing the cell. This “self-destruct” mechanism is called autolysis, and makes the process of cell death controlled (a mechanism called “apoptosis”). Answer: lysosome", "output": [ "What structure is an organelle that contains enzymes that break down and digest unneeded cellular components?" ] }, { "id": "task594-37c4f6bd5b2c4782a2f64cfeb84327fb", "input": "Passage: The pupil is an opening in the front of the eye. It looks black because it doesn’t reflect any light. It allows light to enter the eye. The pupil automatically gets bigger or smaller to let more or less light in as needed. Answer: the pupil", "output": [ "What is the opening in the front of the eye?" ] }, { "id": "task594-231ca03bfe004e0ab73e4f5c0290859f", "input": "Passage: Leucoplasts are plastids that store substances such as starch or make small molecules such as amino acids. Answer: leucoplasts", "output": [ "Amino acids are made by which kind of plastid?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ec64306d6b3a4fbfba89a7a264241899", "input": "Passage: Ionic compounds are named for their positive and negative ions. The name of the positive ion always comes first, followed by the name of the negative ion. For example, positive sodium ions and negative chloride ions form the compound named sodium chloride. Similarly, positive calcium ions and negative chloride ions form the compound named calcium chloride. Answer: positive ion", "output": [ "The name of which ion always comes first?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3a514444bb7a48c59e9bf949ff29dade", "input": "Passage: With an occluded front , a warm air mass becomes trapped between two cold air masses. The warm air is lifted up above the cold air as in Figure below . Cloudy weather and precipitation along the front are typical. Answer: occluded front", "output": [ "When a warm air mass becomes trapped between two cold air masses, what type of front occurs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fcd809e279ab40f7b5e81292c3a33f76", "input": "Passage: Unlike the majority of arachnids, scorpions produce live young. The young are carried about on the mother’s back until they have molted at least once. They reach an age of between four to 25 years. Answer: live", "output": [ "What type of young do scorpions produce?" ] }, { "id": "task594-933d6c23b01844ddb13cbf275fa55962", "input": "Passage: Basic Techniques in Protein Analysis The ultimate goal of proteomics is to identify or compare the proteins expressed from a given genome under specific conditions, study the interactions between the proteins, and use the information to predict cell behavior or develop drug targets. Just as the genome is analyzed using the basic technique of DNA sequencing, proteomics requires techniques for protein analysis. The basic technique for protein analysis, analogous to DNA sequencing, is mass spectrometry. Mass spectrometry is used to identify and determine the characteristics of a molecule. Advances in spectrometry have allowed researchers to analyze very small samples of protein. X-ray crystallography, for example, enables scientists to determine the three-dimensional structure of a protein crystal at atomic resolution. Another protein imaging technique, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), uses the magnetic properties of atoms to determine the three-dimensional structure of proteins in aqueous solution. Protein microarrays have also been used to study interactions between proteins. Large-scale adaptations of the basic two-hybrid screen (Figure 17.17) have provided the basis for protein microarrays. Computer software is used to analyze the vast amount of data generated for proteomic analysis. Genomic- and proteomic-scale analyses are part of systems biology. Systems biology is the study of whole biological systems (genomes and proteomes) based on interactions within the system. The European Bioinformatics Institute and the Human Proteome Organization (HUPO) are developing and establishing effective tools to sort through the enormous pile of systems biology data. Because proteins are the direct products of genes and reflect activity at the genomic level, it is natural to use proteomes to compare the protein profiles of different cells to identify proteins and genes involved in disease processes. Most pharmaceutical drug trials target proteins. Information obtained from proteomics is being used to identify novel drugs and understand their mechanisms of action. Answer: proteins", "output": [ "The goal of proteomics is to identify or compare what substances expressed from a given genome under specific conditions, study the interactions between them, and use the information to predict cell behavior or develop drug targets?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cf69036a2d594b3b88cc9be9cad53c4d", "input": "Passage: Electric charge is found only in a conductor. Answer: conductor", "output": [ "Where is the only place an electric charge can be found?" ] }, { "id": "task594-59ecf667857d40fabfe6901597d44d60", "input": "Passage: Mutations that lead to cancer usually occur in genes that control the cell cycle. These include tumor-suppressor genes and proto-oncogenes. Answer: proto-oncogenes", "output": [ "Mutations that lead to cancer usually occur in genes that control the cell cycle. these include tumor-suppressor genes and what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2365d1c1b3b844c5a6ebd2ff58407fe5", "input": "Passage: Knowledge gained by this basic research on yeast cells has been applied to practical problems. Scientists have developed drugs to treat cancer based on knowledge of the cell cycle. Cancer is a disease in which cells divide out of control. The new drugs interfere with the cell cycle of cancer cells, so the cells stop dividing. This is an example of applied science. The aim of applied science is to find solutions to practical problems. Applied science generally rests on knowledge gained by basic science. Answer: cancer", "output": [ "What is the name for the disease in which cells divide out of control?" ] }, { "id": "task594-57597389f0e34b6793d2b330aaf3def5", "input": "Passage: Cerebral palsy is a disease caused by injury to the developing brain. The injury occurs before, during, or shortly after birth. Cerebral palsy is more common in babies that have a low weight at birth. But the cause of the brain injury is not often known. The disease usually affects the parts of the brain that control body movements. Symptoms range from weak muscles in mild cases to trouble walking and talking in more severe cases. There is no known cure for cerebral palsy. Answer: brain", "output": [ "Cerebral palsy is a disease caused by injury to what organ as it is developing?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ccbf8cc325eb49598738c7c16ab11892", "input": "Passage: Inside every cell of all living things, energy is needed to carry out life processes. Energy is required to break down and build up molecules and to transport molecules across plasma membranes. All life’s work needs energy. A lot of energy is also simply lost to the environment as heat. The story of life is a story of energy flow—its capture, its change of form, its use for work, and its loss as heat. Energy, unlike matter, cannot be recycled, so organisms require a constant input of energy. Life runs on chemical energy. Where do living organisms get this chemical energy?. Answer: energy", "output": [ "What is required to break down and build up molecules and to transport molecules across plasma membranes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e5924726e6a0499dbdad1f27917c13e6", "input": "Passage: Each Volvox , shown in Figure above , is a colonial organism. It is made up of between 1,000 to 3,000 photosynthetic algae that are grouped together into a hollow sphere. The sphere has a distinct front and back end. The cells have eyespots, which are more developed in the cells near the front. This enables the colony to swim towards light. Answer: eyespots", "output": [ "What do the cells in the front of a volvox typically develop to help swim towards light?" ] }, { "id": "task594-426822a0988244f783907a5cd9729f91", "input": "Passage: The body of the simplest sponges takes the shape of a cylinder with a large central cavity, the spongocoel. Water enters the spongocoel from numerous pores in the body wall. Water flows out through a large opening called the osculum (Figure 15.9). However, sponges exhibit a diversity of body forms, which vary in the size and branching of the spongocoel, the number of osculi, and where the cells that filter food from the water are located. Sponges consist of an outer layer of flattened cells and an inner layer of cells called choanocytes separated by a jellylike substance called mesohyl. The mesohyl contains embedded amoeboid cells that secrete tiny needles called spicules or protein fibers that help give the sponge its structural strength. The cell body of the choanocyte is embedded in mesohyl but protruding into the spongocoel is a mesh-like collar surrounding a single flagellum. The beating of flagella from all choanocytes moves water through the sponge. Food particles are trapped in mucus produced by the sieve-like collar of the choanocytes and are ingested by phagocytosis. This process is called intracellular digestion. Amoebocytes take up nutrients repackaged in food vacuoles of the choanocytes and deliver them to other cells within the sponge. Answer: spongocoel", "output": [ "The body of the simplest sponges takes the shape of a cylinder with a large central cavity, called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3b5665989c2342c38e358e519d26c2c5", "input": "Passage: Giant tube worms are found at hydrothermal vents. They get food from the chemosynthetic bacteria that live within them. The bacteria provide food; the worms provide shelter. Answer: hydrothermal", "output": [ "What type of vents are giant tube worms found at?" ] }, { "id": "task594-45784189174c4a0d82ae653c0aa1f4e3", "input": "Passage: The nitrogen cycle moves nitrogen back and forth between the atmosphere and organisms. Answer: the nitrogen cycle", "output": [ "What moves nitrogen back and forth between the atmosphere and organisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8e6ad833a67542dc9c47413530732e80", "input": "Passage: planktonic counterparts. Overall, biofilms are very difficult to destroy because they are resistant to many common forms of sterilization. Answer: sterilization", "output": [ "What are biofilms resistant to many common forms of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c7301fc6249b443cac2aab0a46ed96f8", "input": "Passage: The ability of a particular electrochemical cell to generate an electric current is called its electrical potential. Reduction potentials measure the tendency of a substance to be reduced in a redox reaction. Answer: electrical potential", "output": [ "What do you call the ability of a particular electrochemical cell to generate an electric current?" ] }, { "id": "task594-342fc86e2abd40fb84fd7172e314c7dd", "input": "Passage: The cell membrane is made up of a phospholipid bilayer, two layers of phospholipid molecules. Notice the polar head group of the phospholipid is attached to the phosphate, and the tails are two fatty acid chains. The head group and tails are attached by a glycerol backbone. Answer: cell membrane", "output": [ "What basic cell structure is made up of a phospholipid bilayer and two layers of phospholipid molecules?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e714cbb4eb9c4ca18919a91fea0077c8", "input": "Passage: The strength of bases is measured on a scale called the pH scale, which ranges from 0 to 14. On this scale, a pH value of 7 indicates a neutral solution, and a pH value greater than 7 indicates a basic solution. The higher the pH value is, the stronger the base. The strongest bases, such as drain cleaner, have a pH value close to 14. Answer: ph scale", "output": [ "The strength of bases is measured on what scale?" ] }, { "id": "task594-303f16d13c1b4f24ac9c3d64bf5b29cf", "input": "Passage: The human genome has 23 pairs of chromosomes located in the nucleus of somatic cells. Each chromosome is composed of genes and other DNA wound around histones (proteins) into a tightly coiled molecule. Answer: 23", "output": [ "How many pairs of chromosomes are in the human genome?" ] }, { "id": "task594-70d3fa92355d481fbb1193a7fcb6f550", "input": "Passage: Cratonic rocks contain rounded sedimentary grains. Rounded grains indicate that the minerals eroded from an earlier rock. It also means that rivers or seas existed. Answer: earlier rock", "output": [ "Rounded grains indicate that the minerals eroded from what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bd61b198df904c72821c32531e480ec9", "input": "Passage: The first period of the Paleozoic Era was the Cambrian. By the beginning of the Paleozoic, organisms evolved shells. Shells could hold their soft tissues together. Shells could protect them from predators and from drying out. Some organisms evolved external skeletons. These are called exoskeletons . Organisms with hard parts also make good fossils. Fossils from the Cambrian are much more abundant than fossils from the Precambrian. Answer: cambrian", "output": [ "The first period of the paleozoic era was called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5747e0d5d6bf4eff870abb6a41bb02d1", "input": "Passage: If a stalactite and stalagmite join together, they form a column . One of the wonders of visiting a cave is to witness the beauty of these amazing and strangely captivating structures. Answer: column", "output": [ "When a stalactite and stalagmite join together, they form a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-63cf4634009a4d288f54c963ea0964fc", "input": "Passage: Transmembrane proteins span the entire plasma membrane. Their function is mainly to regulate the transport of specific molecules across the membrane. There are two basic types of transmembrane proteins, alpha-helical and beta-barrels, which are discussed in Organic Compounds: Proteins (Advanced) . Answer: transmembrane", "output": [ "What proteins span the entire plasma membrane?" ] }, { "id": "task594-87160c36889e463e97116b95453c75cf", "input": "Passage: Non-polar molecules are usually insoluble in water. Answer: non-polar", "output": [ "What molecules are usually insoluble in water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-538be60d7c594621b1d9942de6c81e9e", "input": "Passage: When appropriate, a symbol may be written above or below the arrow to indicate some special circumstance. The symbol \"Δ\" is often used to indicate that the reaction is to be heated. Answer: taq polymerase", "output": [ "Which enzyme is used in step three of the polymerase chain reaction because of it's ability to withstand high temperatures?" ] }, { "id": "task594-27884326e803433c8a8d70891e87f595", "input": "Passage: The fuel that burns in a combustion reaction is often a substance called a hydrocarbon. A hydrocarbon is a compound that contains only carbon (C) and hydrogen (H). Fossil fuels, such as natural gas, consist of hydrocarbons. Natural gas is a fuel that is commonly used in home furnaces and gas stoves (see Figure below ). The main component of natural gas is the hydrocarbon called methane (CH 4 ). The combustion of methane is represented by the equation:. Answer: hydrocarbon", "output": [ "The fuel that burns in a combustion reaction in many fossil fuels such as natural gas that consists of carbon hydrogen is known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-35c72f85e6934737a862d2bb42cca3ab", "input": "Passage: Molecular compounds are inorganic compounds that take the form of discrete molecules . Examples include such familiar substance as water (H 2 O) and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). These compounds are very different from ionic compounds like sodium chloride (NaCl). Ionic compounds are formed when metal atoms lose one or more of their electrons to nonmetal atoms. The resulting cations and anions are electrostatically attracted to each other. Answer: molecular compounds", "output": [ "What are inorganic compounds that take the form of discrete molecules called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-47244bf9141a407a8c8b341d8c8ee81f", "input": "Passage: Gyroscopes used in guidance systems to indicate directions in space must have an angular momentum that does not change in direction. Yet they are often subjected to large forces and accelerations. How can the direction of their angular momentum be constant when they are accelerated?. Answer: gyroscopes", "output": [ "What instruments used in guidance systems to indicate directions in space must have an angular momentum that does not change in direction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-79247768455646ab9ea0b650e818298e", "input": "Passage: Most aquatic organisms do not have to deal with extremes of temperature or moisture. Instead, their main limiting factors are the availability of sunlight and the concentration of dissolved oxygen and nutrients in the water. Answer: availability of sunlight", "output": [ "Besides the concentration of dissolve oxygen and nutrients in the water, what other factor limits aquatic organisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-da31309517644753a542cb0ef73075e7", "input": "Passage: Carbon dioxide is an oxide of carbon, while water is an oxide of hydrogen. Early scientists viewed oxidation as a process in which a substance was reacted with oxygen to produce one or more oxides. In the previous examples, magnesium and methane are being oxidized. Answer: hydrogen", "output": [ "Water is an oxide of what element?" ] }, { "id": "task594-98e1f11af4664622b6617813c717dd6c", "input": "Passage: Noninfectious diseases can't be passed from one person to another. Instead, these types of diseases are caused by factors such as the environment, genetics, and lifestyle. Examples of inherited noninfectious conditions include cystic fibrosis and Down syndrome. If you're born with these conditions, you must learn how to manage the symptoms. Examples of conditions caused by environmental or lifestyle factors include heart disease and skin cancer. We can't change our genetic codes, but there are plenty of ways to prevent other noninfectious diseases. For example, cutting down on exposure to cigarette smoke and the sun's rays will prevent certain types of cancer. Answer: lifestyle", "output": [ "Noninfectious diseases can't be passed from one person to another. instead, these types of diseases are caused by factors such as environment, genetics and what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-817b0ea0b0fb4b5db27cbd6343654399", "input": "Passage: The patterns of atoms that make a mineral affect its physical properties. A mineral’s crystal shape is determined by the way the atoms are arranged. For example, you can see how atoms are arranged in halite in Figure above . You can see how salt crystals look under a microscope in Figure below . Salt crystals are all cubes whether they're small or large. Answer: atoms", "output": [ "A mineral’s crystal shape is determined by the way what objects are arranged?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1a3f16863c8c4e219e0c03af5502572b", "input": "Passage: Figure 23.16 The complex process of sexual reproduction in Paramecium creates eight daughter cells from two original cells. Each cell has a macronucleus and a micronucleus. During sexual reproduction, the macronucleus dissolves and is replaced by a micronucleus. (credit “micrograph”: modification of work by Ian Sutton; scale-bar data from Matt Russell). Answer: micronucleus", "output": [ "During sexual reproduction, the macronucleus dissolves and is replaced by what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-36702ee7c6e3432aaef1d2ce3875102c", "input": "Passage: Almost 5 million people die each year because of air pollution. In fact, polluted air causes more deaths than traffic accidents. Air pollution harms the respiratory and circulatory systems. Both outdoor and indoor air can be polluted. Answer: five million", "output": [ "Nearly how many millions of people die yearly due to air pollution?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ab114536f781419d882212061d192e4e", "input": "Passage: Climate and Weather A common misconception about global climate change is that a specific weather event occurring in a particular region (for example, a very cool week in June in central Indiana) is evidence of global climate change. However, a cold week in June is a weather-related event and not a climate-related one. These misconceptions often arise because of confusion over the terms climate and weather. Climate refers to the long-term, predictable atmospheric conditions of a specific area. The climate of a biome is characterized by having consistent temperature and annual rainfall ranges. Climate does not address the amount of rain that fell on one particular day in a biome or the colder-than-average temperatures that occurred on one day. In contrast, weather refers to the conditions of the atmosphere during a short period of time. Weather forecasts are usually made for 48-hour cycles. Long-range weather forecasts are available but can be unreliable. To better understand the difference between climate and weather, imagine that you are planning an outdoor event in northern Wisconsin. You would be thinking about climate when you plan the event in the summer rather than the winter because you have long-term knowledge that any given Saturday in the months of May to August would be a better choice for an outdoor event in Wisconsin than any given Saturday in January. However, you cannot determine the specific day that the event should be held on because it is difficult to accurately predict the weather on a specific day. Climate can be considered “average” weather. Answer: climate", "output": [ "What term describes the long-term, predictable atmospheric conditions of a specific area?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9c697a23be404c5a9169cc92056c9bef", "input": "Passage: 41.2 The Kidneys and Osmoregulatory Organs The kidneys are the main osmoregulatory organs in mammalian systems; they function to filter blood and maintain the osmolarity of body fluids at 300 mOsm. They are surrounded by three layers and are made up internally of three distinct regions—the cortex, medulla, and pelvis. The blood vessels that transport blood into and out of the kidneys arise from and merge with the aorta and inferior vena cava, respectively. The renal arteries branch out from the aorta and enter the kidney where they further divide into segmental, interlobar, arcuate, and cortical radiate arteries. The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney, which actively filters blood and generates urine. The nephron is made up of the renal corpuscle and renal tubule. Cortical nephrons are found in the renal cortex, while juxtamedullary nephrons are found in the renal cortex close to the renal medulla. The nephron filters and exchanges water and solutes with two sets of blood vessels and the tissue fluid in the kidneys. There are three steps in the formation of urine: glomerular filtration, which occurs in the glomerulus; tubular reabsorption, which occurs in the renal tubules; and tubular secretion, which also occurs in the renal tubules. Answer: nephron", "output": [ "What is the functional unit of the kidney which actively filters blood and generates urine?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a1701572edc24bbbb9302a2b70872402", "input": "Passage: In stage two, the pyruvate molecules are transported into the mitochondria. The mitochondria are the organelles known as the energy \"powerhouses\" of the cells ( Figure below ). In the mitochondria, the pyruvate, which have been converted into a 2-carbon molecule, enter the Krebs cycle. Notice that mitochondria have an inner membrane with many folds, called cristae . These cristae greatly increase the membrane surface area where many of the cellular respiration reactions take place. Answer: mitochondria", "output": [ "What organelles are known as the energy \"powerhouses\" of the cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-60b9b34f41c64ff185072e6a36b01111", "input": "Passage: Look at the battery and light bulb in Figure below . The light bulb works and it’s connected to the battery, but it won’t light. The problem is the loose wire on the left. It must be connected to the positive terminal of the battery in order for the bulb to light up. The reason? Electric current can flow through a material such as a wire only if the material forms a closed loop. Charges must have an unbroken path to follow between the positively and negatively charged parts of the voltage source, in this case, the battery. Answer: closed loop", "output": [ "Because charges must have an unbroken path to follow, electric current cannot flow through a material unless it forms what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7a8679b795ff4226a6f1c362c62a290b", "input": "Passage: The female reproductive organs include the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries ( Figure below ). The breasts are not shown in this figure. They are not considered reproductive organs, even though they are involved in reproduction. They contain mammary glands that give milk to feed a baby. The milk leaves the breast through the nipple when the baby sucks on it. Answer: mammary glands", "output": [ "The breasts contain what to give milk to feed a baby?" ] }, { "id": "task594-13e787050b3a45d999190883f3b16221", "input": "Passage: Infectious diseases are diseases that are caused by pathogens. Human pathogens include bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa. Different pathogens spread in different ways. Pathogens may spread through contaminated food or water, sexual contact, droplets in the air from coughs or sneezes, contaminated objects or surfaces, or vectors. Answer: infectious diseases", "output": [ "What type of disease is caused by pathogens?" ] }, { "id": "task594-212d43a7ca9543d0b1eb34aee7453c01", "input": "Passage: Bones become increasingly ossified and grow larger during fetal development, childhood, and adolescence. When skeletal maturity is reached at about age 20, no additional growth in bone length can occur. Answer: 20", "output": [ "At what age is skeletal maturity reached by humans?" ] }, { "id": "task594-57031f2b57ee45ca91be8b96417f264e", "input": "Passage: Facilitated diffusion is the diffusion of solutes through integral membrane transport proteins. Facilitated diffusion is a type of passive transport . Even though facilitated diffusion involves transport proteins (and is essentially a transport process), it can still be considered passive transport because the solute is moving down the concentration gradient, and no input of energy is required. Facilitated diffusion utilizes proteins known as uniporters. A uniporter can be either a channel protein or a carrier protein. Answer: passive", "output": [ "Because the solute is moving down the concentration gradient, and no input of energy is required, facilitated diffusion is considered what type of transport?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8d6948ebf71549ae9c41f114b2911719", "input": "Passage: Aging is associated with the death of cells. Give two reasons why cells die. Answer: cells", "output": [ "Aging is associated with the death of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-adacf02bda37419aa3e6da3ac7ac0f31", "input": "Passage: The presence of solute particles blocks some of the ability for liquid particles to evaporate. Thus, solutions of solid solutes typically have a lower vapor pressure than the pure solvent. Answer: evaporate", "output": [ "The presence of solute particles blocks some of the ability for liquid particles to do what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b2d7655e476f4001b3f37fcea4e4c7df", "input": "Passage: Gasoline and oils are complex chemical mixtures designed to burn in a way that will efficiently produce energy while emitting a minimal amount of air pollution. The refining of gasoline has improved engine performance but is much more complicated than simply using the crude products extracted from oil wells, as was common in the late 1800s. Most gasoline contained lead at one time, because this additive helped the engine run more smoothly. However, this caused lead contamination in the environment, so new “unleaded” formulations were created that could be burned smoothly without the addition of poisonous heavy metals. Oils for lubrication have special additives that reduce engine wear. Some special fuel blends have also been created to generate more power in race car engines. Answer: environmental pollution", "output": [ "Why did people stop adding lead to gasoline?" ] }, { "id": "task594-83a0f6da9e944bbd92a81df1623cd668", "input": "Passage: Fish have a nervous system with a brain. Fish brains are small compared with the brains of other vertebrates. However, they are large and complex compared with the brains of invertebrates. Fish also have highly developed sense organs. They include organs to see, hear, feel, smell, and taste. Answer: fish", "output": [ "What category of animals in the vertebrate group has a relatively small brain but highly developed sense organs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b2e984bd84d5444e830fadfca23af953", "input": "Passage: How many species actually exist in the world? No one knows for sure because only a small percentage of them have already been discovered. Estimates range from 5 to 30 million total species currently in existence. Many of them live on coral reefs and in tropical rainforests (see Figure below ). These two ecosystems have some of the greatest biodiversity on the planet. Answer: biodiversity", "output": [ "Coral reefs and tropical rainforests are ecosystems known for what, contributing greatly to the species in existence on earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4db37727d94141dc9df526974b58153b", "input": "Passage: Figure 1.6 Metabolism Anabolic reactions are building reactions, and they consume energy. Catabolic reactions break materials down and release energy. Metabolism includes both anabolic and catabolic reactions. Answer: catabolic", "output": [ "Metabolism includes both anabolic and which other reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-150c980f95fa4d43b10f975eb18c16d7", "input": "Passage: Ceramics A ceramic is any nonmetallic, inorganic solid that is strong enough for use in structural applications. Traditional ceramics, which are based on metal silicates or aluminosilicates, are the materials used to make pottery, china, bricks, and concrete. Modern ceramics contain a much wider range of components and can be classified as either ceramic oxides, which are based on metal oxides such as alumina (Al2O3), zirconia (ZrO2), and beryllia (BeO), or nonoxide ceramics, which are based on metal carbides such as silicon carbide (carborundum, SiC) and tungsten carbide (WC), or nitrides like silicon nitride (Si 3N4) and boron nitride (BN). All modern ceramics are hard, lightweight, and stable at very high temperatures. Unfortunately, however, they are also rather brittle, tending to crack or break under stresses that would cause metals to bend or dent. Thus a major challenge for materials scientists is to take advantage of the desirable properties of ceramics, such as their thermal and oxidative stability, chemical inertness, and toughness, while finding ways to decrease their brittleness to use them in new applications. Few metals can be used in jet engines, for example, because most lose mechanical strength and react with oxygen at the very high operating. Answer: ceramic", "output": [ "What is any nonmetallic, inorganic solid that is strong enough for use in structural applications called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-daf98a2c70a341a190929f73b4dfaaa9", "input": "Passage: 22.2.1 Lytic Cycle 1. Attachment: The virus binds to specific receptors on the host cell. Entry: There are two ways in which a virus can enter cells. Firstly, the virus can inject its nucleic acid into the host cell. Secondly, if a virus is contained in an envelope, the host cell can phagocytosise the entire virus particle into a vacuole. When the virus breaks out of the vacuole, it then releases its nucleic acid into the cell. Replication: The virus's nucleic acid instructs the host cell to replicate the virus's DNA or RNA. Assembly: New virus particles are assembled. Lysis and Release: The virus directs the production of an enzyme which damages the host cell wall, causing the host cell to swell and burst. The newly formed virus particles are now released. Answer: nucleic acid", "output": [ "What does a virus inject into the host cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-aab3c107a3324a3d83c468709bf3d333", "input": "Passage: Some nonmetals are very reactive, whereas others are not reactive at all. It depends on the number of electrons in their outer energy level. Answer: reactivity", "output": [ "The number of electrons in the outer energy level determines what property of nonmetals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6a0d1ccf102f4f158ac65391e361ad93", "input": "Passage: Amino acids are the \"building blocks\" of proteins. There are 20 different common amino acids. The structural formula of the simplest amino acid, called glycine, is shown in Figure below . Other amino acids have a similar structure. The sequence of amino acids and the number of amino acid chains in a protein determine the protein’s shape. The shape of a protein, in turn, determines its function. Shapes may be very complex. You can learn more about the structure of proteins at the URL below. Answer: amino acids", "output": [ "What are the \"building blocks\" of proteins?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ac7debfe0941446aa2fed7bd99c2acb2", "input": "Passage: Deposit feeders, which are organisms that feed on small pieces of organic matter, usually in the top layer of soil. Sea cucumbers are deposit feeders, living on the ocean floor. They eat the tiny scrap particles that are usually abundant in the environments that they inhabit. Answer: deposit feeders", "output": [ "What are are organisms that feed on small pieces of organic matter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9a2f37313d8d4263b0125285400012e3", "input": "Passage: Water pollution occurs when chemicals, sewage, trash, or heat enter water resources. Water pollution is threatening the limited supply of clean, fresh water that human beings and other living things depend on. Answer: water resources", "output": [ "Water pollution occurs when chemicals, sewage, trash, or heat enter what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-23389199cc09497e9e3223bea75b7ea2", "input": "Passage: Common disaccharides include lactose, maltose, and sucrose (Figure 3.8). Lactose is a disaccharide consisting of the monomers glucose and galactose. It is found naturally in milk. Maltose, or malt sugar, is a disaccharide formed by a dehydration reaction between two glucose molecules. The most common disaccharide is sucrose, or table sugar, which is composed of the monomers glucose and fructose. Answer: galactose", "output": [ "Lactose is a disaccharide consisting of the monomers glucose and what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-04d5f4b0f2e14162b8f3d4b23375817a", "input": "Passage: Aneuploidy An individual with the appropriate number of chromosomes for their species is called euploid; in humans, euploidy corresponds to 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. An individual with an error in chromosome number is described as aneuploid, a term that includes monosomy (loss of one chromosome) or trisomy (gain of an extraneous chromosome). Monosomic human zygotes missing any one copy of an autosome invariably fail to develop to birth because they lack essential genes. This underscores the importance of “gene dosage” in humans. Most autosomal trisomies also fail to develop to birth; however, duplications of some of the smaller chromosomes (13, 15, 18, 21, or 22) can result in offspring that survive for several weeks to many years. Trisomic individuals suffer from a different type of genetic imbalance: an excess in gene dose. Individuals with an extra chromosome may synthesize an abundance of the gene products encoded by that chromosome. This extra dose (150 percent) of specific genes can lead to a number of functional challenges and often precludes development. The most common trisomy among viable births is that of chromosome 21, which corresponds to Down Syndrome. Individuals with this inherited disorder are characterized by short stature and stunted digits, facial distinctions that include a broad skull and large tongue, and significant developmental delays. The incidence of Down syndrome is correlated with maternal age; older women are more likely to become pregnant with fetuses carrying the trisomy 21 genotype (Figure 13.7). Answer: chromosomes", "output": [ "An individual with the appropriate number of what for their species is called euploid; abnormalities in this number include trisomy and monosomy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8553353bbbf2489a8acd7990b697a9dd", "input": "Passage: The scientific name of an organism consists of its genus and species. Answer: species", "output": [ "The scientific name of an organism consists of its genus and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e26af1f1b48d4ca5937ff11d41495ba1", "input": "Passage: Diffusion will continue until the concentration gradient has been eliminated. Since diffusion moves materials from an area of higher concentration to the lower, it is described as moving solutes \"down the concentration gradient. \" The end result of diffusion is an equal concentration, or equilibrium , of molecules on both sides of the membrane. At equilibrium, movement of molecules does not stop. At equilibrium, there is equal movement of materials in both directions. Answer: the membrane", "output": [ "The end result of diffusion is an equal concentration, or equilibrium , of molecules on both sides of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0d957376e5f449c7951afff4532ad590", "input": "Passage: Saliva Saliva is essentially (95.5 percent) water. The remaining 4.5 percent is a complex mixture of ions, glycoproteins, enzymes, growth factors, and waste products. Perhaps the most important ingredient in salvia from the perspective of digestion is the enzyme salivary amylase, which initiates the breakdown of carbohydrates. Food does not spend enough time in the mouth to allow all the carbohydrates to break down, but salivary amylase continues acting until it is inactivated by stomach acids. Bicarbonate and phosphate ions function as chemical buffers, maintaining saliva at a pH between 6.35 and 6.85. Salivary mucus helps lubricate food, facilitating movement in the mouth, bolus formation, and swallowing. Saliva contains immunoglobulin A, which prevents microbes from penetrating the epithelium, and lysozyme, which makes saliva antimicrobial. Saliva also contains epidermal growth factor, which might have given rise to the adage “a mother’s kiss can heal a wound. ” Each of the major salivary glands secretes a unique formulation of saliva according to its cellular makeup. For example, the parotid glands secrete a watery solution that contains salivary amylase. The submandibular glands have cells similar to those of the parotid glands, as well as mucus-secreting cells. Therefore, saliva secreted by the submandibular glands also contains amylase but in a liquid thickened with mucus. The sublingual glands contain mostly mucous cells, and they secrete the thickest saliva with the least amount of salivary amylase. Answer: enzyme", "output": [ "Arguably the most important ingredient in saliva for digestion is a type of what, which initiates the breakdown of carbohydrates?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4f284dfbbf6e4e4791c41d22805d30fb", "input": "Passage: wave functions can predict within a certain level of probability where an electron might be at any given time. The area where an electron is most likely to be found is called its orbital. Recall that the Bohr model depicts an atom’s electron shell configuration. Within each electron shell are subshells, and each subshell has a specified number of orbitals containing electrons. While it is impossible to calculate exactly where an electron is located, scientists know that it is most probably located within its orbital path. Subshells are designated by the letter s, p, d, and f. The s subshell is spherical in shape and has one orbital. Principal shell 1n has only a single s orbital, which can hold two electrons. Principal shell 2n has one s and one p subshell, and can hold a total of eight electrons. The p subshell has three dumbbell-shaped orbitals, as illustrated in Figure 2.8. Subshells d and f have more complex shapes and contain five and seven orbitals, respectively. These are not shown in the illustration. Principal shell 3n has s, p, and d subshells and can hold 18 electrons. Principal shell 4n has s, p, d and f orbitals and can hold 32 electrons. Moving away from the nucleus, the number of electrons and orbitals found in the energy levels increases. Progressing from one atom to the next in the periodic table, the electron structure can be worked out by fitting an extra electron into the next available orbital. Answer: orbital", "output": [ "What is the area where an electron is most likely to be found called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b5cbf02a78c04b65b294c365c9b5e44c", "input": "Passage: Development of the Placenta During the first several weeks of development, the cells of the endometrium—referred to as decidual cells—nourish the nascent embryo. During prenatal weeks 4–12, the developing placenta gradually takes over the role of feeding the embryo, and the decidual cells are no longer needed. The mature placenta is composed of tissues derived from the embryo, as well as maternal tissues of the endometrium. The placenta connects to the conceptus via the umbilical cord, which carries deoxygenated blood and wastes from the fetus through two umbilical arteries; nutrients and oxygen are carried from the mother to the fetus through the single umbilical vein. The umbilical cord is surrounded by the amnion, and the spaces within the cord around the blood vessels are filled with Wharton’s jelly, a mucous connective tissue. The maternal portion of the placenta develops from the deepest layer of the endometrium, the decidua basalis. To form the embryonic portion of the placenta, the syncytiotrophoblast and the underlying cells of the trophoblast (cytotrophoblast cells) begin to proliferate along with a layer of extraembryonic mesoderm cells. These form the chorionic membrane, which envelops the entire conceptus as the chorion. The chorionic membrane forms finger-like structures called chorionic villi that burrow into the endometrium like tree roots, making up the fetal portion of the placenta. The cytotrophoblast cells perforate the chorionic villi, burrow farther into the endometrium, and remodel maternal blood vessels to augment maternal blood flow surrounding the villi. Meanwhile, fetal mesenchymal cells derived from the mesoderm fill the villi and differentiate into blood vessels, including the three umbilical blood vessels that connect the embryo to the developing placenta (Figure 28.11). Answer: embryo", "output": [ "During the first several weeks of development, the cells of the endometrium nourish what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a8bf60416d7947cba274816e1f037ae7", "input": "Passage: Like bacteria, archaeans are important decomposers. For example, archaeans help break down sewage in waste treatment plants. As decomposers, they help recycle carbon and nitrogen. Answer: decomposer", "output": [ "Archaeans help break down sewage in waste treatment plants, so they fulfill what important role?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3f328209cea340d6beff5f547e7bb16c", "input": "Passage: A metallic bond is the force of attraction between a positive metal ion and the valence electrons that surround it—both its own valence electrons and those of other ions of the same metal. The ions and electrons form a lattice-like structure. Only metals, such as the copper pictured in the Figure below , form metallic bonds. Answer: metallic bond", "output": [ "What is the force of attraction between a positive metal ion and valence electrons?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e528eb999c314e9db37c40607929bdc2", "input": "Passage: The cell wall is a rigid layer that surrounds the cell membrane of a plant cell. It’s made mainly of the complex carbohydrate called cellulose. The cell wall supports and protects the cell. The cell wall isn’t solid like a brick wall. It has tiny holes in it called pores. The pores let water, nutrients, and other substances move into and out of the cell. Answer: cell wall", "output": [ "What rigid layer surrounds the cell membrane of a plant cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c19ca99c80524400a7903563e298271c", "input": "Passage: The skeletal system is made up of bones, cartilage, and ligaments. The skeletal system has many important functions in your body. What bones protect the heart and lungs? What protects the brain?. Answer: skeletal system", "output": [ "Bones, cartilage, and ligaments make up what anatomical system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-781935a3e04e4db5b394872816a181a7", "input": "Passage: Puberty is the stage of life when a child becomes sexually mature. Puberty begins when the pituitary gland tells the testes to secrete testosterone in boys, and in girls the pituitary gland signals the ovaries to secrete estrogen. Changes that occur during puberty are discussed in the Male Reproductive Development and Female Reproductive Development concepts. Answer: puberty", "output": [ "What is the name of the stage of life when a child becomes sexually mature?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e21b986611b94228bc8519c4a33d0213", "input": "Passage: Waves are characterized by their ability to constructively and destructively interfere . Light waves which interfere with themselves after interaction with a small aperture or target are said to diffract . Answer: diffract", "output": [ "Light waves which interfere with themselves after interaction with a small aperture or target are said to what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-91b0d894a0744c728d9bab10093d0471", "input": "Passage: Phototrophic organisms capture light energy from the sun and convert it into chemical energy inside their cells. Answer: chemical energy", "output": [ "Phototrophic organisms capture light energy from the sun and convert it into what type of energy inside their cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5612c46bb3324141b28beef448a9c9a3", "input": "Passage: Methane has a three-dimensional, tetrahedral structure. Answer: three dimensional tetrahedra", "output": [ "What structure does methane have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8b5343480bce4b04aed71b4ba6631b45", "input": "Passage: Water is involved in many other biochemical reactions. As a result, just about all life processes depend on water. Clearly, life as we know it could not exist without water. Answer: water", "output": [ "Nearly all life processes depend on what substance, which is involved in biochemical reactions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d295e06a75ae4770b01ce58ba38b2714", "input": "Passage: Learned behaviors are adaptive because they are flexible. They can change if the environment changes. Answer: learned behavior", "output": [ "What kind of behaviors are adaptive because they are flexible, capable of changing if the environment changes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9fd0f84c2dc945c8837ffb5a78d76ef7", "input": "Passage: The solution to the last part of the example shows that speed is inversely proportional to the square of the radius of the tube, making for large effects when radius varies. We can blow out a candle at quite a distance, for example, by pursing our lips, whereas blowing on a candle with our mouth wide open is quite ineffective. In many situations, including in the cardiovascular system, branching of the flow occurs. The blood is pumped from the heart into arteries that subdivide into smaller arteries (arterioles) which branch into very fine vessels called capillaries. In this situation, continuity of flow is maintained but it is the sum of the flow rates in each of the branches in any portion along the tube that is maintained. The equation of continuity in a more general form becomes ¯. Answer: blood", "output": [ "In the body, what essential substance is pumped from the heart into arteries and then eventually into capillaries?" ] }, { "id": "task594-499f64a9b6144376ab30ac5461c7f209", "input": "Passage: Enzymes are biochemical catalysts, which means that they speed up the rate of a specific chemical reaction. A process that might take weeks in the absence of an enzyme can occur in milliseconds if the proper enzyme is present. A generic enzyme-catalyzed reaction could be represented as follows:. Answer: biochemical catalysts", "output": [ "Enzymes speed up the rate of a specific chemical reaction and is therefore known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a954ea06c4a742628b55a129e64d545a", "input": "Passage: Birds reproduce sexually and have internal fertilization. Mating is generally preceded by courtship. Their amniotic eggs have hard shells and are laid in a nest. The eggs are usually incubated until they hatch. Most species have a relatively long period of parental care. Answer: internal fertilization", "output": [ "What kind of fertilization do birds have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a6318145f3b74ef5bb68fe8525e44142", "input": "Passage: The cell is the site of all of the basic biochemical processes that keep organisms alive. To do its work, the cell needs substances such as oxygen, water, and glucose. The cell also must get rid of substances, including wastes such as carbon dioxide. In addition, harmful substances must be kept out of the cell. Controlling what enters or leaves a cell is an important role of the cell membrane. Answer: cell", "output": [ "What structure is the site of all of the basic biochemical processes that keep organisms alive?" ] }, { "id": "task594-86050d0745cd4fd4a2cb5061578a7e0d", "input": "Passage: Sebaceous glands produce an oily substance called sebum . Sebum is secreted into hair follicles and makes its way to the skin surface. It waterproofs the hair and skin and helps prevent them from drying out. Sebum also has antibacterial properties, so it inhibits the growth of microorganisms on the skin. Answer: sebum", "output": [ "Sebaceous glands produce an oily substance called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1739a171ab27472f9f42f0fb0961deca", "input": "Passage: 3.4 Protein Synthesis DNA stores the information necessary for instructing the cell to perform all of its functions. Cells use the genetic code stored within DNA to build proteins, which ultimately determine the structure and function of the cell. This genetic code lies in the particular sequence of nucleotides that make up each gene along the DNA molecule. To “read” this code, the cell must perform two sequential steps. In the first step, transcription, the DNA code is converted into a RNA code. A molecule of messenger RNA that is complementary to a specific gene is synthesized in a process similar to DNA replication. The molecule of mRNA provides the code to synthesize a protein. In the process of translation, the mRNA attaches to a ribosome. Next, tRNA molecules shuttle the appropriate amino acids to the ribosome, one-by-one, coded by sequential triplet codons on the mRNA, until the protein is fully synthesized. When completed, the mRNA detaches from the ribosome, and the protein is released. Typically, multiple ribosomes attach to a single mRNA molecule at once such that multiple proteins can be manufactured from the mRNA concurrently. Answer: rna", "output": [ "In the cellular process of transcription, dna code is converted into what other kind of code?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b9b8472d22314e45b272a9c366a72922", "input": "Passage: A mineral is a solid material that forms by a natural process. A mineral can be made of an element or a compound. It has a specific chemical composition that is different from other minerals. One mineral's physical properties differ from others'. These properties include crystal structure, hardness, density and color. Each is made of different elements. Each has different physical properties. For example, silver is a soft, shiny metal. Salt is a white, cube-shaped crystal. Diamond is an extremely hard, translucent crystal. Answer: compound", "output": [ "A mineral can be made of an element or a?" ] }, { "id": "task594-36f04fa4bfe34dec945aef7cc9e59582", "input": "Passage: Although this cartoon pokes fun at scientific hypotheses, the concept of hypothesis is one of the most important in science. Scientific investigations discover evidence that helps science advance, and the purpose of scientific investigations generally is to test hypotheses. Finding evidence to support or disprove hypotheses is how science advances. Answer: hypothesis", "output": [ "The purpose of scientific investigations generally is to test a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d328314eea6c4517853d555ad927f252", "input": "Passage: Another type of skeletal system injury is a sprain. A sprain is a strain or tear in a ligament that has been twisted or stretched too far. Ankle sprains are a common type of sprain. Athletes often strain a ligament in the knee called the ACL. Warming up adequately and stretching before playing sports may reduce the risk of a sprain. Ligament injuries can take a long time to heal. Rest, ice, compression, and elevation of the sprained area may help the healing process. Answer: a ligament", "output": [ "A sprain is a strain or tear in what part of the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-014058fb95bb4d2d891375c0de2ae57c", "input": "Passage: Star clusters are small groups of stars. A star cluster is smaller than a galaxy. There are two main types, open clusters and globular clusters. Both types are held together by gravity. Answer: gravity", "output": [ "What force holds together both types of star clusters?" ] }, { "id": "task594-76dc5e522bac4208adcfe2ddf8a0df12", "input": "Passage: Both nitrogen and sulfur oxides are toxic to humans. These compounds can cause lung diseases or make them worse. Nitrogen and sulfur oxides form acid rain, which is described in the next concept. Answer: acid rain", "output": [ "Nitrogen and sulfur oxides form what type of rain?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7c2340ade5954352b4e7c2c96b34c0a0", "input": "Passage: Not long after Wegener's death, scientists recognized that there is convection in the mantle. Deeper material is hotter and so it rises. Near the surface, it becomes cooler and denser so it sinks. This creates a convection cell in the mantle. Answer: rises then sinks", "output": [ "How does deeper material cause convection in the mantle?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5f7a10ee4f1a4865b5a4c106284be11c", "input": "Passage: Figure 9.24 (a) In the case of the wheelbarrow, the output force or load is between the pivot and the input force. The pivot is the wheel’s axle. Here, the output force is greater than the input force. Thus, a wheelbarrow enables you to lift much heavier loads than you could with your body alone. (b) In the case of the shovel, the input force is between the pivot and the load, but the input lever arm is shorter than the output lever arm. The pivot is at the handle held by the right hand. Here, the output force (supporting the shovel’s load) is less than the input force (from the hand nearest the load), because the input is exerted closer to the pivot than is the output. Answer: input force", "output": [ "In the case of the wheelbarrow, the output force or load is between the pivot and the what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ece881da946049778bfa968d8ecdbd04", "input": "Passage: Destructive interference in waves occurs when two troughs overlap. Answer: two troughs", "output": [ "Destructive interference in waves occurs when what things overlap?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9a57855f39a0425d83914a84aee10666", "input": "Passage: Animal and Human Parasites and Pathogens Fungi can affect animals, including humans, in several ways. Fungi attack animals directly by colonizing and destroying tissues. Humans and other animals can be poisoned by eating toxic mushrooms or foods contaminated by fungi. In addition, individuals who display hypersensitivity to molds and spores develop strong and dangerous allergic reactions. Fungal infections are generally very difficult to treat because, unlike bacteria, fungi are eukaryotes. Antibiotics only target prokaryotic cells, whereas compounds that kill fungi also adversely affect the eukaryotic animal host. Many fungal infections ( mycoses) are superficial and termed cutaneous (meaning “skin”) mycoses. They are usually visible on the skin of the animal. Fungi that cause the superficial mycoses of the epidermis, hair, and nails rarely spread to the underlying tissue (Figure 13.26). These fungi are often misnamed “dermatophytes” from the Greek dermis skin and phyte plant, but they are not plants. Dermatophytes are also called “ringworms” because of the red ring that they cause on skin (although the ring is caused by fungi, not a worm). These fungi secrete extracellular enzymes that break down keratin (a protein found in hair, skin, and nails), causing a number of conditions such as athlete’s foot, jock itch, and other cutaneous fungal infections. These conditions are usually treated with over-the-counter topical creams and powders, and are easily cleared. More persistent, superficial mycoses may require prescription oral medications. Answer: eukaryotic", "output": [ "Antibiotics only target prokaryotic cells - they do not affect fungi, which are not prokaryotic, but instead what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c262778d74bc45a79a44429e007fe8b8", "input": "Passage: A cell is the smallest unit of a living thing. A living thing, like you, is called an organism. Thus, cells are the basic building blocks of all organisms. In multicellular organisms, several cells of one particular kind interconnect with each other and perform shared functions to form tissues (for example, muscle tissue, connective tissue, and nervous tissue), several tissues combine to form an organ (for example, stomach, heart, or brain), and several organs make up an organ system (such as the digestive system, circulatory system, or nervous system). Several systems functioning together form an organism (such as an elephant, for example). There are many types of cells, and all are grouped into one of two broad categories: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Animal cells, plant cells, fungal cells, and protist cells are classified as eukaryotic, whereas bacteria and archaea cells are classified as prokaryotic. Before discussing the criteria for determining whether a cell is prokaryotic or eukaryotic, let us first examine how biologists study cells. Answer: cell", "output": [ "What is the smallest unit of a living thing?" ] }, { "id": "task594-12017ff0d3e1406b9f28a3a878b20086", "input": "Passage: Sperm are produced in the testes in the process of spermatogenesis. Answer: spermatogensis", "output": [ "What process creates sperm?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6c1ce04614fa44afbbb354bc6f54eaa6", "input": "Passage: Arctic Tundra The Arctic tundra lies north of the subarctic boreal forest and is located throughout the Arctic regions of the northern hemisphere (Figure 44.12). The average winter temperature is -34 °C (-34 °F) and the average summer temperature is from 3 °C to 12 °C (37 °F–52 °F). Plants in the arctic tundra have a very short growing season of approximately 10–12 weeks. However, during this time, there are almost 24 hours of daylight and plant growth is rapid. The annual precipitation of the Arctic tundra is very low with little annual variation in precipitation. And, as in the boreal forests, there is little evaporation due to the cold temperatures. Plants in the Arctic tundra are generally low to the ground (Figure 44.20). There is little species diversity, low net primary productivity, and low aboveground biomass. The soils of the Arctic tundra may remain in a perennially frozen state referred to as permafrost. The permafrost makes it impossible for roots to penetrate deep into the soil and slows the decay of organic matter, which inhibits the release of nutrients from organic matter. During the growing season, the ground of the Arctic tundra can be completely covered with plants or lichens. Answer: permafrost", "output": [ "What is it called when the soils of the arctic tundra remain in a perennially frozen state?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e0d006f167fc480688d953ff65751950", "input": "Passage: After equilibrium has been reached, the concentrations of all reaction components will remain constant unless a change is made to the system. Because the concentrations are no longer changing, it may appear that the reaction has \"stopped. \" This is incorrect; both the forward and reverse reactions are still going on, even at equilibrium. However, because the two reactions are proceeding at the same rate, no net change is observed. Answer: equilibrium", "output": [ "After what state is reached, the concentrations of all reaction components remain constant unless a change is made to the system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0acb556e04ea4e4eb1c63c6e30ec1e3f", "input": "Passage: A machine is any device that makes work easier by changing a force. Work is done whenever a force moves an object over a distance. The amount of work done is represented by the equation:. Answer: machine", "output": [ "What do you call any device that makes work easier by changing a force?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ab0260cad1bd45989f8dd830de8d231d", "input": "Passage: Carbon has a unique ability to form covalent bonds with many other atoms. It can bond with other carbon atoms as well as with atoms of other elements. Because of this ability, carbon often forms polymers. A polymer is a large molecule that is made out of many smaller molecules that are joined together by covalent bonds. The smaller, repeating molecules are called monomers . (The prefix mono - means “one” and the prefix poly - means “many. ”) Polymers may consist of just one type of monomer or of more than one type. Polymers are similar to the strings of beads pictured in the Figure below . Like beads on a string, monomers in a polymer may be all the same or different from one another. Answer: carbon", "output": [ "What element, which often forms polymers, has a unique ability to form covalent bonds with many other atoms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5f04e1151eb74f78bb91f97cb098cb10", "input": "Passage: Igneous rocks are classified by composition and texture. The composition can be felsic, intermediate, mafic, or ultramafic. The composition depends on the minerals the rock includes. A felsic rock will contain felsic minerals. Answer: igneous", "output": [ "Felsic, intermediate, mafic, and ultramafic are types of composition of what rock group?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fabf7f1a0410422cb3ad089910bcba45", "input": "Passage: Following hydrogen is the noble gas helium, which has an atomic number of 2. The helium atom contains two protons and two electrons. The first electron has the same four quantum numbers as the hydrogen atom electron (n = 1, l = 0, ml = 0, m s = + 1 ). The second electron also goes into the 1s orbital and fills that orbital. The second electron 2 has the same n, l, and ml quantum numbers, but must have the opposite spin quantum number, m s = − 1 . This is in 2 accord with the Pauli exclusion principle: No two electrons in the same atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers. For orbital diagrams, this means two arrows go in each box (representing two electrons in each orbital). Answer: helium", "output": [ "What noble gas follows hydrogen on the periodic table?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3c42e8122a4549d7a9dba77ec74f33e8", "input": "Passage: 10.3 Control of the Cell Cycle Each step of the cell cycle is monitored by internal controls called checkpoints. There are three major checkpoints in the cell cycle: one near the end of G1, a second at the G2/M transition, and the third during metaphase. Positive regulator molecules allow the cell cycle to advance to the next stage. Negative regulator molecules monitor cellular conditions and can halt the cycle until specific requirements are met. Answer: positive", "output": [ "In a cell cycle, what kind of regulator molecules allow advancement to the next stage?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2201cef45df442f8bb8f10d6e2239e32", "input": "Passage: Each ionic compound has its own unique name that comes from the names of the ions. Answer: sideways impact or bending", "output": [ "What are the primary causes of bone fractures?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e023eba4f5124daebd5caeaceca93db8", "input": "Passage: With codominance, both alleles are expressed equally in heterozygotes. The red and white flower in Figure below has codominant alleles for red petals and white petals. Answer: heterozygotes", "output": [ "With codominance, both alleles are expressed equally in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-965167d1f4544d28a387db8b89072ec7", "input": "Passage: A unique feature of echinoderms is their water vascular system . This is a network of canals that extend along each body part. In most echinoderms, the canals have external projections called tube feet (see Figure below ). The feet have suckers on the ends. Muscle contractions force water into the feet, causing them to extend outward. As the feet extend, they attach their suckers to new locations, farther away from their previous points of attachment. This results in a slow but powerful form of movement. The suckers are very strong. They can even be used to pry open the shells of prey. Answer: muscle contractions", "output": [ "What makes echinoderms force water into the feet and move forward?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5679e89c40a9405c8bf0fc890841c4d6", "input": "Passage: Vectors in Two Dimensions A vector is a quantity that has magnitude and direction. Displacement, velocity, acceleration, and force, for example, are all vectors. In one-dimensional, or straight-line, motion, the direction of a vector can be given simply by a plus or minus sign. In two dimensions (2-d), however, we specify the direction of a vector relative to some reference frame (i. , coordinate system), using an arrow having length proportional to the vector’s magnitude and pointing in the direction of the vector. Figure 3.9 shows such a graphical representation of a vector, using as an example the total displacement for the person walking in a city considered in Kinematics in Two Dimensions: An Introduction. We shall use the notation that a boldface symbol, such as D , stands for a vector. Its magnitude is represented by the symbol in italics, D , and its direction by θ . Vectors in this Text In this text, we will represent a vector with a boldface variable. For example, we will represent the quantity force with the vector F , which has both magnitude and direction. The magnitude of the vector will be represented by a variable in italics, such as. Answer: vector", "output": [ "Displacement, velocity, acceleration, and force are examples of what type of quantity that has magnitude and direction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-44f6d4272dca4561ac884511248dbd8d", "input": "Passage: f 2 = v w / λ 2 = v w / 2L = 2 f 1 . Similarly, f 3 = 3 f 1 , and so on. All of these frequencies can be changed by adjusting the tension in the string. The greater the tension, the greater v w is and the higher the frequencies. This observation is familiar to anyone who has ever observed a string instrument being tuned. We will see in later chapters that standing waves are crucial to many resonance phenomena, such as in sounding boxes on string instruments. Answer: frequencies", "output": [ "Stringed instruments can help show the relationship between tension and what in strings?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0945bb3e9fcf404d988dbf4de7ad08e5", "input": "Passage: possess a single, undivided lobe. Eutherian mammals also possess a specialized structure that links the two cerebral hemispheres, called the corpus callosum. Answer: cerebral", "output": [ "Eutherian mammals possess a specialized structure called the corpus callosum that links what hemispheres?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e988c2a81c8142f9af91f3a7e2d7bf96", "input": "Passage: Sexual reproduction is typically slower. However, it also has an advantage. Sexual reproduction results in offspring that are all genetically different. This can be a big plus for a species. The variation may help it adapt to changes in the environment. Answer: sexual", "output": [ "What kind of reproduction results in offspring that are generally all genetically different?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e3c27f8394aa4eaba0e47ac0a4bd88fe", "input": "Passage: A cold front occurs when a cold air mass runs into a warm air mass. This is shown in Figure below . The cold air mass moves faster than the warm air mass and lifts the warm air mass out of its way. As the warm air rises, its water vapor condenses. Clouds form, and precipitation falls. If the warm air is very humid, precipitation can be heavy. Temperature and pressure differences between the two air masses cause winds. Winds may be very strong along a cold front. Answer: a cold front", "output": [ "What occurs when a cold air mass runs into a warm air mass?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5b4e166ed82248809ef7cfc139c16fc7", "input": "Passage: The metal part of the compound is named as the element. Answer: the element", "output": [ "What is the metal part of the compound named as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c5c337fead7a4ec0a17e663367408cd0", "input": "Passage: The smallest cyclic ether is called an epoxide. Draw its structure. Answer: epoxide", "output": [ "The smallest cyclic ether is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2b2d9eaed96a454b93466cdf4def6bd6", "input": "Passage: Some of the most interesting evidence for evolution comes from vestigial structures . These are body parts that are no longer used but are still present in modern organisms. Examples in humans include tail bones and the appendix. Answer: vestigial structure", "output": [ "What is the tail bone an example of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7e0137075f8e442c96e1b1bf8d0c83d4", "input": "Passage: Neither positive ions nor negative ions are attracted to a nonpolar molecule. In fact, the alkanes undergo so few reactions that they are sometimes called paraffins, from the Latin parum affinis, meaning “little affinity. ” Two important reactions that the alkanes do undergo are combustion and halogenation. Nothing happens when alkanes are merely mixed with oxygen (O2) at room temperature, but when a flame or spark provides the activation energy, a highly exothermic combustion reaction proceeds vigorously. For methane (CH4), the reaction is as follows:. Answer: no reaction", "output": [ "What happens when alkanes are mixed with oxygen at room temperature?" ] }, { "id": "task594-24c4ee7f1ce04166b8e057fb50f074fb", "input": "Passage: The cell body contains the nucleus and other organelles. Dendrites and axons connect to the cell body, similar to rays coming off of the sun. Dendrites receive nerve impulses from other cells. Axons pass the nerve impulses on to other cells. A single neuron may have thousands of dendrites, so it can communicate with thousands of other cells but only one axon. The axon is covered with a myelin sheath , a fatty layer that insulates the axon and allows the electrical signal to travel much more quickly. The node of Ranvier is any gap within the myelin sheath exposing the axon, and it allows even faster transmission of a signal. Answer: nerve impulses", "output": [ "Axons pass what on to other cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f32386f8c6064e94a4686313ac1f88ba", "input": "Passage: The nucleus is the largest organelle in a eukaryotic cell and contains most of the cell’s DNA. Other organelles in eukaryotic cells include the mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, vesicles, vacuoles, and centrioles (in animal cells only). Each type of organelle has important functions in the cell. Answer: nucleus", "output": [ "What is the largest organelle in a eukaryotic cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e1fd265f07804f60bc42e115ac88afe7", "input": "Passage: Wave amplitude and wavelength are two important measures of wave size. Answer: wave size", "output": [ "Wave amplitude and wavelength are two important measures of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c3953167148a47519ebfddbfb6d7f6d9", "input": "Passage: 4.2 Prokaryotic Cells Prokaryotes are predominantly single-celled organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea. All prokaryotes have plasma membranes, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and DNA that is not membrane-bound. Most have peptidoglycan cell walls and many have polysaccharide capsules. Prokaryotic cells range in diameter from 0.1 to 5.0 μm. As a cell increases in size, its surface area-to-volume ratio decreases. If the cell grows too large, the plasma membrane will not have sufficient surface area to support the rate of diffusion required for the increased volume. Answer: decreases", "output": [ "As the prokaryotic cell size increases, what happens to its surface area-to-volume ratio?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6270efc5c5d245e28553b4b6a8914389", "input": "Passage: Balanced chemical reactions are balanced in terms of moles. Answer: terms of moles", "output": [ "Balanced chemical reactions are balanced in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f50b9764051d4252a0bccde52eaa29c8", "input": "Passage: Figure 27.11 The amplitudes of waves add. (a) Pure constructive interference is obtained when identical waves are in phase. (b) Pure destructive interference occurs when identical waves are exactly out of phase, or shifted by half a wavelength. Answer: in phase", "output": [ "Pure constructive interference and pure destructive interference are distinguished by whether or not identical waves are what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a659d5d7ff884ff48b5350496a5f5bd8", "input": "Passage: Sebaceous glands are commonly called oil glands. They produce an oily substance called sebum. Sebum is secreted into hair follicles. Then it makes its way along the hair shaft to the surface of the skin. Sebum waterproofs the hair and skin and helps prevent them from drying out. Answer: sebum", "output": [ "What oily substance prevents the hair and skin of living things from drying out?" ] }, { "id": "task594-69f26b15980440489a7b201231009768", "input": "Passage: Equilibrium (Balance) Along with audition, the inner ear is responsible for encoding information about equilibrium, the sense of balance. A similar mechanoreceptor—a hair cell with stereocilia—senses head position, head movement, and whether our bodies are in motion. These cells are located within the vestibule of the inner ear. Head position is sensed by the utricle and saccule, whereas head movement is sensed by the semicircular canals. The neural signals generated in the vestibular ganglion are transmitted through the vestibulocochlear nerve to the brain stem and cerebellum. The utricle and saccule are both largely composed of macula tissue (plural = maculae). The macula is composed of hair cells surrounded by support cells. The stereocilia of the hair cells extend into a viscous gel called the otolithic membrane (Figure 14.11). On top of the otolithic membrane is a layer of calcium carbonate crystals, called otoliths. The otoliths essentially make the otolithic membrane top-heavy. The otolithic membrane moves separately from the macula in response to head movements. Tilting the head causes the otolithic membrane to slide over the macula in the direction of gravity. The moving otolithic membrane, in turn, bends the sterocilia, causing some hair cells to depolarize as others hyperpolarize. The exact position of the head is interpreted by the brain based on the pattern of hair-cell depolarization. Answer: otoliths", "output": [ "On top of the otolithic membrane is a layer of calcium carbonate crystals, called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f471d527ad914c6693bb843c8ea628eb", "input": "Passage: Mountain streams may erode waterfalls. As shown in Figure below , a waterfall forms where a stream flows from an area of harder to softer rock. The water erodes the softer rock faster than the harder rock. This causes the stream bed to drop down, like a step, creating a waterfall. As erosion continues, the waterfall gradually moves upstream. Answer: a waterfall", "output": [ "When a stream flows from a hard to soft rock area, what is often formed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f994ed9b47c349f3986d8fa83d7d7caa", "input": "Passage: Figure 15.1 Fight or Flight? Though the threats that modern humans face are not large predators, the autonomic nervous system is adapted to this type of stimulus. The modern world presents stimuli that trigger the same response. (credit: Vernon Swanepoel). Answer: autonomic nervous system", "output": [ "The fight or flight response involves what system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4a59cd9687d940e1afd0fee46e8af396", "input": "Passage: Law of Refraction Figure 25.12 shows how a ray of light changes direction when it passes from one medium to another. As before, the angles are measured relative to a perpendicular to the surface at the point where the light ray crosses it. (Some of the incident light will be reflected from the surface, but for now we will concentrate on the light that is transmitted. ) The change in direction of the light ray depends on how the speed of light changes. The change in the speed of light is related to the indices of refraction of the media involved. In the situations shown in Figure 25.12, medium 2 has a greater index of refraction than medium 1. This means that the speed of light is less in medium 2 than in medium 1. Note that as shown in Figure 25.12(a), the direction of the ray moves closer to the perpendicular when it slows down. Conversely, as shown in Figure 25.12(b), the direction of the ray moves away from the perpendicular when it speeds up. The path is exactly reversible. In both cases, you can imagine what happens by thinking about pushing a lawn mower from a footpath onto grass, and vice versa. Going from the footpath to grass, the front wheels are slowed and pulled to the side as shown. This is the same change in direction as for light when it goes from a fast medium to a slow one. When going from the grass to the footpath, the front wheels can move faster and the mower changes direction as shown. This, too, is the same change in direction as for light going from slow to fast. Answer: law of refraction", "output": [ "What law explains how the change in direction of the light ray depends on how the speed of light changes, which in turn is related to the indices of refraction of the media involved?" ] }, { "id": "task594-02ac1a881daa4a9685a41a3b4ccc4c61", "input": "Passage: The last step in a scientific investigation is communicating what you have learned with others. This is a very important step because it allows others to test your hypothesis. If other researchers get the same results as yours, they add support to the hypothesis. However, if they get different results, they may disprove the hypothesis. When scientists share their results, they should describe their methods and point out any possible problems with the investigation. Results can be communicated in various ways. A scientist usually contributes material through publication in a peer-reviewed scientific journal. Peer-review ensures the material is of an acceptable quality for the scientific community. Scientists also write review articles, book chapters, and even whole books. They also regularly participate in scientific meetings, presenting their material in front of large audiences of their peers. Answer: communicating findings", "output": [ "What is the last step in a scientific investigation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d9c37c98f9d6447185e899a95cb63607", "input": "Passage: Lysosomes, which use enzymes to break down foreign matter and dead cells. Answer: lysosomes", "output": [ "What use enzymes to break down foreign matter and dead cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7424ada3f96e4619bd20f6e1cb89aeb8", "input": "Passage: Resonance is the use of two or more Lewis structures to represent the covalent bonding in a molecule. One of the valid structures is referred to as a resonance structure. It is now understood that the true structure of a molecule which displays resonance is that of an average or a hybrid of all the resonance structures. In the case of the O 3 molecule, each of the covalent bonds between O atoms is best thought of as being “one and a half” bonds, as opposed to either a pure single bond or a pure double bond. This “half-bond” can be shown as a dotted line in both the Lewis structure and the molecular model (see Figure below ). Answer: resonance", "output": [ "What is the term for the use of two or more lewis structures to represent the covalent bonding in a molecule?" ] }, { "id": "task594-be1c849eee00469bb2e37f05d7d1c971", "input": "Passage: The lunar surface has dark basalt maria. The light highlands are called terrae. Answer: terrae", "output": [ "What are the light highlands of the moon called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-792599bad2d34fafbe20229903ad1439", "input": "Passage: Many amino acids can be linked together to form a long chain known as a protein . These linkages are formed when the carboxylic acid of one amino acid reacts with the amine of another to produce an amide (see Figure below ). Answer: protein", "output": [ "What is formed when amino acids are linked together in a long chain?" ] }, { "id": "task594-013f1feb22534b36a8d6bba25ef869ad", "input": "Passage: 12.7 Molecular Transport Phenomena: Diffusion, Osmosis, and Related Processes 62. You can smell perfume very shortly after opening the bottle. To show that it is not reaching your nose by diffusion, calculate the average distance a perfume molecule moves in one second in air, given its diffusion constant D to be 1.00×10 –6 m 2 /s . What is the ratio of the average distances that oxygen will diffuse in a given time in air and water? Why is this distance less in water (equivalently, why is D less in water)? 64. Oxygen reaches the veinless cornea of the eye by diffusing through its tear layer, which is 0.500-mm thick. How long does it take the average oxygen molecule to do this? 65. (a) Find the average time required for an oxygen molecule to diffuse through a 0.200-mm-thick tear layer on the cornea. 3 (b) How much time is required to diffuse 0.500 cm of oxygen to the cornea if its surface area is 1.00 cm 2 ? 66. Suppose hydrogen and oxygen are diffusing through air. A small amount of each is released simultaneously. How much time passes before the hydrogen is 1.00 s ahead of the oxygen? Such differences in arrival times are used as an analytical tool in gas chromatography. Answer: cornea", "output": [ "Oxygen reaches what veinless part of the eye by diffusing through its tear layer?" ] }, { "id": "task594-205ea00784f3409db541a6e68fefeba1", "input": "Passage: Lung cancer is a disease in which the cells found in the lungs grow out of control. The growing mass of cells can form a tumor that pushes into nearby tissues. The tumor will affect how these tissues work. Lung cancer is the most common cause of cancer-related death in men, and the second most common in women. It is responsible for 1.3 million deaths worldwide every year ( Figure below ). The most common symptoms are shortness of breath, coughing (including coughing up blood), and weight loss. The most common cause of lung cancer is exposure to tobacco smoke. Answer: tumor", "output": [ "What do you call a growing mass of cancerous cells that pushes into nearby tissues?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9e1995d4f4af4e0a8585e929c9129cd0", "input": "Passage: Living in water does present challenges to plants, however. For one thing, pollination by wind or animals isn’t feasible under water, so aquatic plants may have adaptations that help them keep their flowers above water. For instance, water lilies have bowl-shaped flowers and broad, flat leaves that float. This allows the lilies to collect the maximum amount of sunlight, which does not penetrate very deeply below the water's surface. Plants that live in moving water, such as streams and rivers, may have different adaptations. For example, cattails have narrow, strap-like leaves that reduce their resistance to the moving water (see Figure below ). Answer: moving water", "output": [ "What kind of water are cattails adapted for with narrow, strap-like leaves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e939eca2a5cc49e7b89d7d487fc5669f", "input": "Passage: In the predator-prey example, one factor limits the growth of the other factor. As the prey population deceases, the predator population is begins to decrease as well. The prey population is a limiting factor. A limiting factor limits the growth or development of an organism, population, or process. Answer: limiting factor", "output": [ "What is the term for something that limits the growth or development of an organism, population, or process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fcb960edcf91480483c3739e3c6198af", "input": "Passage: Electron dot diagrams can be used to illustrate electron movements and ion formation. Answer: electron dot diagrams", "output": [ "What kind of diagrams can be used to illustrate electron movements and ion formation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bcd6b0530cfe471fb16b1a35dcadeed5", "input": "Passage: A chemical reaction is a process that changes some chemical substances into other chemical substances. The substances that start a chemical reaction are called reactants . The substances that form as a result of a chemical reaction are called products . During the reaction, the reactants are used up to create the products. For example, when methane burns in oxygen, it releases carbon dioxide and water. In this reaction, the reactants are methane (CH 4 ) and oxygen (O 2 ), and the products are carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and water (H 2 O). Answer: a chemical reaction", "output": [ "What is a process that changes some chemical substances into other chemical substances?" ] }, { "id": "task594-35bfa46a38da43bab6c29bdaa999ad1e", "input": "Passage: The atmosphere is a crucial part of the water cycle. It is an important reservoir for water, and the source of precipitation. Answer: the atmosphere", "output": [ "What is the source of precipitation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c6be5fd7f5a94cbca4df648d0cf1489e", "input": "Passage: Sporophytes sprout up on stalks from this bed of moss gametophytes. Notice that both the sporophytes and gametophytes exist at the same time. Answer: sporophytes", "output": [ "What sprouts up on stalks from the bed of moss gametophytes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-afd4fbb9e6e34aeb92e9ee9a04ed1100", "input": "Passage: For a long time, scientists classified fungi as members of the Plant Kingdom. Fungi share several obvious traits with plants. For example, both fungi and plants lack the ability to move. Both grow in soil, and both have cell walls. Some fungi even look like plants. Answer: fungi", "output": [ "What group of organisms was initially misclassified as plants because they also lack the ability to move, grow in soil, and have cell walls?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a810851e51b14d319ef57fb1696c5802", "input": "Passage: Figure 7.24 Intervertebral Disc The bodies of adjacent vertebrae are separated and united by an intervertebral disc, which provides padding and allows for movements between adjacent vertebrae. The disc consists of a fibrous outer layer called the anulus fibrosus and a gel-like center called the nucleus pulposus. The intervertebral foramen is the opening formed between adjacent vertebrae for the exit of a spinal nerve. Answer: intervertebral foramen", "output": [ "What is the opening formed between adjacent vertebrae for the exit of a spinal nerve called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-633f74f69625411997b5fee5b0c223df", "input": "Passage: White blood cells called phagocytes travel to areas of the body that are inflamed. Answer: phagocytes", "output": [ "White blood cells called what travel to areas of the body that are inflamed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6549c308817c4327af8653046b2cff0e", "input": "Passage: The first vertebrates evolved about 550 million years ago. The evolution of amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds occurred over the next 400 million years. The first vertebrates were ectotherms; endothermy evolved later. Modern fish, amphibians, and reptiles are ectotherms. Modern birds and mammals are endotherms. Answer: backbone or a spinal column", "output": [ "Vertebrates differ from invertebrates because they lack this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cff5b00a2f1d47da84044f261fd9033f", "input": "Passage: 10.3 Dynamics of Rotational Motion: Rotational Inertia If you have ever spun a bike wheel or pushed a merry-go-round, you know that force is needed to change angular velocity as seen in Figure 10.10. In fact, your intuition is reliable in predicting many of the factors that are involved. For example, we know that a door opens slowly if we push too close to its hinges. Furthermore, we know that the more massive the door, the more slowly it opens. The first example implies that the farther the force is applied from the pivot, the greater the angular acceleration; another implication is that angular acceleration is inversely proportional to mass. These relationships should seem very similar to the familiar relationships among force, mass, and acceleration embodied in Newton’s second law of motion. There are, in fact, precise rotational analogs to both force and mass. Answer: angular", "output": [ "If force is applied further away from a pivot point, than what kind of acceleration will be greater?" ] }, { "id": "task594-38579e80551c47e3a8078090a967ae36", "input": "Passage: A food chain is a simple diagram that shows one way energy flows through an ecosystem. You can see an example of a food chain in Figure below . Producers form the base of all food chains. The consumers that eat producers are called primary consumers. The consumers that eat primary consumers are secondary consumers. This chain can continue to multiple levels. Answer: food chain", "output": [ "What term is used to describe a simple diagram that shows one way energy flows through an ecosystem?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3c8247136f4b4cf79b2cdcc9b4cb7910", "input": "Passage: form of mechanical weathering that occurs as water expands when it freezes, wedging apart rock. Answer: mechanical weathering", "output": [ "What term describes weathering that occurs as water expands when it freezes, wedging apart rock?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bfc4a910e849493199fd42c661bfba1c", "input": "Passage: A: When air temperature reaches the dew point, water vapor starts condensing. It may form dew (as on the spider web in the opening image), clouds, or fog. Dew forms on solid objects on the ground. Clouds form on tiny particles in the air high above the ground. Fog is a cloud that forms on tiny particles in the air close to the ground. Answer: condense", "output": [ "When the air temperature reaches the dew point, water vapor starts to do what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d319d5a951e34a6a8429cd510c44b58d", "input": "Passage: It’s much easier to precisely make mirrors than to precisely make glass lenses. For that reason, reflectors can be made larger than refractors. Larger telescopes can collect more light. This means that they can study dimmer or more distant objects. The largest optical telescopes in the world today are reflectors. Telescopes can also be made to use both lenses and mirrors. Answer: destroyed", "output": [ "What happens to old oceanic crust at convergent boundaries?" ] }, { "id": "task594-133be8ae86554e4e932a593bf796c941", "input": "Passage: Viruses , like the one depicted in Figure below , are tiny particles that may cause disease. Human diseases caused by viruses include the common cold and flu. Do you think viruses are prokaryotes or eukaryotes? The answer may surprise you. Viruses are not cells at all, so they are neither prokaryotes nor eukaryotes. Answer: viruses", "output": [ "The common cold and flu are examples of human diseases caused by what tiny particles?" ] }, { "id": "task594-78bc166c404941edb8f0c002f330dc2b", "input": "Passage: The distribution of darts on a dartboard shows the difference between accuracy and precision. Answer: accuracy and precision", "output": [ "What does the distribution of darts on a dartboard shows the difference between?" ] }, { "id": "task594-28da2e29d89c40b683fb53fc02dcd7c6", "input": "Passage: Horner’s syndrome is a condition that presents with changes in one eye, such as pupillary constriction and dropping of eyelids, as well as decreased sweating in the face. Why could a tumor in the thoracic cavity have an effect on these autonomic functions? 32. The cardiovascular center is responsible for regulating the heart and blood vessels through homeostatic mechanisms. What tone does each component of the cardiovascular system have? What connections does the cardiovascular center invoke to keep these two systems in their resting tone? 33. Why does smoking increase the risk of heart disease? Provide two reasons based on autonomic function. Why might topical, cosmetic application of atropine or scopolamine from the belladonna plant not cause fatal poisoning, as would occur with ingestion of the plant?. Answer: one eye", "output": [ "Which part of the body shows does horner's syndrome affect?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a6150bb93de1492a96ac1e26061a7dbc", "input": "Passage: Colonial organisms were probably one of the first evolutionary steps towards multicellular organisms. Algae of the genus Volvox are an example of the bridge between colonial organisms and multicellular organisms. Each Volvox , shown in Figure above , is a colonial organism. It is made of up to 50,000 photosynthetic flagellate algae that are grouped together into a hollow sphere. Volvox live in a variety of freshwater habitats, and were first reported by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in 1700. Answer: multicellular", "output": [ "Colonial organisms were probably one of the first evolutionary steps towards which type of organisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1ce8256641234ba3a24fbe08ca767ae1", "input": "Passage: The power of the ocean modifies landforms by erosion and deposition. Landforms modified by both erosion and deposition are seen in this photo. The cliff is being eroded by incoming waves. The beach is being created as sand is being deposited. Answer: erosion and deposition", "output": [ "By what processes does the ocean modify landforms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-82ad7feff230455f8c90e0123f415641", "input": "Passage: A refrigerator is an example of a cooling system. Another example is an air conditioner. The purpose of any cooling system is to transfer thermal energy in order to keep things cool. A refrigerator, for example, transfers thermal energy from the cool air inside the refrigerator to the warm air in the kitchen. If you’ve ever noticed how warm the back of a running refrigerator gets, then you know that it releases a lot of thermal energy into the room. Answer: thermal", "output": [ "The purpose of any cooling system is to transfer what type of energy in order to keep things cool?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6ea8f83ed43b440ba04eb98921680b44", "input": "Passage: The three types of plant cells are found in each of the major types of plant tissues: dermal, ground, and vascular tissues. Dermal tissue covers the outside of a plant in a single layer of cells called the epidermis. It mediates most of the interactions between a plant and its environment. Ground tissue makes up most of the interior of a plant. It carries out basic metabolic functions and stores food and water. Vascular tissue runs through the ground tissue inside a plant. It consists of bundles of xylem and phloem, which transport fluids throughout the plant. Answer: dermal", "output": [ "What type of tissue covers the outside of a plant in a single layer of cells called the epidermis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9c13eebba23f45b0b33079b17a267581", "input": "Passage: Soil scientists measure the percentage of sand, silt, and clay in soil. They plot this information on a triangular diagram, with each type of particle at one corner ( Figure below ). Answer: soil scientists", "output": [ "What kind of scientists measure percentages of sand, silt, and clay?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1a3a361ae6a9455183fcb70a5b101327", "input": "Passage: Since eddy currents and magnetic damping occur only in conductors, recycling centers can use magnets to separate metals from other materials. Trash is dumped in batches down a ramp, beneath which lies a powerful magnet. Conductors in the trash are slowed by magnetic damping while nonmetals in the trash move on, separating from the metals. (See Figure 23.17. ) This works for all metals, not just ferromagnetic ones. A magnet can separate out the ferromagnetic materials alone by acting on stationary trash. Answer: magnets", "output": [ "Since eddy currents and magnetic damping occur only in conductors, recycling centers can use these to separate metals from other materials?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4edb8cd0e7ae477681e9cdf567c8e7fd", "input": "Passage: Angiosperms are seed plants that produce seeds in the ovaries of flowers. Today, they are by far the most diverse type of seed plants. In fact, the vast majority of all modern plants are angiosperms. There are hundreds of thousands of species of them. The apple tree in Figure below is an example of a common angiosperm. Answer: angiosperms", "output": [ "Seed plants that produce seeds in the ovaries of their flowers are known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7df6d596c65f4e529bdee75f3e34c9f1", "input": "Passage: Minerals are chemical elements that are essential for body processes. They include calcium, which helps form strong bones and teeth, and potassium, which is needed for normal nerve and muscle function. Good sources of minerals include leafy, green vegetables, whole grains, milk, and meats. Answer: calcium", "output": [ "What chemical element helps forms strong bones and teeth in humans?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3156b9ec53c14ef0805d80de111c8428", "input": "Passage: Tiny Mercury is the small black dot in the lower center of this picture of the Sun. The larger dark area near the left edge is a sunspot. Answer: sunspots", "output": [ "What are the dark areas that appear on the sun called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a3fb43d090244db99840094639b38b70", "input": "Passage: Radioactive decay is the process in which unstable nuclei become stable by emitting particles and energy and changing to different elements. There are three types of radioactive decay: alpha, beta, and gamma decay. Each differs in what is emitted, how far it can travel, and what it can penetrate. Answer: radioactive decay", "output": [ "What is the process in which unstable nuclei become stable by emitting particles and energy and changing to different elements called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2ac1cb131af54858861fda45952f8011", "input": "Passage: Greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere. These gases include carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, and ozone. Answer: greenhouse", "output": [ "Which gases trap heat in the atmosphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d46b76ffa49e4f94a76a02b4a93b23a2", "input": "Passage: There is a predictable amount of solute that can be dissolved at a specific temperature. Answer: specific temperature", "output": [ "There is a predictable amount of solute that can be dissolved at what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bd0eeb891a4f41d69f2997cb13a75dc5", "input": "Passage: Xylem and phloem are the two types of vascular tissues in vascular plants. Answer: xylem and phloem", "output": [ "What are the two types of vascular tissues found in vascular plants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5a482629ae75478eb49202171fad475b", "input": "Passage: All living cells have certain things in common. Besides having the basic parts described above, all cells can perform the same basic functions. For example, all cells can use energy, respond to their environment, and reproduce. However, cells may also have special functions. Multicellular organisms such as you have many different types of specialized cells. Each specialized cell has a particular job. Cells with special functions generally have a shape that suits them for that job. Answer: multicellular", "output": [ "What kind of organisms have many different types of specialized cells with particular jobs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-055560c29ab54c2fabe706f0c173077e", "input": "Passage: Marsupials. Marsupials include the kangaroo, koala, and opossum. Answer: marsupials", "output": [ "Kangaroos, koala and opossums are part of what group?" ] }, { "id": "task594-87f6b2c5be624af78b51e34ec1ee1ede", "input": "Passage: The amount of energy in molecules of matter determines the state of matter . Matter can exist in one of several different states, including a gas, liquid, or solid state. These different states of matter have different properties, which are illustrated in Figure below . Gasses have the most energy, and solids have the least energy. Answer: state of matter", "output": [ "What is determined by the amount of energy in molecules?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4c1c96049729469d83499b5ec93a2a47", "input": "Passage: The rate of dissolving is influenced by surface area, stirring, and temperature. Answer: temperature", "output": [ "The rate of dissolving is influenced by surface area, stirring, and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-69f366a0cc254d4190516c831cedaa3b", "input": "Passage: Cell division is just one of the stages that all cells go through during their life. This includes cells that are harmful, such as cancer cells. Cancer cells divide more often than normal cells, and grow out of control. In fact, this is how cancer cells cause illness. In these concepts, you will read about how cells divide, what other stages cells go through, and what causes cancer cells to divide out of control and harm the body. Answer: cell division", "output": [ "All cells undergo what during a lifetime, but when this process is out of control, cancer results?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7b78a59c214d415cb3e34134c2c52f91", "input": "Passage: Electrophiles have a strong tendency to react with nucleophiles. CONCEPTUAL PROBLEMS. Answer: nucleophiles", "output": [ "Electrophiles have a strong tendency to react with what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7d3747c8d611472a99cdee6abffe36d4", "input": "Passage: Most plants continue to grow as long as they live. They grow through a combination of cell growth and cell division (mitosis). The key to plant growth is meristem, a type of plant tissue consisting of undifferentiated cells that can continue to divide and differentiate. Meristem allows plant stems and roots to grow longer (primary growth) and wider (secondary growth). Answer: meristem", "output": [ "What is a type of plant tissue consisting of undifferentiated cells that can continue to divide and differentiate?" ] }, { "id": "task594-93d50912a7f94b5b9bef3fd0265ddb4b", "input": "Passage: Temperature gradient is the change in temperature with distance. Answer: temperature gradient", "output": [ "What is the term for the change in temperature with distance?" ] }, { "id": "task594-73c7d60be3a9497c81aefda2624bcc93", "input": "Passage: Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table As described earlier, the periodic table arranges atoms based on increasing atomic number so that elements with the same chemical properties recur periodically. When their electron configurations are added to the table (Figure 6.30), we also see a periodic recurrence of similar electron configurations in the outer shells of these elements. Because they are in the outer shells of an atom, valence electrons play the most important role in chemical reactions. The outer electrons have the highest energy of the electrons in an atom and are most easily lost or shared than the core electrons. Valence electrons are also the determining factor in some physical properties of the elements. Elements in any one group (or column) have the same number of valence electrons; the alkali metals lithium and sodium each have only one valence electron, the alkaline earth metals beryllium and magnesium each have two, and the halogens fluorine and chlorine each have seven valence electrons. The similarity in chemical properties among. Answer: valence", "output": [ "Which type of electrons plays the most important role in chemical reactions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3e1d21f1b8e644299d2cda872ed1e145", "input": "Passage: A rock under enough stress will fracture. There may or may not be movement along the fracture. If there is not movement, the fracture is a joint. If there is movement, the fracture is a fault. Answer: it will fracture", "output": [ "What will happen to a rock when it's under tremendous stress?" ] }, { "id": "task594-afb00b5038e140e4898b384ca0345a47", "input": "Passage: Pure elements with a high metallic character, meaning those that have chemical properties most similar to properties of metals, are generally very reactive. Metals tend to lose electrons in chemical reactions, as indicated by their low ionization energies. Within a compound, metal atoms have a relatively low attraction to shared electrons, as indicated by their low electronegativity values. By following the trend summary in Figure below , you can see that the most reactive metals would reside in the lower left portion of the periodic table. The most reactive metal that occurs naturally in reasonable quantities is cesium, which is always found in nature as a compound, never as a free element. It reacts explosively with water and will ignite spontaneously in air. Francium is below cesium in the alkali metal group, but it is so rare that many of its properties have never even been observed. Answer: reactive", "output": [ "Exemplified by cesium, which ignites spontaneously in air, pure elements with a high metallic character tend to be very what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eb3239a99dbd4dd3bb3c6833af2f02d1", "input": "Passage: What is the source of glucose for living things? It is made by plants and certain other organisms. The process in which glucose is made using energy in light is photosynthesis . This process requires carbon dioxide and water. It produces oxygen in addition to glucose. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "What is the process in which glucose is made using energy in light called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-961bf634ccb94a9da0a20882eb1399e0", "input": "Passage: You might have noticed that plants bend toward the light. This is an example of a tropism where light is the stimulus, known as phototropism ( Figure below ). To obtain more light for photosynthesis, leaves and stems grow toward the light. On the other hand, roots grow away from light. This is beneficial for the roots, because they need to obtain water and nutrients from deep within the ground. Answer: phototropism", "output": [ "A tropism where light is the stimulus is known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5dc6ffde17c1425c96d9697087724461", "input": "Passage: Saturated hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds between carbon atoms. They are the simplest class of hydrocarbons. They are called saturated because each carbon atom is bonded to as many hydrogen atoms as possible. In other words, the carbon atoms are saturated with hydrogen. You can see an example of a saturated hydrocarbon in the Figure below . In this compound, named ethane, each carbon atom is bonded to three hydrogen atoms. In the structural formula, each dash (-) represents a single covalent bond, in which two atoms share one pair of valence electrons. Answer: saturated hydrocarbons", "output": [ "What are hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds between carbon atoms called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e449e062e579465594be28e3bcb80d23", "input": "Passage: Chemical reactions either require energy or release energy. The amount of energy needed or released depends upon the structure of the molecules that are involved in the reaction. Some reactions need to be heated for long periods of time in order for change to take place. Other reactions release energy, allowing heat to be given off to the surroundings. Answer: energy", "output": [ "Chemical reactions either require or release what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-77a9823cc94e483d9c52cd784a0bee17", "input": "Passage: Unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain at least one double bond are called alkenes . The name of a specific alkene always ends in – ene , with a prefix indicating the number of carbon atoms. Figure below shows the structural formula for the smallest alkene. It has just two carbon atoms and is named ethene. Ethene is produced by most fruits and vegetables. It speeds up ripening and also rotting. Figure below shows the effects of ethene on bananas. Answer: alkenes", "output": [ "What is the name for unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain at least one double bond?" ] }, { "id": "task594-696557c4c9ef453d959c4d3ba163d5fb", "input": "Passage: Mutations have many possible causes. Some mutations occur when a mistake is made during DNA replication or transcription. Other mutations occur because of environmental factors. Anything in the environment that causes a mutation is known as a mutagen . Examples of mutagens are shown in Figure below . They include ultraviolet rays in sunlight, chemicals in cigarette smoke, and certain viruses and bacteria. Answer: mutation", "output": [ "What is it called when a mistake occurs in dna replication." ] }, { "id": "task594-d73c0122e4be4d5bb52e0077769611a9", "input": "Passage: Solution: The force acting to move the system is the weight of box B, and the force resisting the movement is the force of friction between the table and box A. The mass of the system is the sum of the masses of both boxes. The acceleration of the system can be found by dividing the net force by the total mass. Answer: acceleration", "output": [ "Dividing net force by total mass yields what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0a41d3be45bb42aab3e26afc97a1af78", "input": "Passage: The transition metals are an interesting and challenging group of elements. They have perplexing patterns of electron distribution that don’t always follow the electron filling rules. Predicting how they will form ions is also not always obvious. Answer: transition", "output": [ "What kind of metals have perplexing patterns of electron distribution that don’t always follow the electron filling rules?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d94182b77d50433d9d1b407f0096d0d9", "input": "Passage: Sometimes two air masses stop moving when they meet. These stalled air masses create a stationary front . Such a front may bring clouds and precipitation to the same area for many days. Answer: stationary front", "output": [ "What weather phenomenon, which may bring clouds and precipitation, is created by stalled air masses?" ] }, { "id": "task594-531a80f9609d4b10b0a6ac0bcd67f537", "input": "Passage: Behind every fart is an army of gut bacteria undergoing some crazy biochemistry. These bacteria break down the remains of digested food through fermentation, creating gas in the process. Learn what these bacteria have in common with beer brewing at http://youtu. be/R1kxajH629A?list=PLzMhsCgGKd1hoofiKuifwy6qRXZs7NG6a . Answer: fermentation", "output": [ "Which process helps bacteria in the gut break down the remains of the digested food?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0f25adfe500842ee9cdc882a869da89e", "input": "Passage: List and describe the three major types of blood vessels. Answer: arteries,capillaries, veins", "output": [ "List the three major types of blood vessels." ] }, { "id": "task594-3714a9b887634c7c9be160eeb8ff80b6", "input": "Passage: In just the right combinations, you get life. Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and sulfur. Some of the most basic of elements, but some of the most important. Together they can form countless combinations of organic compounds. And in just the right combinations, anything can happen. Answer: organic compounds", "output": [ "Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and sulfur are basic elements that form what type of compounds, which are vital to life?" ] }, { "id": "task594-220b5ad6b81e4ca8a514c16518699fab", "input": "Passage: Renal Hilum The renal hilum is the entry and exit site for structures servicing the kidneys: vessels, nerves, lymphatics, and ureters. The medial-facing hila are tucked into the sweeping convex outline of the cortex. Emerging from the hilum is the renal pelvis, which is formed from the major and minor calyxes in the kidney. The smooth muscle in the renal pelvis funnels urine via peristalsis into the ureter. The renal arteries form directly from the descending aorta, whereas the renal veins return cleansed blood directly to the inferior vena cava. The artery, vein, and renal pelvis are arranged in an anterior-to-posterior order. Answer: kidneys", "output": [ "The renal hilum is the entry and exit site for structures servicing which organs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-26b7c92af2754cac8e0ac68f59abd3e1", "input": "Passage: tiny gap between two adjacent neurons across which electrical messages are carried by chemicals called neurotransmitters. Answer: neurotransmitters", "output": [ "Electrical messages are carried by chemicals called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b3ae60b36c844273b82647052e26ed3d", "input": "Passage: The sub-energy levels are identified by the azimuthal quantum number, . Answer: sub-energy levels", "output": [ "What are identified by the azimuthal quantum number?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3399c6ec51f842e093ee0eac06710bd5", "input": "Passage: You may have seen this sign before—maybe in a hospital. The sign means there is danger of radiation in the area. Radiation consists of particles and energy that are given off by radioactive isotopes, which have unstable nuclei. But you don’t have to go to a hospital to be exposed to radiation. There is radiation in the world all around you. Answer: nuclei", "output": [ "Radioactive isotopes are characterized by an unstable what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5b48b4c078a3431b92b3d32237f52e64", "input": "Passage: A: The modern kinetic theory of matter is remarkably similar to Democritus’ ideas about the motion of atoms. According to this theory, atoms of matter are in constant random motion. This motion is greater in gases than in liquids, and it is greater in liquids than in solids. But even in solids, atoms are constantly vibrating in place. Answer: modern kinetic theory", "output": [ "What theory says atoms of matter are in constant random motion?" ] }, { "id": "task594-db0920b08af24aad9b9c33ba20bf483a", "input": "Passage: The positive sign of the force indicates the force is repulsive. This makes sense, because both objects have a positive charge. Answer: repulsive", "output": [ "When both objects have a positive charge what will the force be between them?" ] }, { "id": "task594-85227d9d39a3491b9850bbdd62dd77ef", "input": "Passage: Give an example of how matter cycles. While matter cycles round and round in the Earth System, ENERGY FLOWS through the Earth System. The vast majority of Earth’s energy comes from the sun, flows into the Earth’s System, and flows out of the Earth’s System into space. If all the energy that comes to Earth from the sun were to stay on Earth, the Earth would melt away. But the energy that comes to Earth from the sun does not stay. Eventually it radiates back out to space as heat. We know this because the average temperature of the Earth has remained relatively constant. If the energy from the sun were to stay on Earth, the Earth’s average temperature would rise. Some of the sun’s energy is reflected by the atmosphere, some is absorbed by the Earth and re-radiated as heat, some evaporates water and powers the water cycle, some is captured by plants and used to make sugars, and some powers the wind but eventually ALL of the energy that comes to the Earth from the sun leaves the Earth and flows into space. For this reason we say that energy flows through the Earth System. Answer: sun", "output": [ "Where does most of the earth's energy come from?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d73ec648444941ee9ee6fc2504bc7713", "input": "Passage: When you add sugar to a cold drink, you may stir it to help the sugar dissolve. If you don’t stir, the sugar may eventually dissolve, but it will take much longer. Stirring is one of several factors that affect how fast a solute dissolves in a solvent. Temperature is another factor. A solid solute dissolves faster at a higher temperature. For example, sugar dissolves faster in hot tea than in ice tea. A third factor that affects the rate of dissolving is the surface area of the solute. For example, if you put granulated sugar in a glass of ice tea, it will dissolve more quickly than the same amount of sugar in a cube. That’s because granulated sugar has much more surface area than a cube of sugar. You can see videos of all three factors at these URLs:. Answer: solute dissolves", "output": [ "Stirring, surface area, and temperature affect the rate at which what occurs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-160df646861149b7bd7b75f90254f24d", "input": "Passage: Evolution is a change in the characteristics of living things over time. Evolution occurs by a process called natural selection. In natural selection , some living things produce more offspring than others, so they pass more genes to the next generation than others do. Over many generations, this can lead to major changes in the characteristics of living things. Evolution explains how living things are changing today and how modern living things have descended from ancient life forms that no longer exist on Earth. Answer: evolution", "output": [ "What is the change of characteristics of living things over time?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cdd12123a7dd4220a2dc038644812396", "input": "Passage: Carbohydrate Digestion The average American diet is about 50 percent carbohydrates, which may be classified according to the number of monomers they contain of simple sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides) and/or complex sugars (polysaccharides). Glucose, galactose, and fructose are the three monosaccharides that are commonly consumed and are readily absorbed. Your digestive system is also able to break down the disaccharide sucrose (regular table sugar: glucose + fructose), lactose (milk sugar: glucose + galactose), and maltose (grain sugar: glucose + glucose), and the polysaccharides glycogen and starch (chains of monosaccharides). Your bodies do not produce enzymes that can break down most fibrous polysaccharides, such as cellulose. While indigestible polysaccharides do not provide any nutritional value, they do provide dietary fiber, which helps propel food through the alimentary canal. The chemical digestion of starches begins in the mouth and has been reviewed above. In the small intestine, pancreatic amylase does the ‘heavy lifting’ for starch and carbohydrate digestion (Figure 23.29). After amylases break down starch into smaller fragments, the brush border enzyme α-dextrinase starts working on αdextrin, breaking off one glucose unit at a time. Three brush border enzymes hydrolyze sucrose, lactose, and maltose into monosaccharides. Sucrase splits sucrose into one molecule of fructose and one molecule of glucose; maltase breaks down maltose and maltotriose into two and three glucose molecules, respectively; and lactase breaks down lactose into one molecule of glucose and one molecule of galactose. Insufficient lactase can lead to lactose intolerance. Answer: carbohydrates", "output": [ "Making ups about 50 percent of the modern american diet, what food group can be classified according to the number of monomers they contain of simple sugars and/or complex sugars?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8c7a42afc29f4196b6b1d9a4d1774dc0", "input": "Passage: The amount of stress on a rock may be greater than the rock’s strength. In that case, the rock will undergo strain or deformation ( Figure below ). Deep within the Earth, the pressure is very great. A rock behaves like a stretched rubber band. When the stress stops, the rock goes back to its original shape. If more stress is applied to the rock, it bends and flows. It does not return to its original shape. Near the surface, if the stress continues, the rock will fracture (rupture) and break. Answer: pressure", "output": [ "Deep within the earth what force is so great that a rock behaves like a stretched rubber band?" ] }, { "id": "task594-986b29dcfa6248819b59bc0c9f985fda", "input": "Passage: Most Americans have plenty of fresh, clean water. But many people around the world do not. In fact, water scarcity is the world’s most serious resource problem. How can that be? Water is almost everywhere. But much of it is unusable. What is usable is not always where it is needed. Answer: water scarcity", "output": [ "What is the world’s most serious resource problem?" ] }, { "id": "task594-04a93497157147fe9cc3f715b2420c7f", "input": "Passage: Some mixtures are homogeneous. This means they have the same composition throughout. An example is salt water in the ocean. Ocean water everywhere is about 3.5 percent salt. Answer: homogeneous", "output": [ "Mixtures that have the same composition throughout are known as what kinds of mixtures?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a9d641c2f17644608ce343e0db28a121", "input": "Passage: An isotonic solution is a solution in which the amount of dissolved material is equal both inside and outside of the cell. Water still flows in both directions, but an equal amount enters and leaves the cell. Answer: isotonic", "output": [ "In which solution is the amount of dissolved material equal both inside and outside of the cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9efb7db874794e439b3f897d34cade80", "input": "Passage: Power may be measured in a unit called the horsepower. One horsepower is the amount of work a horse can do in 1 minute, which equals 745 watts of power. Answer: horsepower", "output": [ "What unit of measure is equal to the amount of work a horse can do in 1 minute?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3fb623e916a941ccb90aae78f2c644c8", "input": "Passage: A: Sodium chloride is an odorless white solid that is harmless unless consumed in large quantities. In fact, it is a necessary component of the human diet. Answer: sodium chloride", "output": [ "What is an odorless white solid that is harmless unless consumed in large quantities?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2013e255e81045bfab349a89c17ed8a7", "input": "Passage: We commonly talk about satellites orbiting Earth. But what does that really mean? When a satellite, space shuttle, or some other object is orbiting a planet, it maintains a circular orbit around the planet a constant distance off the surface. Manmade satellites typically orbit between 200 and 400 miles. For example, the International Space Station (ISS) orbits at 370 km, or 230 miles. Answer: manmade satellite", "output": [ "Orbiting at a fairly typical 370 kilometers, the international space station is an example of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e4c29337bb9a4ec3be519560391ec345", "input": "Passage: (a) Amino alcohols are commonly found in phosphoglycerides, which are evident in its structural formula (b). There are two common types of phosphoglycerides. Phosphoglycerides containing ethanolamine as the amino alcohol are called phosphatidylethanolamines orcephalins. Cephalins are found in brain tissue and nerves and also have a role in blood clotting. Phosphoglycerides containing choline as the amino alcohol unit are called phosphatidylcholines or lecithins. Lecithins occur in all living organisms. Like cephalins, they are important constituents of nerve and brain tissue. Egg yolks are especially rich in lecithins. Commercial-grade lecithins isolated from soybeans are widely used in foods as emulsifying agents. An emulsifying agent is used to stabilize an emulsion—a dispersion of two liquids that do not normally mix, such as oil and water. Many foods are emulsions. Milk is an emulsion of butterfat in water. The emulsifying agent in milk is a protein called casein. Mayonnaise is an emulsion of salad oil in water, stabilized by lecithins present in egg yolk. Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: brain tissue", "output": [ "Along with nerve tissue, what kind of tissue are lecithins and cephalins important constituents of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4df63a50823d4426a8b292cbaf17ad0e", "input": "Passage: Pluto has three moons of its own. The largest, Charon, is big compared to Pluto. The Pluto-Charon system is sometimes called a double dwarf planet ( Figure above ). Two smaller moons, Nix and Hydra, were discovered in 2005. Answer: three", "output": [ "How many moons does pluto have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8eeecd48a5d34eff961598118cde971c", "input": "Passage: Cumulus clouds are white and puffy. Convection currents make them grow upward, and they may grow very tall. When they produce rain, they are called cumulonimbus. Answer: white and puffy", "output": [ "What color and shape are cumulus clouds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-79c7b8ab744d4e748d5378b0f4fc4dc2", "input": "Passage: Scott Schram. The somatic nervous system controls the movements of hands and arms . CC BY 2.0. Answer: somatic nervous system", "output": [ "What controls the movements of hands and arms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-234ff46c92164db2ba5dd621f13b12ef", "input": "Passage: The drummer in Figure below is hitting the drumheads with drumsticks. This causes the drumheads to vibrate. The vibrations pass to surrounding air particles and then from one air particle to another in a wave of energy called sound energy . We hear sound when the sound waves reach our ears. Sound energy can travel through air, water, and other substances, but not through empty space. That’s because the energy needs particles of matter to pass it on. Answer: sound", "output": [ "What energy, produced by vibrations, cannot travel through empty space?" ] }, { "id": "task594-40477079b09e4ba1824d7b97e02cef79", "input": "Passage: Laura Guerin. Work is not done when a force is applied in a different direction than the direction of movement . CC BY-NC 3.0. Answer: none", "output": [ "How much work is done when a force is applied in a different direction than the direction of movement?" ] }, { "id": "task594-226cdb4194dd451d86e4ed7d095ae77c", "input": "Passage: (PRL) in females. Prolactin stimulates the production of milk by the mammary glands following childbirth. Prolactin levels are regulated by the hypothalamic hormones prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH) and prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH) which is now known to be dopamine. PRH stimulates the release of prolactin and PIH inhibits it. The posterior pituitary releases the hormone oxytocin, which stimulates contractions during childbirth. The uterine smooth muscles are not very sensitive to oxytocin until late in pregnancy when the number of oxytocin receptors in the uterus peaks. Stretching of tissues in the uterus and vagina stimulates oxytocin release in childbirth. Contractions increase in intensity as blood levels of oxytocin rise until the birth is complete. 22 Hormone production and release are primarily controlled by negative feedback. In negative feedback systems, a stimulus causes the release of a substance whose effects then inhibit further release. In this way, the concentration of hormones in blood is maintained within a narrow range. For example, the anterior pituitary signals the thyroid to release thyroid hormones. Increasing levels of these hormones in the blood then feed back to the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary to inhibit further signaling to the thyroid gland. 24 The main mineralocorticoid is aldosterone, which regulates the concentration of ions in urine, sweat, and saliva. Aldosterone release from the adrenal cortex is stimulated by a decrease in blood concentrations of sodium ions, blood volume, or blood pressure, or an increase in blood potassium levels. Answer: prolactin", "output": [ "What stimulates the production of milk by the mammary glands following childbirth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cdb3bf12ee844ea5b06f0ced79a52785", "input": "Passage: The student athlete in Figure below is practically flying down the track! Running takes a lot of energy. But you don’t have to run a race to use energy. All living things need energy all the time just to stay alive. The energy is produced in chemical reactions. A chemical reaction is a process in which some substances, called reactants, change chemically into different substances, called products. Reactants and products may be elements or compounds. Answer: chemical reaction", "output": [ "What is a process where some substances called reactants change chemically into different substances called products?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8e89476ee86a4b1a9dde91dbbd5ba794", "input": "Passage: To help digest the large amount of plant material, the stomach of the ruminants is a multi-chambered organ, as illustrated in Figure 34.8. The four compartments of the stomach are called the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum. These chambers contain many microbes that break down cellulose and ferment ingested food. The abomasum is the “true” stomach and is the equivalent of the monogastric stomach chamber where gastric juices are secreted. The four-compartment gastric chamber provides larger space and the microbial support necessary to digest plant material in ruminants. The fermentation process produces large amounts of gas in the stomach chamber, which must be eliminated. As in other animals, the small intestine plays an important role in nutrient absorption, and the large intestine helps in the elimination of waste. Answer: four", "output": [ "How many stomach compartments do ruminants have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9ab6b59f768a4f518a753d6ba71224d9", "input": "Passage: The Universe contains about a hundred billion galaxies. Answer: about a hundred billion", "output": [ "Approximately how many galaxies are there in the universe?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cabba0ee94484cc2a026b0488d33ef4d", "input": "Passage: Most primates have opposable thumbs. An opposable thumb can be brought into opposition with the other fingers of the same hand. This allows the hand to grasp and hold things. Answer: primates", "output": [ "Most members of what mammalian order possess opposable thumbs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e016c165c6934dc882c25fe4ad02de0b", "input": "Passage: Carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere are increasing. Fossil fuel burning is increasing. The rise in fossil fuel burning is increasing the CO 2 in the atmosphere. Answer: co2", "output": [ "What gas is released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels are burned?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fc1c4c0fe2274fb7a286ccf7ad58c4aa", "input": "Passage: The Evolution of Promoters The evolution of genes may be a familiar concept. Mutations can occur in genes during DNA replication, and the result may or may not be beneficial to the cell. By altering an enzyme, structural protein, or some other factor, the process of mutation can transform functions or physical features. However, eukaryotic promoters and other gene regulatory sequences may evolve as well. For instance, consider a gene that, over many generations, becomes more valuable to the cell. Maybe the gene encodes a structural protein that the cell needs to synthesize in abundance for a certain function. If this is the case, it would be beneficial to the cell for that gene’s promoter to recruit transcription factors more efficiently and increase gene expression. Scientists examining the evolution of promoter sequences have reported varying results. In part, this is because it is difficult to infer exactly where a eukaryotic promoter begins and ends. Some promoters occur within genes; others are located very far upstream, or even downstream, of the genes they are regulating. However, when researchers limited their examination to human core promoter sequences that were defined experimentally as sequences that bind the preinitiation complex, they found that promoters evolve even faster than protein-coding genes. It is still unclear how promoter evolution might correspond to the evolution of humans or other higher organisms. However, the evolution of a promoter to effectively make more or less of a given gene product [1] is an intriguing alternative to the evolution of the genes themselves. Promoter Structures for RNA Polymerases I and III In eukaryotes, the conserved promoter elements differ for genes transcribed by RNA polymerases I, II, and III. RNA polymerase I transcribes genes that have two GC-rich promoter sequences in the -45 to +20 region. These sequences alone are sufficient for transcription initiation to occur, but promoters with additional sequences in the region from -180 to -105 upstream of the initiation site will further enhance initiation. Genes that are transcribed by RNA polymerase III have upstream promoters or promoters that occur within the genes themselves. Answer: during dna replication", "output": [ "When can mutations occur in genes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-84e9938a774145d2b12b081fb52c206a", "input": "Passage: The chloroplast is the photosynthesis factory of the plant. Answer: chloroplast", "output": [ "What is the photosynthesis factory of the plant?" ] }, { "id": "task594-45cd6b2d23534ad4a8b3a57b71c3913a", "input": "Passage: The Hypothalamus The hypothalamus is the control center for many homeostatic mechanisms. It regulates both autonomic function and endocrine function. The roles it plays in the pupillary reflexes demonstrates the importance of this control center. The optic nerve projects primarily to the thalamus, which is the necessary relay to the occipital cortex for conscious visual perception. Another projection of the optic nerve, however, goes to the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus then uses this visual system input to drive the pupillary reflexes. If the retina is activated by high levels of light, the hypothalamus stimulates the parasympathetic response. If the optic nerve message shows that low levels of light are falling on the retina, the hypothalamus activates the sympathetic response. Output from the hypothalamus follows two main tracts, the dorsal longitudinal fasciculus and the medial forebrain bundle (Figure 15.11). Along these two tracts, the hypothalamus can influence the Eddinger–Westphal nucleus of the oculomotor complex or the lateral horns of the thoracic spinal cord. Answer: hypothalamus", "output": [ "What is considered to be the control center for homeostatic mechanisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-aac296eecb4b4de69f3121f784c60720", "input": "Passage: In a marine ecosystem, algae are the producers. Through photosynthesis, they provide glucose for the ecosystem. So, can too much algae be a bad thing? Eutrophication is an over-enrichment of chemical nutrients in a body of water. Usually these nutrients are the nitrogen and phosphorous found in fertilizers. Run-off from lawns or farms can wash fertilizers into rivers or coastal waters. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "Through this process, algae provide glucose for the ecosystem?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2b47bf64bb214a3f80eef92ac5450ca9", "input": "Passage: Lancelets are invertebrate chordates that retain all four defining chordate traits as adults. There are only about 25 species of living lancelets. Lancelets resemble tunicates in several ways. For example:. Answer: lancelets", "output": [ "What are invertebrate chordates that retain all four defining chordate traits as adults called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8007fb0c25d8443bad26ed0a7048ccb0", "input": "Passage: Sunspots occur in pairs. Each is one side of a loop of the Sun's magnetic field on the Sun's surface. Sunspots come and go on an 11-year cycle. Answer: in pairs", "output": [ "In which way do sunspots occur?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8a4a0f3b9a17415ebc0e14afd64251e5", "input": "Passage: Ribosomes Ribosomes are the cellular structures responsible for protein synthesis. When viewed through an electron microscope, free ribosomes appear as either clusters or single tiny dots floating freely in the cytoplasm. Ribosomes may be attached to either the cytoplasmic side of the plasma membrane or the cytoplasmic side of the endoplasmic reticulum (Figure 3.7). Electron microscopy has shown that ribosomes consist of large and small subunits. Ribosomes are enzyme complexes that are responsible for protein synthesis. Because protein synthesis is essential for all cells, ribosomes are found in practically every cell, although they are smaller in prokaryotic cells. They are particularly abundant in immature red blood cells for the synthesis of hemoglobin, which functions in the transport of oxygen throughout the body. Answer: ribosomes", "output": [ "What term is used to describe the cellular structures responsible for protein synthesis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b266a6e09edb4e12908785af13f051b0", "input": "Passage: The Superior Vena Cava The superior vena cava drains most of the body superior to the diaphragm (Figure 20.36). On both the left and right sides, the subclavian vein forms when the axillary vein passes through the body wall from the axillary region. It fuses with the external and internal jugular veins from the head and neck to form the brachiocephalic vein. Each vertebral vein also flows into the brachiocephalic vein close to this fusion. These veins arise from the base of the brain and the cervical region of the spinal cord, and flow largely through the intervertebral foramina in the cervical vertebrae. They are the counterparts of the vertebral arteries. Each internal thoracic vein, also known as an internal mammary vein, drains the anterior surface of the chest wall and flows into the brachiocephalic vein. The remainder of the blood supply from the thorax drains into the azygos vein. Each intercostal vein drains muscles of the thoracic wall, each esophageal vein delivers blood from the inferior portions of the esophagus, each bronchial vein drains the systemic circulation from the lungs, and several smaller veins drain the mediastinal region. Bronchial veins carry approximately 13 percent of the blood that flows into the bronchial arteries; the remainder intermingles with the pulmonary circulation and returns to the heart via the pulmonary veins. These veins flow into the azygos vein, and with the smaller hemiazygos vein (hemi- = “half”) on the left of the vertebral column, drain blood from the thoracic region. The hemiazygos vein does not drain directly into the superior vena cava but enters the brachiocephalic vein via the superior intercostal vein. The azygos vein passes through the diaphragm from the thoracic cavity on the right side of the vertebral column and begins in the lumbar region of the thoracic cavity. It flows into the superior vena cava at approximately the level of T2, making a significant contribution to the flow of blood. It combines with the two large left and right brachiocephalic veins to form the superior vena cava. Table 20.11 summarizes the veins of the thoracic region that flow into the superior vena cava. Answer: brachiocephalic", "output": [ "Each vertebral vein also flows into which vein?" ] }, { "id": "task594-51afb6296d104e739cc17318ba15d123", "input": "Passage: A compound has different properties than the substances it contains. For example, hydrogen and oxygen are gases at room temperature. But when they combine chemically, they form liquid water. Another example is table salt, or sodium chloride. It contains sodium and chlorine. Sodium is a silvery solid that reacts explosively with water, and chlorine is a poisonous gas (see Figure below ). But together, sodium and chlorine form a harmless, unreactive compound that you can safely sprinkle on food. Answer: gas", "output": [ "In what form of matter is hydrogen at room temperature?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bb5cbdc85e9a43088f09eb77f32d7bf7", "input": "Passage: What goes into the cell? Oxygen and glucose are both reactants of cellular respiration. Oxygen enters the body when an organism breathes. Glucose enters the body when an organism eats. Answer: oxygen", "output": [ "What element enters the body when an organism breathes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e0759c2ac43a4aacb2cbccbe24b8e128", "input": "Passage: Water is a versatile solvent that can dissolve many ionic and polar molecular solutes to make aqueous solutions. Answer: aqueous solutions", "output": [ "Water is a versatile solvent that can dissolve many ionic and polar molecular solutes to make what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7bb6e8634a4349b8a677a8c3cd269acb", "input": "Passage: The main concern over the use of nuclear energy is the risk of radiation. Accidents at nuclear power plants can release harmful radiation that endangers people and other living things. Even without accidents, the used fuel that is left after nuclear fission reactions is still radioactive and very dangerous. It takes thousands of years for it to decay until it no longer releases harmful radiation. Therefore, used fuel must be stored securely to protect people and other living things. You can learn more about the problem of radioactive waste at this URL: http://www. youtube. com/watch?v=OPQ97LVRuuM. Answer: radiation", "output": [ "What is the biggest risk associated with using nuclear energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1f48d475549446bc8aafea5d36a8d45c", "input": "Passage: From the human point of view, natural resources can be classified as renewable or nonrenewable. Answer: renewable and nonrenewable", "output": [ "What are the two classifications of natural resources?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d91f21e97a974348a94b8fce9d76fe8a", "input": "Passage: Fish have gills that allow them to “breathe” oxygen in water. Water enters the mouth, passes over the gills, and exits the body through a special opening. Gills absorb oxygen from the water as it passes over them. Answer: gills", "output": [ "What do fish have that allow them to “breathe” oxygen in water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-659bf482803941fca4c64ab03456aa5b", "input": "Passage: All of the populations that live in the same area make up a community . The community that includes the goldfish population also includes the populations of other fish, coral and other organisms. Answer: a community", "output": [ "The populations that live in the same area form this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-070639734ab04172a6ee482ea360ad07", "input": "Passage: An apple contains about 20 grams of carbohydrates. How much energy does it provide?. Answer: 20", "output": [ "About how many grams of carbohydrates are in a typical apple?" ] }, { "id": "task594-04b0918af55e42e6ad84ad7f28736ce7", "input": "Passage: In type 2 diabetes, the body cells cannot use insulin properly. Answer: type 2 diabetes", "output": [ "The body cells cannot use insulin properly in which type of diabetes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0dab7501bc9748f4b6bfbd5bf07b8e3d", "input": "Passage: Nuclear reactors heat water to steam to drive a turbine for generation of electricity. Answer: generation of electricity", "output": [ "What does the driving of turbines by the heating of water to steam accomplish?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4a93cfd84a3c41478d375b43e9f5b57a", "input": "Passage: Steam rises from the cooling towers of this nuclear power plant. The steam is only harmless water vapor. Unlike a power plant that burns fossil fuel, a nuclear power plant doesn’t release pollution into the air. That’s because a nuclear power plant produces power by nuclear fission, a type of nuclear reaction. Answer: steam", "output": [ "What is harmless water vapor, for a powerplant?" ] }, { "id": "task594-10193f32239946689bb488893de5f1d1", "input": "Passage: Many crops are grown where there isn’t enough rainfall for plants to thrive. For example, crops are grown in deserts of the American Southwest. How is this possible? The answer is irrigation. Irrigation is any way of providing extra water to plants. Most of the water used in agriculture is used for irrigation. Livestock also use water, but they use much less. Answer: irrigation", "output": [ "What is the name of the process for delivering water to crops?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0fc566378737466fb39459aed2f0da93", "input": "Passage: The direction of the force of gravity is in a straight line between two objects. It is always attractive. Answer: straight line", "output": [ "The direction of the force of gravity is in what direction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f95b14bf2d2e4752b302de5aecac3dd1", "input": "Passage: Of the four major macromolecular groups (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids) that are processed by digestion, carbohydrates are considered the most common source of energy to fuel the body. They take the form of either complex carbohydrates, polysaccharides like starch and glycogen, or simple sugars (monosaccharides) like glucose and fructose. Sugar catabolism breaks polysaccharides down into their individual monosaccharides. Among the monosaccharides, glucose is the most common fuel for ATP production in cells, and as such, there are a number of endocrine control mechanisms to regulate glucose concentration in the bloodstream. Excess glucose is either stored as an energy reserve in the liver and skeletal muscles as the complex polymer glycogen, or it is converted into fat (triglyceride) in adipose cells (adipocytes). Among the lipids (fats), triglycerides are most often used for energy via a metabolic process called β-oxidation. About onehalf of excess fat is stored in adipocytes that accumulate in the subcutaneous tissue under the skin, whereas the rest is stored in adipocytes in other tissues and organs. Proteins, which are polymers, can be broken down into their monomers, individual amino acids. Amino acids can be used as building blocks of new proteins or broken down further for the production of ATP. When one is chronically starving, this use of amino acids for energy production can lead to a wasting away of the body, as more and more proteins are broken down. Nucleic acids are present in most of the foods you eat. During digestion, nucleic acids including DNA and various RNAs are broken down into their constituent nucleotides. These nucleotides are readily absorbed and transported throughout the body to be used by individual cells during nucleic acid metabolism. Answer: carbohydrates", "output": [ "Starch and glycogen, as well as simple sugars like glucose and fructose, can all be categorized broadly as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-43f0081031154f2a80784438113e57d8", "input": "Passage: Two unique properties of liquids are surface tension and viscosity. Surface tension is a force that pulls particles at the exposed surface of a liquid toward other liquid particles. Surface tension explains why water forms droplets, like the water droplet that has formed on the leaky faucet pictured in the Figure below . You can learn more about surface tension at this URL: http://io9. com/5668221/an-experiment-with-soap-water-pepper-and-surface-tension . Answer: surface tension", "output": [ "What is the force that pulls particles at the exposed surface of a liquid toward other liquid particles called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-74d2621c523e43eaad9e5a2173ba1424", "input": "Passage: An ecosystem consists of all the biotic and abiotic factors in an area and their interactions. Answer: ecosystem", "output": [ "What consists of all the biotic and abiotic factors in an area and their interactions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-50fa5301aa654912bf7ef4a32c921667", "input": "Passage: Liquid water is taken up by plant roots. The plant releases water vapor into the atmosphere. This is transpiration. Answer: transpiration", "output": [ "What is it called when plant roots absorb liquid water and release water vapor into the atmosphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1b78d267e92241f7a5cf37ac4467a771", "input": "Passage: The type of radiation, which dictates how far it can penetrate into matter 2. The energy of the individual particles or photons 3. The number of particles or photons that strike a given area per unit time 4. The chemical nature of the substance exposed to the radiation The relative abilities of the various forms of ionizing radiation to penetrate biological tissues are illustrated inFigure 20.12 \"Depth of Penetration of Ionizing Radiation\". Because of its high charge and mass, α radiation interacts strongly with matter. Consequently, it does not penetrate deeply into an object, and it can be stopped by a piece of paper, clothing, or skin. In contrast, γ rays, with no charge and essentially no mass, do not interact strongly with matter and penetrate deeply into most objects, including the human body. Several inches of lead or more than 12 inches of special concrete are needed to completely stop γ rays. Because β particles are intermediate in mass and charge between α particles and γ. Answer: radiation", "output": [ "The type of what dictates how far it can penetrate into matter, such as lead or human flesh?" ] }, { "id": "task594-209358b751c44ec5833257178c4d4c36", "input": "Passage: Chemical reactions constantly occur inside living things, and many of them require catalysts to occur quickly enough to support life. Catalysts in living things are called enzymes. Answer: enzymes", "output": [ "What do you call catalysts that are found inside of living things?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e2e0b176691d4c748a7b9fb21be066c9", "input": "Passage: The plasma membrane is composed mainly of phospholipids, which consist of fatty acids and alcohol. The phospholipids in the plasma membrane are arranged in two layers, called a phospholipid bilayer . As shown in Figure below , each phospholipid molecule has a head and two tails. The head “loves” water (hydrophilic) and the tails “hate” water (hydrophobic). The water-hating tails are on the interior of the membrane, whereas the water-loving heads point outwards, toward either the cytoplasm or the fluid that surrounds the cell. Answer: phospholipids", "output": [ "What is the plasma membrane mainly composed of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1dcf8fa70a2d465ca6a47e544ed31db5", "input": "Passage: Summary A measure of the disorder of a system is its entropy (S), a state function whose value increases with an increase in the number of available microstates. Areversible process is one for which all intermediate states between extremes are equilibrium states; it can change direction at any time. In contrast, anirreversible process occurs in one direction only. The change in entropy of the system or the surroundings is the quantity of heat transferred divided by the temperature. The second law of thermodynamics states that in a reversible process, the entropy of the universe is constant, whereas in an irreversible process, such as the transfer of heat from a hot object to a cold object, the entropy of the universe increases. Answer: entropy", "output": [ "A measure of the disorder of a system is called its what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eb015bc9149546a3ae86d68eb3b2a6a2", "input": "Passage: Figure 39.9 The trachea bifurcates into the right and left bronchi in the lungs. The right lung is made of three lobes and is larger. To accommodate the heart, the left lung is smaller and has only two lobes. Answer: trachea", "output": [ "What bifurcates into the right and left bronchi in the lungs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fe3e9ed23b234569992edcd31a7e404f", "input": "Passage: Steps of Virus Infections A virus must use cell processes to replicate. The viral replication cycle can produce dramatic biochemical and structural changes in the host cell, which may cause cell damage. These changes, called cytopathic (causing cell damage) effects, can change cell functions or even destroy the cell. Some infected cells, such as those infected by the common cold virus known as rhinovirus, die through lysis (bursting) or apoptosis (programmed cell death or “cell suicide”), releasing all progeny virions at once. The symptoms of viral diseases result from the immune response to the virus, which attempts to control and eliminate the virus from the body, and from cell damage caused by the virus. Many animal viruses, such as HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), leave the infected cells of the immune system by a process known as budding, where virions leave the cell individually. During the budding process, the cell does not undergo lysis and is not immediately killed. However, the damage to the cells that the virus infects may make it impossible for the cells to function normally, even though the cells remain alive for a period of time. Most productive viral infections follow similar steps in the virus replication cycle: attachment, penetration, uncoating, replication, assembly, and release (Figure 21.8). Attachment A virus attaches to a specific receptor site on the host cell membrane through attachment proteins in the capsid or via glycoproteins embedded in the viral envelope. The specificity of this interaction determines the host—and the cells within the host—that can be infected by a particular virus. This can be illustrated by thinking of several keys and several locks, where each key will fit only one specific lock. Answer: immune", "output": [ "Symptoms of viral diseases result from what kind of response to a virus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1a8cae8a865547d994548de31bfd31e4", "input": "Passage: Figure 11.32 Muscles of the Lower Leg The muscles of the anterior compartment of the lower leg are generally responsible for dorsiflexion, and the muscles of the posterior compartment of the lower leg are generally responsible for plantar flexion. The lateral and medial muscles in both compartments invert, evert, and rotate the foot. Answer: plantar flexion", "output": [ "The muscles of the anterior compartment of the lower leg are generally responsible for dorsiflexion, and the muscles of the posterior compartment of the lower leg are generally responsible for this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-12619e60a76842c69a659a823170bb4b", "input": "Passage: The mesosphere has a very low density of gas molecules. Answer: very low density", "output": [ "What is the concentration of gas molecules in the mesosphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d0f3eb8fad2848519d26d1bf11410898", "input": "Passage: The structure of a neuron allows it to rapidly transmit nerve impulses to other cells. Answer: cells", "output": [ "The structure of a neuron allows it to rapidly transmit nerve impulses to other what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-400b4318b5864b27b1ecc82e496323ed", "input": "Passage: The formula unit of sodium chloride dissociates into one sodium ion and one chloride ion. The calcium nitrate formula unit dissociates into one calcium ion and two nitrate ions. This is because of the 2+ charge of the calcium ion. Two nitrate ions, each with a 1− charge are required to make the equation balance electrically. The ammonium phosphate formula unit dissociates into three ammonium ions and one phosphate ion. Note that the polyatomic ions themselves do not dissociate further, but remain intact. Answer: chloride ion", "output": [ "The formula unit of sodium chloride dissociates into one sodium ion and one?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ece92564c3c549e5b6f9994ef3793c0d", "input": "Passage: Secondary pollutants form from primary pollutants. Many occur as part of photochemical smog . This type of smog is seen as a brown haze in the air. Photochemical smog forms when certain pollutants have a chemical reaction in the presence of sunlight. Photochemical smog consists mainly of ozone (O 3 ). Ozone near the ground is a pollutant ( Figure below ). This ozone is harmful to humans and other living things. However, ozone in the stratosphere protects Earth from the Sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation. Answer: ozone", "output": [ "Photochemical smog consists mainly of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dec1c369c6c14c18b8e34637998d8758", "input": "Passage: Both conduction and convection transfer energy through matter. Radiation is the only way of transferring energy that doesn’t require matter. Radiation is the transfer of energy by waves that can travel through empty space. When the waves reach objects, they transfer energy to the objects, causing them to warm up. This is how the sun’s energy reaches Earth and heats its surface (see Figure below ). Radiation is also how thermal energy from a campfire warms people nearby. You might be surprised to learn that all objects radiate thermal energy, including people. In fact, when a room is full of people, it may feel noticeably warmer because of all the thermal energy the people radiate! To learn more about thermal radiation, watch \"Radiation\" at the URL below. Answer: radiation", "output": [ "What is the only way of transferring energy that doesn't require matter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-88549b3bcb4e4b15b208973511168ff9", "input": "Passage: The enthalpy of the reactants is greater than the enthalpy of the products. During the course of the reaction, heat is released to the surroundings. Answer: heat", "output": [ "What is released during an enthalpy reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e695e4631f854df5b4fecdd6876a4a1d", "input": "Passage: A cell wall is a rigid layer that is found outside the cell membrane and surrounds the cell. The cell wall contains not only cellulose and protein, but other polysaccharides as well. In fact, two other classes of polysaccharides, hemicelluloses and pectic polysaccharides, can comprise 30% of the dry mass of the cell wall. The cell wall provides structural support and protection. Pores in the cell wall allow water and nutrients to move into and out of the cell. The cell wall also prevents the plant cell from bursting when water enters the cell. Answer: cell wall", "output": [ "What is the rigid layer that is found outside the cell membrane and surrounds the cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-731f3372a7b749cfb88a3e8c4a7865ca", "input": "Passage: Discussion The intensity goes up by a factor of 4 when the amplitude doubles. This answer is a little disquieting. The two individual waves each have intensities of 1.00 W/m 2 , yet their sum has an intensity of 4.00 W/m 2 , which may appear to violate conservation of energy. This violation, of course, cannot happen. What does happen is intriguing. The area over which the intensity is 4.00 W/m 2 is much less than the area covered by the two waves before they interfered. There are other areas where the intensity is zero. The addition of waves is not as simple as our first look in Superposition and Interference suggested. We actually get a pattern of both constructive interference and destructive interference whenever two waves are added. For example, if we have two stereo speakers putting out 1.00 W/m 2 each, there will be places in the room where the intensity is 4.00 W/m 2 , other places where the intensity is zero, and others in between. Figure 16.45 shows what this interference might look like. We will pursue interference patterns elsewhere in this text. Answer: destructive", "output": [ "Two types of interference found in waves are constructive and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dee96f0fc18b421aac20363fcccc5439", "input": "Passage: The reactants are two electrically neutral elements; they have the same number of electrons as protons. The product, however, is ionic; it is composed of Mg2+ and Cl−ions. Somehow, the individual Mg atoms lose two electrons to make the Mg2+ ion, while the Cl atoms gain an electron to become Cl− ions. This reaction involves thetransfer of electrons between atoms. The process of losing and gaining electrons occurs simultaneously. However, mentally we can separate the two processes. Oxidation is defined as the loss of one or more electrons by an atom. Reduction is defined as the gain of one or more electrons by an atom. So oxidation and reduction always occur together; it is only mentally that we can separate them. Chemical reactions that involve the transfer of electrons are called oxidation-reduction (or redox) reactions. Redox reactions require that we keep track of the electrons assigned to each atom in a chemical reaction. How do we do that? We use oxidation numbers to keep track of electrons in atoms. Oxidation numbers are assigned to atoms based on four rules. Oxidation numbers are not necessarily equal to the charge on the atom (although sometimes they can be); we must keep the concepts of charge and oxidation numbers separate. The rules for assigning oxidation numbers to atoms are as follows: 1. Answer: oxidation", "output": [ "What is the term for the loss of one or more electrons by an atom?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f93350dd3cc7408f94a30b782a4bb654", "input": "Passage: Long bones ossify and get longer as they grow and develop. These bones grow from their ends, known as the epiphysis, and the presence of a growth plate, or epiphyseal line, signifies that the bone is still growing. Answer: epiphysis", "output": [ "What are the ends of long bones called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-173cc2e6affd440881456547ada73767", "input": "Passage: Figure 14.3 The Tongue The tongue is covered with small bumps, called papillae, which contain taste buds that are sensitive to chemicals in ingested food or drink. Different types of papillae are found in different regions of the tongue. The taste buds contain specialized gustatory receptor cells that respond to chemical stimuli dissolved in the saliva. These receptor cells activate sensory neurons that are part of the facial and glossopharyngeal nerves. LM × 1600. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012). Answer: papillae", "output": [ "What is the name of the small bumps that contain taste buds and covers the tongue?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d50a53e3bf454a75849f9785afa5a340", "input": "Passage: The age-sex structure of a population is the number of individuals of each sex and age in the population. Age-sex structure influences population growth. It is represented by a population pyramid. The number of survivors at each age is plotted on a survivorship curve. Answer: population pyramid", "output": [ "What helps represent age-sex structure of the population?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a4d358a96fc3424097ac052d4bde01e0", "input": "Passage: A molecular formula of the compound carbon dioxide is CO 2 . One molecule of carbon dioxide consists of 1 atom of carbon and 2 atoms of oxygen. We can calculate the mass of one molecule of carbon dioxide by adding together the masses of 1 atom of carbon and 2 atoms of oxygen. Answer: oxygen", "output": [ "One molecule of carbon dioxide consists of 1 atom of carbon and 2 atoms of what element?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6644900532ce485ca6b87f6176a67883", "input": "Passage: Sometimes muscles and tendons get injured when a person starts doing an activity before they have warmed up properly. A warm up is a slow increase in the intensity of a physical activity that prepares muscles for an activity. Warming up increases the blood flow to the muscles and increases the heart rate. Warmed-up muscles and tendons are less likely to get injured. For example, before running or playing soccer, a person might jog slowly to warm muscles and increase their heart rate. Even elite athletes need to warm up ( Figure below ). Answer: increases it", "output": [ "Warming up your body before a workout does what to the blood flow?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fdb8a628e8a54357a5a67b2872cc3dcd", "input": "Passage: Chromosomes are coiled structures made of DNA and proteins. They form after DNA replicates and are the form in which the genetic material goes through cell division. Chromosomes contain genes, which code for proteins. Answer: chromosomes", "output": [ "What do we call coiled structures made of dna and proteins?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0d83fc7b3a5f4bceb53dde4eaaf8f212", "input": "Passage: When you pluck a guitar string, the resulting sound has a steady tone and lasts a long time. Each successive vibration of the string takes the same time as the previous one. We define periodic motion to be a motion that repeats itself at regular time intervals, such as exhibited by the guitar string or by an object on a spring moving up and down. The time to complete one oscillation remains constant and is called the period T . Its units are usually seconds, but may be any convenient unit of time. The word period refers to the time for some event whether repetitive or not; but we shall be primarily interested in periodic motion, which is by definition repetitive. A concept closely related to period is the frequency of an event. For example, if you get a paycheck twice a month, the frequency of payment is two per month and the period between checks is half a month. Frequency f is defined to be the number of events per unit time. For periodic motion, frequency is the number of oscillations per unit time. The relationship between frequency and period is. Answer: periodic motion", "output": [ "What term describes motion that repeats itself at regular time intervals, such as exhibited by a vibrating guitar string?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bd25a86f6a2d4b1fbb8709ad99561d0d", "input": "Passage: Cells, like these nerve cells, do not work in isolation. To send orders from your brain to your legs, for example, signals pass through many nerve cells. These cells work together to perform a similar function. Just as muscle cells work together, bone cells and many other cells do as well. A group of similar cells that work together is known as a tissue. Answer: nerve cells", "output": [ "When orders are sent from your brain to your legs, these signals pass through what type of cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-72be825afe7146d69695433a0587da13", "input": "Passage: A: Any element in group 1 has just one valence electron. Examples include hydrogen (H), lithium (Li), and sodium (Na). Any element in group 18 has eight valence electrons (except for helium, which has a total of just two electrons). Examples include neon (Ne), argon (Ar), and krypton (Kr). Oxygen, like all the other elements in group 16, has six valence electrons. Answer: one", "output": [ "How many valence electrons does a sodium atom have ?" ] }, { "id": "task594-db762c48b32d44e8af0d6db1bc91ca01", "input": "Passage: Some reactions need extra help to occur quickly. They need another substance, called a catalyst. A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction but is not changed or used up in the reaction. The catalyst can go on to catalyze many more reactions. Answer: a catalyst", "output": [ "What is the term for a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction but is not changed or used up in the reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-51068861725e48399ae26ab590a05a48", "input": "Passage: Skeletal Muscle Fiber Structure Each skeletal muscle fiber is a skeletal muscle cell. These cells are incredibly large, with diameters of up to 100 µm and lengths of up to 30 cm. The plasma membrane of a skeletal muscle fiber is called the sarcolemma. The sarcolemma is the site of action potential conduction, which triggers muscle contraction. Within each muscle fiber are myofibrils—long cylindrical structures that lie parallel to the muscle fiber. Myofibrils run the entire length of the muscle fiber, and because they are only approximately 1.2 µm in diameter, hundreds to thousands can be found inside one muscle fiber. They attach to the sarcolemma at their ends, so that as myofibrils shorten, the entire muscle cell contracts (Figure 38.34). Answer: sarcolemma", "output": [ "The plasma membrane of a skeletal muscle fiber is called the what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-52ce2d70194a4cee8c9786b5dde53762", "input": "Passage: As the example implies, gravitational force is completely negligible on a small scale, where the interactions of individual charged particles are important. On a large scale, such as between the Earth and a person, the reverse is true. Most objects are nearly electrically neutral, and so attractive and repulsive Coulomb forces nearly cancel. Gravitational force on a large scale dominates interactions between large objects because it is always attractive, while Coulomb forces tend to cancel. Answer: attractive", "output": [ "Gravitational force on a large scale dominates interactions between large objects because it is always what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8d51891000f2426493301ed835239cde", "input": "Passage: Fluid Balance: Edema Edema is the accumulation of excess water in the tissues. It is most common in the soft tissues of the extremities. The physiological causes of edema include water leakage from blood capillaries. Edema is almost always caused by an underlying medical condition, by the use of certain therapeutic drugs, by pregnancy, by localized injury, or by an allergic reaction. In the limbs, the symptoms of edema include swelling of the subcutaneous tissues, an increase in the normal size of the limb, and stretched, tight skin. One quick way to check for subcutaneous edema localized in a limb is to press a finger into the suspected area. Edema is likely if the depression persists for several seconds after the finger is removed (which is called “pitting”). Pulmonary edema is excess fluid in the air sacs of the lungs, a common symptom of heart and/or kidney failure. People with pulmonary edema likely will experience difficulty breathing, and they may experience chest pain. Pulmonary edema can be life threatening, because it compromises gas exchange in the lungs, and anyone having symptoms should immediately seek medical care. In pulmonary edema resulting from heart failure, excessive leakage of water occurs because fluids get “backed up” in the pulmonary capillaries of the lungs, when the left ventricle of the heart is unable to pump sufficient blood into the systemic circulation. Because the left side of the heart is unable to pump out its normal volume of blood, the blood in the pulmonary circulation gets “backed up,” starting with the left atrium, then into the pulmonary veins, and then into pulmonary capillaries. The resulting increased hydrostatic pressure within pulmonary capillaries, as blood is still coming in from the pulmonary arteries, causes fluid to be pushed out of them and into lung tissues. Other causes of edema include damage to blood vessels and/or lymphatic vessels, or a decrease in osmotic pressure in chronic and severe liver disease, where the liver is unable to manufacture plasma proteins (Figure 26.9). A decrease in the normal levels of plasma proteins results in a decrease of colloid osmotic pressure (which counterbalances the hydrostatic pressure) in the capillaries. This process causes loss of water from the blood to the surrounding tissues, resulting in edema. Answer: edema", "output": [ "What do you call accumulation of excess water in the tissues?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f07ec2997d6a4dca852ab8b4805a970b", "input": "Passage: Unlike males, females are not influenced by the male sex hormone testosterone during embryonic development. This is because they lack a Y chromosome. As a result, females do not develop male reproductive organs. By the third month of fetal development, most of the internal female organs have formed. Immature eggs also form in the ovary before birth. Whereas a mature male produces sperm throughout his life, a female produces all the eggs she will ever make before birth. Answer: y chromosome", "output": [ "Females are not influenced by the male sex hormone testosterone during embryonic development because they lack what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-189bf4cc11b0409f927edad154a70f00", "input": "Passage: To determine the overall voltage of a particular voltaic cell, simply combine the voltages of the oxidation and reduction half reactions. Even if you need to take a multiple of a half reaction for the electrons to cancel, do not take the multiple of the E1/2. Use the values directly as is from - ball-ch14_s03_t01. Spontaneous redox reactions have positive overall voltages. If the voltage of the reaction as written is negative, it is not spontaneous in that direction. Rather, the reverse reaction is the spontaneous redox reaction. Answer: voltage", "output": [ "Combining the voltages of the oxidation and reduction half reactions helps to determine what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e2b6c895e83b42cfafddfe1ad2fea4d3", "input": "Passage: Chromoplasts are plastids that contain other pigments. These other pigments give flowers and fruits their colors. Answer: chromoplasts", "output": [ "What are plastids that contain other pigments?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fcf740fda2e24081b8ba6375e89aec4a", "input": "Passage: An emulsion is a colloidal dispersion of a liquid in either a liquid or a solid. Answer: emulsion", "output": [ "What term describes a colloidal dispersion of a liquid in either a liquid or a solid?" ] }, { "id": "task594-128e5223f5ac49a795a4d41e4675ada6", "input": "Passage: Blood vessels are long, tube-like organs that form a complex network throughout the body. They transport blood to all the body’s cells. There are three types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries. Transfer of substances between the blood and cells takes place across the thin walls of capillaries. Answer: capillaries", "output": [ "Arteries and veins are two of the three types of blood vessels, what is the third?" ] }, { "id": "task594-24a818e213e64d00af7c97f0e0e29173", "input": "Passage: Arteries are muscular blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. They have thick walls that can withstand the pressure of blood being pumped by the heart. Arteries generally carry oxygen-rich blood. The largest artery is the aorta, which receives blood directly from the heart. Answer: arteries", "output": [ "What type of blood vessels carry blood away from the heart?" ] }, { "id": "task594-913708edf9dc4cdebad72d536fc3c397", "input": "Passage: Wings and feathers are two adaptations for flight that evolved in birds. Both are clearly displayed in the flying gull in Figure below . Wings evolved from the front limbs of a four-legged ancestor. The wings are controlled by large flight muscles in the chest. Feathers also help birds fly. They provide air resistance and lift. In addition, they provide insulation and serve other roles. Answer: evolution", "output": [ "Birds adapted wings and weathers for flight during what process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a72f7f299e1546d4aad5554f441ae184", "input": "Passage: Reactants and products are equally abundant at equilibrium. Answer: products", "output": [ "At equilibrium reactants and what are equally abundant?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dd825c9e04b5491c831b9c72e231126f", "input": "Passage: Skepticism is an attitude of doubt about the truthfulness of claims that lack empirical evidence. Scientific skepticism , also referred to as skeptical inquiry, questions claims based on their scientific verifiability rather than simply accepting claims based on faith or anecdotes. Scientific skepticism uses critical thinking to analyze such claims and opposes claims which lack scientific evidence. Answer: skepticism", "output": [ "What is an attitude of doubt about the truthfulness of claims that lack empirical evidence?" ] }, { "id": "task594-53dc2465e78e438c8f4101dfbce45222", "input": "Passage: Fish were the first vertebrates to evolve. The earliest fish lived in the water, and modern fish are still aquatic. Answer: fish", "output": [ "What were the first vertebrates to evolve?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7c43b19914c94e51a08ad0bc3ffd6b55", "input": "Passage: Testes The testes (singular = testis) are the male gonads—that is, the male reproductive organs. They produce both sperm and androgens, such as testosterone, and are active throughout the reproductive lifespan of the male. Paired ovals, the testes are each approximately 4 to 5 cm in length and are housed within the scrotum (see Figure 27.3). They are surrounded by two distinct layers of protective connective tissue (Figure 27.4). The outer tunica vaginalis is a serous membrane that has both a parietal and a thin visceral layer. Beneath the tunica vaginalis is the tunica albuginea, a tough, white, dense connective tissue layer covering the testis itself. Not only does the tunica albuginea cover the outside of the testis, it also invaginates to form septa that divide the testis into 300 to 400 structures called lobules. Within the lobules, sperm develop in structures called seminiferous tubules. During the seventh month of the developmental period of a male fetus, each testis moves through the abdominal musculature to descend into the scrotal cavity. This is called the “descent of the testis. ” Cryptorchidism is the clinical term used when one or both of the testes fail to descend into the scrotum prior to birth. Answer: testes", "output": [ "What is the name for the male reproductive organs or gonads?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e6d7b5d791b44cce9b6e7bdde8b9758c", "input": "Passage: Atoms form covalent bonds by sharing valence electrons. The valence electrons are located in atomic orbitals. However, when a bond forms, the structure of the atomic orbitals changes. In this lesson, we will see how the atomic orbitals interact to share valence electrons and form different types of covalent bonds. Answer: covalent bonds", "output": [ "What do atoms form by sharing valence electrons?" ] }, { "id": "task594-72b9c179a39a4d5aa975f3be081f5d16", "input": "Passage: 6. The genetic code is universal, unambiguous, and redundant. Explain what this means and why it is important. Answer: redundant", "output": [ "The genetic code is universal, unambiguous, and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-94abc258eacf409d86de300b4c1c1b1a", "input": "Passage: Weathered material washes off steep slopes and so does not stay in place to form soil. Soil forms where land areas are flat or gently undulating. Answer: flat", "output": [ "Soil forms where land areas are what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c42da92215ce4896b646e06e2625b018", "input": "Passage: There are no forces of attraction or repulsion between gas particles . Attractive forces are responsible for particles of a real gas condensing together to form a liquid. It is assumed that the particles of an ideal gas have no such attractive forces. The motion of each particle is completely independent of the motion of all other particles. Answer: superscripts", "output": [ "Which measure indicates the number of electrons in a given sublevel?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3fe70585097746809676c516a00f073a", "input": "Passage: Carbon dioxide is an example of a material that easily undergoes sublimation. Answer: sublimation", "output": [ "Carbon dioxide is an example of a material that easily undergoes what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-311bdcf7e2074306a9dcad3f4431080a", "input": "Passage: View an animation (http://openstaxcollege. org/l/hexokinase2) of induced fit. When an enzyme binds its substrate, an enzyme-substrate complex is formed. This complex lowers the activation energy of the reaction and promotes its rapid progression in one of multiple possible ways. On a basic level, enzymes promote chemical reactions that involve more than one substrate by bringing the substrates together in an optimal orientation for reaction. Another way in which enzymes promote the reaction of their substrates is by creating an optimal environment within the active site for the reaction to occur. The chemical properties that emerge from the particular arrangement of amino acid R groups within an active site create the perfect environment for an enzyme’s specific substrates to react. The enzyme-substrate complex can also lower activation energy by compromising the bond structure so that it is easier to break. Finally, enzymes can also lower activation energies by taking part in the chemical reaction itself. In these cases, it is important to remember that the enzyme will always return to its original state by the completion of the reaction. One of the hallmark properties of enzymes is that they remain ultimately unchanged by the reactions they catalyze. After an enzyme has catalyzed a reaction, it releases its product(s) and can catalyze a new reaction. Answer: enzyme - substrate complex", "output": [ "What is formed when an enzyme binds its substrate?" ] }, { "id": "task594-631c0e5a840848c7bf9c5efd4be0501a", "input": "Passage: a deep hole in the seafloor where subduction takes place; trenches are the deepest places on Earth. Answer: trenches", "output": [ "What is the term for the deepest places on earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a1507100e5794726a6df109780c83e08", "input": "Passage: Some mammals are carnivores. Carnivores are heterotrophs that eat only or mainly animal foods. Depending on their species, carnivorous mammals may eat other mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, mollusks, worms, and/or insects. Mammals that are carnivores include anteaters, whales, hyenas, wolves, and seals. The bat in Figure below is also a carnivorous mammal. It eats insects. Carnivores that eat mainly insects are classified as insectivores. Answer: carnivore", "output": [ "What is the name for a heterotroph that eats only or mainly animal foods?" ] }, { "id": "task594-755db5b805a246958bce6a7ee181004a", "input": "Passage: Water is a polar compound, so its molecules are attracted to each other and form hydrogen bonds. Answer: hydrogen", "output": [ "Water is a polar compound, so its molecules are attracted to each other and form what kind of bonds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b523a13fe12f4a4983d77140349147ab", "input": "Passage: Fossil fuels include coal, oil, and natural gas. Fossil fuels are the greatest energy source for modern society. Millions of years ago, plants used energy from the Sun to form carbon compounds. These compounds were later transformed into coal, oil, or natural gas. Fossil fuels take millions of years to form. For this reason, they are non-renewable. We will use most fossil fuels up in a matter of decades. Burning fossil fuels releases large amounts of pollution. The most important of these may be the greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide. Answer: carbon compounds", "output": [ "Millions of years ago, plants used energy from the sun to form what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-00ce1924906741458e4f36d839f4a575", "input": "Passage: Work is directly related to both the force applied to an object and the distance the object moves. It can be represented by the equation: Work = Force × Distance. Answer: work", "output": [ "Force times distance is the equation for what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2e5d3f364596459d957f5794f87c2922", "input": "Passage: Evolution that occurs over a long period of time is called macroevolution . It might take place over millions of years. This scale of evolution occurs above the level of the species. Fossils provide evidence for evolution at this scale. The evolution of the horse family, shown in Figure below , is an example of macroevolution. Answer: macroevolution", "output": [ "What is evolution that occurs over a long period of time called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-601c163e6c6547578b0498a5e3df72c8", "input": "Passage: All that magma and gas pushing upwards can make the volcano’s slope begin to swell. Ground swelling may change the shape of a volcano or cause rock falls and landslides. Most of the time, the ground tilting is not visible. Scientists detect it by using tiltmeters, which are instruments that measure the angle of the slope of a volcano. Answer: tiltmeters", "output": [ "Which instruments are used to measure the angle of the slope of a volcano?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c9544c75f97b4b58b39b9c0a98b51014", "input": "Passage: A mudslide is the sudden flow of mud down a slope because of gravity. Mudslides occur where the soil is mostly clay. Like landslides, mudslides usually occur when the soil is wet. Wet clay forms very slippery mud that slides easily. You can see an example of a mudslide in Figure below . Answer: mudslide", "output": [ "What do you call the sudden flow of mud down a slope because of gravity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-166c07b8dc7e42df9a2a27c413d95a90", "input": "Passage: Different forms, or allotropes, of carbon are diamond, graphite, and fullerenes. Answer: fullerenes", "output": [ "Different forms, or allotropes, of carbon are diamond, graphite, and what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3f930e8c76c94cceb332b63f65d5165f", "input": "Passage: Under what conditions then, do gases behave least ideally? When a gas is put under high pressure, its molecules are forced closer together as the empty space between the particles is diminished. A decrease in the empty space means that the assumption that the volume of the particles themselves is negligible is less valid. When a gas is cooled, the decrease in kinetic energy of the particles causes them to slow down. If the particles are moving at slower speeds, the attractive forces between them are more prominent. Another way to view it is that continued cooling the gas will eventually turn it into a liquid and a liquid is certainly not an ideal gas anymore (see liquid nitrogen in the Figure below ). In summary, a real gas deviates most from an ideal gas at low temperatures and high pressures. Gases are most ideal at high temperature and low pressure. Answer: low", "output": [ "Gases are most ideal at high temperature and what pressure?" ] }, { "id": "task594-575e21b7ece741eb891b94b06126e7c9", "input": "Passage: The contractile vacuole is the star-like structure within the paramecia. Answer: the contractile vacuole", "output": [ "What is the star-like structure inside the paramecia?" ] }, { "id": "task594-445fa7895c664449a1dfffad2b859224", "input": "Passage: So far we have looked at ionic compounds, in which atoms of various elements gain or lose electrons to produce ions. The resulting ions are held together by strong attractions between oppositely charged particles. However, this only works for bonds between atoms in which one partner (the metal) has a tendency to lose electrons, and the other (the nonmetal) has a tendency to gain them. Then how might two nonmetals, such as nitrogen and oxygen, form chemical bonds? Neither is likely to lose electrons and become a cation, but both require more electrons to reach a noble gas configuration. Instead of a complete transfer of electrons, these atoms can bond by sharing electrons, producing what is called a covalent bond . When a group of atoms are joined together by covalent bonds, the resulting structure is called a molecule . Molecules are generally much smaller than the extended three-dimensional networks of ions that are seen in ionic compounds. We will look much more at covalent bonding and molecules in future chapters, but for now, we will focus on the ways in which molecules are named. Answer: produce ions", "output": [ "Ionic compound atoms of various elements gain or lose electrons to?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3850f786499940a491d0bbf2a773a4f0", "input": "Passage: The pistil is the female reproductive structure of a flower. It consists of a stigma, style, and ovary. The stigma is raised and sticky to help it catch pollen. The style supports the stigma and connects it to the ovary, which contains the egg. Petals attract pollinators to the flower. Petals are often brightly colored so pollinators will notice them. Answer: the pistil", "output": [ "What is the female reproductive structure of a flower called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dd074be151f44a7385ca6c32d6baa7cc", "input": "Passage: A worldwide vaccination campaign by the World Health Organization led to the eradication of smallpox in 1979. Smallpox is a contagious disease unique to humans and is caused by two Variola viruses. The eradication of smallpox was possible because humans are the only carriers of the virus. To this day, smallpox is the only human infectious disease to have been completely eradicated from nature. Scientists are hoping to eradicate polio next. Answer: smallpox", "output": [ "What disease unique to humans and is caused by two variola viruses?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d45d62b97c404ee0b995bbbe7f1f11f4", "input": "Passage: That is the main difference between sexual and asexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction just means combining genetic material from two parents. Asexual reproduction produces offspring genetically identical to the one parent. Answer: asexual", "output": [ "Which reproduction produces offspring genetically identical to the one parent?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e927a3fe5a1e489695b292a7be1817a1", "input": "Passage: As pictured below ( Figure below ), some grazing animals, especially sheep and goats, eat grass right down to the roots. They may even pull the grass entirely out of the ground. Grazing animals can kill the grass. They may thin it out so much that it offers little protection to the soil. If animals are kept in the same place too long, the soil may become completely bare. The bare soil is easily eroded by wind and water. Answer: erosion", "output": [ "By pulling out grass by its roots and over-grazing, livestock contribute to what negative process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d94965589ec244a2a2f09a976db44d27", "input": "Passage: Like Earth, the Moon has a distinct crust, mantle, and core. The crust is composed of igneous rock. This rock is rich in the elements oxygen, silicon, magnesium, and aluminum. On the near side, the Moon’s crust is about 60 kilometers thick. On the far side, the crust is about 100 kilometers thick. The mantle is made of rock like Earth’s mantle. The Moon has a small metallic core, perhaps 600 to 800 kilometers in diameter. The composition of the core is probably mostly iron with some sulfur and nickel. We learned this both from the rock samples gathered by astronauts and from spacecraft sent to the Moon. Answer: core", "output": [ "Like earth, the moon has a distinct crust, mantle, and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2fc3f1c5c6e84e36b822c898ff5c1914", "input": "Passage: Radiotherapy is effective against cancer because cancer cells reproduce rapidly and, consequently, are more sensitive to radiation. The central problem in radiotherapy is to make the dose for cancer cells as high as possible while limiting the dose for normal cells. The ratio of abnormal cells killed to normal cells killed is called the therapeutic ratio, and all radiotherapy techniques are designed to enhance this ratio. Radiation can be concentrated in cancerous tissue by a number of techniques. One of the most prevalent techniques for well-defined tumors is a geometric technique shown in Figure 32.13. A narrow beam of radiation is passed through the patient from a variety of directions with a common crossing point in the tumor. This concentrates the dose in the tumor while spreading it out over a large volume of normal tissue. The external radiation can be x-rays, 60 Co γ rays, or ionizing-particle beams produced by accelerators. Accelerator-produced beams of neutrons, π-mesons , and heavy ions such as nitrogen nuclei have been employed, and these can be quite effective. These particles have larger QFs or RBEs and sometimes can be better localized, producing a greater therapeutic ratio. But accelerator radiotherapy is much more expensive and less frequently employed than other forms. Answer: radiation", "output": [ "Radiotherapy is effective against cancer because cancer cells reproduce rapidly and, consequently, are more sensitive to this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a583ce4695b04d6b8de8104f7d780136", "input": "Passage: Hemoglobin is a compound in the class of compounds called proteins. Proteins are one of four classes of biochemical compounds, which are compounds in living things. (The other three classes are carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids. ) Proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur. Protein molecules consist of one or more chains of small molecules called amino acids. Answer: four", "output": [ "How many classes of biochemical compounds are there?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f7bc90eea6634835a7fa0c46ed03bf74", "input": "Passage: Amino acids join together to form a molecule called a dipeptide. The –OH from the carboxyl group of one amino acid combines with a hydrogen atom from the amino group of the other amino acid to produce water (blue). Answer: amino acids", "output": [ "What is the molecule, dipeptide formed together by?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1e11bbaf5d88471ab01a14d001a489ba", "input": "Passage: Acidophiles are organisms that \"love\" acids. They live in very acidic environments, such as acid mine drainage. They are also found near vents of volcanoes. The most acidophilic archaeans can thrive at negative pH values. No other organisms can survive in such acidic conditions. Answer: acidophiles", "output": [ "Organisms that \"love\" acids are known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-597f6bf07011452ba560553a2da9fe29", "input": "Passage: Acetyl-CoA is formed from the breakdown of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. It is used in many biochemical pathways. Answer: proteins", "output": [ "Acetyl-coa is formed from the breakdown of carbohydrates, lipids, and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9a9304a3c40646fea05250c5a9612f7c", "input": "Passage: Plants are multicellular eukaryotes that are placed in the Plant Kingdom . Plant cells have cell walls that are made of cellulose. Plant cells also have chloroplasts. They allow plants to make food by photosynthesis. In addition, plants have specialized reproductive organs that produce gametes. Male reproductive organs produce sperm. Female reproductive organs produce eggs. Male and female reproductive organs may be on the same plant or on different plants. Answer: cellulose", "output": [ "Plant cells have cell walls that are made of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c16a171b3cc34ce09c2a7b2398745bb6", "input": "Passage: Conduct experiments or make observations to test the hypothesis. Answer: conduct experiments", "output": [ "How do you test a hypothesis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d9a4870c1f6c4ba1aaf932865b2758d7", "input": "Passage: Magnetic poles always occur in pairs of north and south—it is not possible to isolate north and south poles. All magnetism is created by electric current. Ferromagnetic materials, such as iron, are those that exhibit strong magnetic effects. The atoms in ferromagnetic materials act like small magnets (due to currents within the atoms) and can be aligned, usually in millimeter-sized regions called domains. • Domains can grow and align on a larger scale, producing permanent magnets. Such a material is magnetized, or induced to be magnetic. • Above a material’s Curie temperature, thermal agitation destroys the alignment of atoms, and ferromagnetism disappears. • Electromagnets employ electric currents to make magnetic fields, often aided by induced fields in ferromagnetic materials. Answer: ferromagnetic", "output": [ "Materials, such as iron, that exhibit strong magnetic effects are labeled what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-209bd1a4847b4e5cbd664d8d42e50f5a", "input": "Passage: Vitamins and minerals do not provide energy, but they are still essential for good health. The needed amounts generally can be met with balanced eating. However, people who do not eat enough of the right foods may need vitamin or mineral supplements. Answer: energy", "output": [ "Although vitamins and minerals do not provide what, they are still essential for good health?" ] }, { "id": "task594-379c535388b5462fbcca09696145f521", "input": "Passage: Shape and Structure of Erythrocytes As an erythrocyte matures in the red bone marrow, it extrudes its nucleus and most of its other organelles. During the first day or two that it is in the circulation, an immature erythrocyte, known as a reticulocyte, will still typically contain remnants of organelles. Reticulocytes should comprise approximately 1–2 percent of the erythrocyte count and provide a rough estimate of the rate of RBC production, with abnormally low or high rates indicating deviations in the production of these cells. These remnants, primarily of networks (reticulum) of ribosomes, are quickly shed, however, and mature, circulating erythrocytes have few internal cellular structural components. Lacking mitochondria, for example, they rely on anaerobic respiration. This means that they do not utilize any of the oxygen they are transporting, so they can deliver it all to the tissues. They also lack endoplasmic reticula and do not synthesize proteins. Erythrocytes do, however, contain some structural proteins that help the blood cells maintain their unique structure and enable them to change their shape to squeeze through capillaries. This includes the protein spectrin, a cytoskeletal protein element. Erythrocytes are biconcave disks; that is, they are plump at their periphery and very thin in the center (Figure 18.6). Since they lack most organelles, there is more interior space for the presence of the hemoglobin molecules that, as you will see shortly, transport gases. The biconcave shape also provides a greater surface area across which gas exchange can occur, relative to its volume; a sphere of a similar diameter would have a lower surface area-to-volume ratio. In the capillaries, the oxygen carried by the erythrocytes can diffuse into the plasma and then through the capillary walls to reach the cells, whereas some of the carbon dioxide produced by the cells as a waste product diffuses into the capillaries to be picked up by the erythrocytes. Capillary beds are extremely narrow, slowing the passage of the erythrocytes and providing an extended opportunity for gas exchange to occur. However, the space within capillaries can be so minute that, despite their own small size, erythrocytes may have to fold in on themselves if they are to make their way through. Fortunately, their structural proteins like spectrin are flexible, allowing them to bend over themselves to a surprising degree, then spring back again when they enter a wider vessel. In wider vessels, erythrocytes may stack up much like a roll of coins, forming a rouleaux, from the French word for “roll. Answer: organelles", "output": [ "As an erythrocyte matures in the red bone marrow, it extrudes its nucleus and most of its other what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9856ef6743414ad4be12cc0a354e9ed7", "input": "Passage: Carbohydrates include sugars, starches, and fiber. Sugars and starches are used by the body for energy. One gram of carbohydrates provides 4 Calories of energy. Fiber, which is found in plant foods, cannot be digested but is needed for good health. Answer: four", "output": [ "One gram of carbohydrates provides how many calories of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-53eca3a2db414749b82ea22fe100dc59", "input": "Passage: Metals are elements that are good conductors of electricity. They are the largest of the three classes of elements. In fact, most elements are metals. Look back at the modern periodic table ( Figure above ) in this chapter’s lesson \"How Elements Are Organized. \" Find the metals in the table. They are all the elements that are color-coded blue. Examples include sodium (Na), silver (Ag), and zinc (Zn). Answer: electricity", "output": [ "Metals are good conductors of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6d265b7ea1ae4a22bc427372ec6efaec", "input": "Passage: Diagram of a typical prokaryotic cell. Among other things, prokaryotic cells have a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and DNA. Prokaryotes do not have membrane-bound organelles or a cell nucleus. Answer: not membrane-bound", "output": [ "What are unique about prokaryotic cells' organelles?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7cd1f03a244c48afa4e4e63492472c0e", "input": "Passage: Metalloids are the smallest class of elements. (The other two classes of elements are metals and nonmetals). There are just six metalloids. In addition to silicon, they include boron, germanium, arsenic, antimony, and tellurium. Metalloids fall between metals and nonmetals in the periodic table. They also fall between metals and nonmetals in terms of their properties. Answer: elements", "output": [ "Metalloids, metals, and nonmetals are all classes of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-33b27aeead3f466dab3e86ee7d8fc80f", "input": "Passage: As the temperature of a perfect crystal increases, its particles start to vibrate slightly around their optimal positions, thus increasing the entropy of the system. The dependence of entropy on temperature varies by substance, so the only temperature at which all crystals have the same entropy is absolute zero. The standard entropy of a substance is a measure of its entropy at 25°C and 1 atm of pressure. Like standard enthalpy of formation values, standard entropies are tabulated for a wide range of substances. However, unlike enthalpy of formation values, all standard entropy values are positive, because the absolute zero for entropy is the most ordered possible state. Additionally, this means that pure elements in their standard states do not have a standard entropy of zero. Answer: standard entropy", "output": [ "The measure of a substances entropy at 25 degrees celsius is known as it's?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3d64a7887cb0458f9ecb18abdc3f72e5", "input": "Passage: Each pollen grain has two coverings: the exine (thicker, outer layer) and the intine (Figure 32.7). The exine contains sporopollenin, a complex waterproofing substance supplied by the tapetal cells. Sporopollenin allows the pollen to survive under unfavorable conditions and to be carried by wind, water, or biological agents without undergoing damage. Female Gametophyte (The Embryo Sac) While the details may vary between species, the overall development of the female gametophyte has two distinct phases. First, in the process of megasporogenesis, a single cell in the diploid megasporangium—an area of tissue in the ovules—undergoes meiosis to produce four megaspores, only one of which survives. During the second phase, megagametogenesis, the surviving haploid megaspore undergoes mitosis to produce an eight-nucleate, seven-cell female gametophyte, also known as the megagametophyte or embryo sac. Two of the nuclei—the polar nuclei—move to the equator and fuse, forming a single, diploid central cell. This central cell later fuses with a sperm to form the triploid endosperm. Three nuclei position themselves on the end of the embryo sac opposite the micropyle and develop into the antipodal cells, which later degenerate. The nucleus closest to the micropyle becomes the female gamete, or egg cell, and the two adjacent nuclei develop into synergid cells (Figure 32.8). The synergids help guide the pollen tube for successful fertilization, after which they disintegrate. Once fertilization is complete, the resulting diploid zygote develops into the embryo, and the fertilized ovule forms the other tissues of the seed. Answer: intine", "output": [ "Each pollen grain has two coverings: the exine (thicker, outer layer) and the what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bd98d51496bd4f2fa14eef51771c17fa", "input": "Passage: Comparative embryology is the study of the similarities and differences in the embryos of different species. Similarities in embryos are evidence of common ancestry. All vertebrate embryos, for example, have gill slits and tails. Most vertebrates, except for fish, lose their gill slits by adulthood. Some of them also lose their tail. In humans, the tail is reduced to the tail bone. Thus, similarities organisms share as embryos may be gone by adulthood. This is why it is valuable to compare organisms in the embryonic stage. See http://www. pbs. org/wgbh/evolution/library/04/2/pdf/l_042_03. pdf for additional information and a comparative diagram of human, monkey, pig, chicken and salamander embryos. Answer: comparative embryology", "output": [ "What is the study of the similarities and differences in the embryos of different species?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c1797fc95324477dac9539ea59abdda8", "input": "Passage: Electromagnetic waves on the left side of the Figure above are called radio waves. Radio waves are electromagnetic waves with the longest wavelengths. They may have wavelengths longer than a soccer field. They are also the electromagnetic waves with the lowest frequencies. With their low frequencies, they have the least energy of all electromagnetic waves. Nonetheless, radio waves are very useful. They are used for radio and television broadcasts and many other purposes. You can learn more about radio waves, including how they were discovered, at this URL: http://www. youtube. com/watch?v=al7sFP4C2TY . Answer: radio waves", "output": [ "What are electromagnetic waves with the longest wavelengths called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-daa182ad447e47a3aaa0c5c9c63e8ac0", "input": "Passage: Streptophytes Until recently, all photosynthetic eukaryotes were considered members of the kingdom Plantae. The brown, red, and gold algae, however, have been reassigned to the Protista kingdom. This is because apart from their ability to capture light energy and fix CO2, they lack many structural and biochemical traits that distinguish plants from protists. The position of green algae is more ambiguous. Green algae contain the same carotenoids and chlorophyll a and b as land plants, whereas other algae have different accessory pigments and types of chlorophyll molecules in addition to chlorophyll a. Both green algae and land plants also store carbohydrates as starch. Cells in green algae divide along cell plates called phragmoplasts, and their cell walls are layered in the same manner as the cell walls of embryophytes. Consequently, land plants and closely related green algae are now part of a new monophyletic group called Streptophyta. The remaining green algae, which belong to a group called Chlorophyta, include more than 7000 different species that live in fresh or brackish water, in seawater, or in snow patches. A few green algae even survive on soil, provided it is covered by a thin film of moisture in which they can live. Periodic dry spells provide a selective advantage to algae that can survive water stress. Some green algae may already be familiar, in particular Spirogyra and desmids. Their cells contain chloroplasts that display a dizzying variety of shapes, and their cell walls contain cellulose, as do land plants. Some green algae are single cells, such as Chlorella and Chlamydomonas, which adds to the ambiguity of green algae classification, because plants are multicellular. Other algae, like Ulva (commonly called sea lettuce), form colonies (Figure 25.7). Answer: phragmoplasts", "output": [ "Cells in green algae divide along cell plates called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4ef64746dab846f88d229549391e8f93", "input": "Passage: Digestive System Organs The easiest way to understand the digestive system is to divide its organs into two main categories. The first group is the organs that make up the alimentary canal. Accessory digestive organs comprise the second group and are critical for orchestrating the breakdown of food and the assimilation of its nutrients into the body. Accessory digestive organs, despite their name, are critical to the function of the digestive system. Answer: food", "output": [ "What are accessory digestive organs critical for breaking down?" ] }, { "id": "task594-52f6da38b9ef446eb81498badbab551b", "input": "Passage: So much rain falling so fast causes some of the damage from a hurricane. But a lot of the damage is caused by storm surge. Storm surge is very high water located in the low pressure eye of the hurricane. The very low pressure of the eye allows the water level to rise above normal sea level. Storm surge can cause flooding when it reaches land ( Figure below ). High winds do a great deal of damage in hurricanes. High winds can also create very big waves. If the large waves are atop a storm surge, the high water can flood the shore. If the storm happens to occur at high tide, the water will rise even higher. Answer: hurricanes", "output": [ "Storm surge is very high water located in the low pressure eye of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-623d8e3a9b954aa08fdff3999061daf2", "input": "Passage: Have your parents ever put corn in the gas tank of their car? They did if they used gas containing ethanol. Ethanol is produced by alcoholic fermentation of the glucose in corn or other plants. This type of fermentation also explains why bread dough rises. Yeasts in bread dough use alcoholic fermentation and produce carbon dioxide gas. The gas forms bubbles in the dough, which cause the dough to expand. The bubbles also leave small holes in the bread after it bakes, making the bread light and fluffy. Do you see the small holes in the slice of bread in Figure below ?. Answer: ethanol", "output": [ "What type of gas is produced by alcoholic fermentation of the glucose in corn or other plants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bd75e88d0749475b89fdd2ad56ef5048", "input": "Passage: Paleontology, another branch of biology, uses fossils to study life’s history (Figure 1.20). Zoology and botany are the study of animals and plants, respectively. Biologists can also specialize as biotechnologists, ecologists, or physiologists, to name just a few areas. This is just a small sample of the many fields that biologists can pursue. Biology is the culmination of the achievements of the natural sciences from their inception to today. Excitingly, it is the cradle of emerging sciences, such as the biology of brain activity, genetic engineering of custom organisms, and the biology of evolution that uses the laboratory tools of molecular biology to retrace the earliest stages of life on earth. A scan of news headlines—whether reporting on immunizations, a newly discovered species, sports doping, or a genetically-modified food—demonstrates the way biology is active in and important to our everyday world. Answer: paleontology", "output": [ "What branch of biology uses fossils to study life’s history?" ] }, { "id": "task594-25075bbb2f23416f92d5be973560375c", "input": "Passage: The Pressure of a Mixture of Gases: Dalton’s Law Unless they chemically react with each other, the individual gases in a mixture of gases do not affect each other’s pressure. Each individual gas in a mixture exerts the same pressure that it would exert if it present alone in the container (Figure 9.20). The pressure exerted by each individual gas in a mixture is called its partial pressure. This observation is summarized by Dalton’s law of partial pressures: The total pressure of a mixture of ideal gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the component gases: P Total = P A + P B + P C + . = Σ i P i In the equation PTotal is the total pressure of a mixture of gases, PA is the partial pressure of gas A; PB is the partial pressure of gas B; PC is the partial pressure of gas C; and so on. Answer: pressure", "output": [ "According to dalton's law, unless they chemically react with each other, individual gases in a mixture of gases do not affect each other’s what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6db9c67a18a84239901e8e5a1e2a799d", "input": "Passage: Characteristics that are encoded in DNA are called genetic traits . Different types of human traits are inherited in different ways. Some human traits have simple inheritance patterns like the traits that Gregor Mendel studied in pea plants. Other human traits have more complex inheritance patterns. Answer: dna", "output": [ "Genetic traits are characteristics encoded in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9eeca0f5c7f244d58aef5a5a562619a6", "input": "Passage: Sensory-Somatic Nervous System The sensory-somatic nervous system is made up of cranial and spinal nerves and contains both sensory and motor neurons. Sensory neurons transmit sensory information from the skin, skeletal muscle, and sensory organs to the CNS. Motor neurons transmit messages about desired movement from the CNS to the muscles to make them contract. Without its sensorysomatic nervous system, an animal would be unable to process any information about its environment (what it sees, feels, hears, and so on) and could not control motor movements. Unlike the autonomic nervous system, which has two synapses between the CNS and the target organ, sensory and motor neurons have only one synapse—one ending of the neuron is at the organ and the other directly contacts a CNS neuron. Acetylcholine is the main neurotransmitter released at these synapses. Humans have 12 cranial nerves, nerves that emerge from or enter the skull (cranium), as opposed to the spinal nerves, which emerge from the vertebral column. Each cranial nerve is accorded a name, which are detailed in Figure 35.28. Some cranial nerves transmit only sensory information. For example, the olfactory nerve transmits information about smells from the nose to the brainstem. Other cranial nerves transmit almost solely motor information. For example, the oculomotor nerve controls the opening and closing of the eyelid and some eye movements. Other cranial nerves contain a mix of sensory and motor fibers. For example, the glossopharyngeal nerve has a role in both taste (sensory) and swallowing (motor). Answer: sensory-somatic", "output": [ "Motor neurons and sensory neurons are part of what nervous system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-957dfc9f376946f18b2978127244a200", "input": "Passage: Acids have some properties in common. They turn litmus, a plant extract, red. They react with some metals to give off H2 gas. They react with carbonate and hydrogen carbonate salts to give off CO2 gas. Acids that are ingested typically have a sour, sharp taste. (The name acid comes from the Latin word acidus, meaning “sour. ”) Bases also have some properties in common. They are slippery to the touch, turn litmus blue, and have a bitter flavor if ingested. Acids and bases have another property: they react with each other to make water and an ionic compound called a salt. A salt, in chemistry, is any ionic compound made by combining an acid with a base. A reaction between an acid and a base is called a neutralization reaction and can be represented as follows: acid + base → H2O + salt The stoichiometry of the balanced chemical equation depends on the number of H+ions in the acid and the number of OH− ions in the base. Answer: salt", "output": [ "What type of ionic compound is formed from acid and bases reacting with each other?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a794c4e64b204ab78e8e3acd55693ab3", "input": "Passage: Molecules move from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration until an equilibrium is met. The molecules continue to cross the membrane at equilibrium, but at equal rates in both directions. Answer: scales", "output": [ "What protects reptiles from injury and loss of water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1ae958996a0d4c288c9f2721a395ff90", "input": "Passage: The Noble Gases The noble gases are helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon. Because the noble gases are composed of only single atoms, they are monatomic. At room temperature and pressure, they are unreactive gases. Because of their lack of reactivity, for many years they were called inert gases or rare gases. However, the first chemical compounds containing the noble gases were prepared in 1962. Although the noble gases are relatively minor constituents of the atmosphere, natural gas contains substantial amounts of helium. Because of its low reactivity, argon is often used as an unreactive (inert) atmosphere for welding and in light bulbs. The red light emitted by neon in a gas discharge tube is used in neon lights. Answer: atoms", "output": [ "Noble gases are monatomic because they only contain one of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5d2932c55ab849c5a3f9bf1812cfa191", "input": "Passage: Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are carbon compounds such as methane. VOCs are released in many human activities, such as raising livestock. Livestock wastes produce a lot of methane. Answer: methane", "output": [ "The waste of cows releases a lot of which type of gas?" ] }, { "id": "task594-48c30eb3ae304d57ab72ab2d0ec922aa", "input": "Passage: Oceanography is the study of the oceans. The word oceanology might be more accurate, since “ology” is “the study of. ” “Graph” is “to write” and refers to mapmaking. But mapping the oceans is how oceanography started. Answer: oceans", "output": [ "What is oceanography the study of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6504224bb1464116a535df378a139010", "input": "Passage: Many sponges live on coral reefs, like the one in Figure below . Reef sponges typically have symbiotic relationships with other reef species. For example, the sponges provide shelter for algae, shrimp, and crabs. In return, they get nutrients from the metabolism of the organisms they shelter. Answer: symbiotic", "output": [ "Reef sponges typically have what type of beneficial relationships with other reef species?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9fcc5589d74a495f9965a0f6242e23ba", "input": "Passage: Cysts may develop in the ovaries. A cyst is a sac filled with fluid or other material. Ovarian cysts are usually harmless and often disappear on their own. However, some cysts may be painful and require surgery. Answer: a cyst", "output": [ "What is a sac filled with fluid or other material?" ] }, { "id": "task594-66c4b6062c06480398ce3c4f3779b30e", "input": "Passage: transports an amino acid varies. Most carriers are linked to the active transport of sodium. Short chains of two amino acids (dipeptides) or three amino acids (tripeptides) are also transported actively. However, after they enter the absorptive epithelial cells, they are broken down into their amino acids before leaving the cell and entering the capillary blood via diffusion. Answer: diffusion", "output": [ "Short chains of two amino acids (dipeptides) or three amino acids (tripeptides) are also transported actively. however, after they enter the absorptive epithelial cells, they are broken down into their amino acids before leaving the cell and entering the capillary blood via what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1bafa86108c84289be2e586676de42d4", "input": "Passage: the evolution of cellular respiration, which used oxygen to help harvest energy from organic molecules. Answer: energy", "output": [ "Cellular respiration uses oxygen to harvest what from organic molecules?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f191bb07e97d4f76a31f6cc0d9fc6871", "input": "Passage: In unsaturated fatty acids, there is at least one double bond between carbon atoms. As a result, some carbons are not bonded to as many hydrogen atoms as possible. Unsaturated fatty acids are found in oils. Oils are liquid lipids that plants use to store energy. Answer: energy", "output": [ "Oils are liquid lipids that plants use for storage of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c6cde4cee72649d7ac4f877443f8928d", "input": "Passage: Centipedes and millipedes belong to the subphylum Myriapoda, which contains 13,000 species. They all live on land, which makes sense as all those legs are more adapted to a terrestrial lifestyle, as opposed to an aquatic lifestyle. Answer: land", "output": [ "Not surprisingly, centipedes, millipedes and other members of the subphylum myriapoda are adapted to living on what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-63b788605bc04eb1a8e62c1ad2e9ffbe", "input": "Passage: In this equation, two substances combine to make a single substance. This is a composition reaction. Two different substances react to make two new substances. This does not fit the definition of either a composition reaction or a decomposition reaction, so it is neither. In fact, you may recognize this as a double-replacement reaction. A single substance reacts to make multiple substances. This is a decomposition reaction. Answer: composition reaction", "output": [ "What type of reaction causes two substances to combine to make a single substance?" ] }, { "id": "task594-40ae387b3151475ca0809df66a3c7049", "input": "Passage: 9.2 Fibrous Joints Fibrous joints are where adjacent bones are strongly united by fibrous connective tissue. The gap filled by connective tissue may be narrow or wide. The three types of fibrous joints are sutures, gomphoses, and syndesmoses. A suture is the narrow fibrous joint that unites most bones of the skull. At a gomphosis, the root of a tooth is anchored across a narrow gap by periodontal ligaments to the walls of its socket in the bony jaw. A syndesmosis is the type of fibrous joint found between parallel bones. The gap between the bones may be wide and filled with a fibrous interosseous membrane, or it may narrow with ligaments spanning between the bones. Syndesmoses are found between the bones of the forearm (radius and ulna) and the leg (tibia and fibula). Fibrous joints strongly unite adjacent bones and thus serve to provide protection for internal organs, strength to body regions, or weight-bearing stability. Answer: fibrous joints", "output": [ "Sutures, gomphoses, and syndesmoses are types of what, which are found where adjacent bones are strongly united by connective tissue?" ] }, { "id": "task594-964613f95e0d4d698b0d118922c1a05a", "input": "Passage: Adolescents may have mood swings because of surging hormones. Answer: surging hormones", "output": [ "Many adolescents experience frequent mood swings. name one of the causes for this." ] }, { "id": "task594-7f6da5d6b0fd42ff9b42d311f8503d76", "input": "Passage: Energy is a measure of the amount of or potential for movement in something. The total amount of energy in the universe is always the same. This symmetry is called a conservation law. Conservation of energy is one of five conservation laws that govern our universe. A group of things (we’ll use the word system ) has a certain amount of energy. Energy can be added to a system; for instance, when chemical bonds in a burning log break, they release heat. Energy can be lost from a system; for instance, when a spacecraft “burns up” its energy of motion during re-entry, it loses energy and the surrounding atmosphere gains the lost energy. A closed system is one for which the total energy does not change, or is conserved . In this chapter, we will often consider closed systems, for which the total amount of energy stays the same, but transforms from one kind to another. The transfer of energy from one system to another is called Work . Work is equal to the amount of energy transferred in (positive work) or out (negative work) of a system. Work is equal to the distance the object is moved multiplied by the amount of force in the direction of its motion. The rate at which work is done is called Power . Answer: release heat", "output": [ "What happens when chemical bonds in a burning log break?" ] }, { "id": "task594-284b677a1af04cb48ade9c4a2f189661", "input": "Passage: Flaps of tissue called valves separate the heart’s chambers. Valves keep blood flowing in just one direction through the heart. For example, a valve at the bottom of the right atrium opens to let blood flow from the right atrium to the right ventricle. Then the valve closes so the blood can’t flow back into the right atrium. Answer: aorta", "output": [ "What is the largest artery in the body called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5128dd8cd15a48aa9a7313a92d99306b", "input": "Passage: This odd-looking creature is a fish called a puffer fish. Like all fish, puffer fish are vertebrates. The puffer fish puffs up by rapidly filling its stretchy stomach with water. The reason? Getting bigger makes the fish seem larger to potential predators. Just to be on the safe side, the puffer fish also produces venom. In fact, it’s the second-most-poisonous vertebrate in the world after the poison dart frog. In this chapter, you’ll learn more about vertebrates such as these. You’ll find out that vertebrates are a diverse and fascinating group of animals. Answer: venom", "output": [ "What do puffer fish produce to protect itself?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d27ee1f6ce9c40f6bcd85c83dc459f9a", "input": "Passage: Mucous membranes provide a mechanical barrier at body openings. They also line the respiratory, GI, urinary, and reproductive tracts. Mucous membranes secrete mucus , a slimy substance that traps pathogens. The membranes also have hair-like cilia. The cilia sweep mucus and pathogens toward body openings where they can be removed from the body. When you sneeze or cough, pathogens are removed from the nose and throat (see Figure below ). Tears wash pathogens from the eyes, and urine flushes pathogens out of the urinary tract. You can watch the sweeping action of cilia at the following link: http://mcdb. colorado. edu/courses/2115/units/Other/mucus%20animation. swf . Answer: cilia", "output": [ "The tiny hair present on mucus membranes is known as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5595b3e30bf84277a6acbed02f8fbb41", "input": "Passage: One way mammals lose excess heat is by increasing blood flow to the skin. This warms the skin so heat can be given off to the environment. That’s why you may get flushed, or red in the face, when you exercise on a hot day. You are likely to sweat as well. Sweating also reduces body heat. Sweat wets the skin, and when it evaporates, it cools the body. Evaporation uses energy, and the energy comes from body heat. Animals with fur, such as dogs, use panting instead of sweating to lose body heat (see Figure below ). Evaporation of water from the tongue and other moist surfaces of the mouth and throat uses heat and helps cool the body. Answer: panting", "output": [ "How do dogs lose body heat?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dd6c798954a24feb8aea256f94478e63", "input": "Passage: The greatest source of hazardous waste is industry. Agriculture is another major source. Even households produce a lot of hazardous waste. Answer: industry", "output": [ "What is greatest source of hazardous waste?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d648836d796245b7894260c497bcdf92", "input": "Passage: Populations gain individuals through births and immigration. They lose individuals through deaths and emigration. These factors together determine how fast a population grows. Answer: individuals", "output": [ "What do populations gain through births and immigration?" ] }, { "id": "task594-692b9d9607034e0d8d83a3462ac44469", "input": "Passage: Besides entertaining a cat, laser light has many other uses. One use is carrying communication signals in optical fibers. Sounds or pictures are encoded in pulses of laser light, which are then sent through an optical fiber. All of the light reflects off the inside of the fiber, so none of it escapes. As a result, the signal remains strong even over long distances. More than one signal can travel through an optical fiber at the same time, as you can see in the Figure below . Optical fibers are used to carry telephone, cable TV, and Internet signals. Answer: laser light", "output": [ "Sounds or pictures can be encoded in pulses of what, which are then sent through an optical fiber?" ] }, { "id": "task594-59788c111bed48adbd9659a0fa5426ee", "input": "Passage: Ion Transport The Na+, K+, Mg2+, and Ca2+ ions are important components of intracellular and extracellular fluids. Both Na+ and Ca2+ are found primarily in extracellular fluids, such as blood plasma, whereas K + and Mg2+ are found primarily in intracellular fluids. Substantial inputs of energy are required to establish and maintain these concentration gradients and prevent the system from reaching equilibrium. Thus energy is needed to transport each ion across the cell membrane toward the side with the higher concentration. The biological machines that are responsible for the selective transport of these metal ions are complex assemblies of proteins called ion pumps. Ion pumps recognize and discriminate between metal ions in the same way that crown ethers and cryptands do, with a high affinity for ions of a certain charge and radius. Defects in the ion pumps or their control mechanisms can result in major health problems. For example, cystic fibrosis, the most common inherited disease in the United States, is caused by a defect in the transport system (in this case, chloride ions). Similarly, in many cases, hypertension, or high blood pressure, is thought to be due to defective Na+ uptake and/or excretion. If too much Na+ is absorbed from the diet (or if too little is excreted), water diffuses from tissues into the blood to dilute the solution, thereby decreasing the osmotic pressure in the circulatory system. The increased volume increases the blood pressure, and ruptured arteries called aneurysms can result, often in the brain. Because high blood pressure causes other medical problems as well, it is one of the most important biomedical disorders in modern society. For patients who suffer from hypertension, low-sodium diets that use NaCl substitutes, such as KCl, are often prescribed. Although KCl and NaCl give similar flavors to foods, the K + is not readily taken up by the highly specific Na+-uptake system. This approach to controlling hypertension is controversial, however,. Answer: proteins", "output": [ "Ion pumps, the biological machines responsible for the selective transport of metal ions, are complex assemblies of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9ea13db9628e45809b4ecf3c222e8069", "input": "Passage: Exocytosis describes the process of vesicles fusing with the plasma membrane and releasing their contents to the outside of the cell, as shown in Figure below . Exocytosis occurs when a cell produces substances for export, such as a protein, or when the cell is getting rid of a waste product or a toxin. Newly made membrane proteins and membrane lipids are moved to the plasma membrane by exocytosis. Answer: exocytosis", "output": [ "What describes the process of vesicles fusing with the plasma membrane and releasing their contents to the outside of the cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0e3690411f004faf818b9af5f269fdb5", "input": "Passage: Many archaeans live in close relationships with other organisms. For example, large numbers live inside animals, including humans. Unlike many bacteria, archaeans don't harm their hosts. None of them is known to cause human disease. Archaeans are more likely to help their hosts. For example, archaeans called methanogens live inside the gut of cows (see Figure below ). They help cows digest tough plant fibers made of cellulose. They produce methane gas as a waste product. Answer: methane", "output": [ "Archaeans produce what kind of gas as a waste product?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9aaca1d720884ff0983e3473293f2288", "input": "Passage: Isotopes with magic numbers of protons and/or neutrons tend to be especially stable. Elements with magic numbers of protons tend to have more stable isotopes than elements that do not. Answer: protons", "output": [ "Elements with magic numbers of what tend to have more stable isotopes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a5abf9e428ad417c937196e1b5116341", "input": "Passage: Earthquakes are primarily the result of plate tectonic motions. What type of stress would cause earthquakes at each of the three types of plate boundaries?. Answer: earthquake", "output": [ "What phenomenon is primarily the result of plate tectonic motions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f7a46475262c4ae5b456c6877f893895", "input": "Passage: Modern seed plants include gymnosperms and angiosperms. Answer: modern", "output": [ "Gymnosperms and angiosperms are types of _________ seed plants." ] }, { "id": "task594-07137ab978c0408b95f0a309034ac0c6", "input": "Passage: The fovea is the region in the center back of the eye that is responsible for acute vision. The fovea has a high density of cones. When you bring your gaze to an object to examine it intently in bright light, the eyes orient so that the object’s image falls on the fovea. However, when looking at a star in the night sky or other object in dim light, the object can be better viewed by the peripheral vision because it is the rods at the edges of the retina, rather than the cones at the center, that operate better in low light. In humans, cones far outnumber rods in the fovea. Answer: fovea", "output": [ "What is the region in the center back of the eye that is responsible for acute vision?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6517c6bbf5f14689b110c967f8a91a2d", "input": "Passage: In all the previous calculations we have performed involving balanced chemical equations, we made two assumptions: (1) the reaction goes exactly as written, and (2) the reaction proceeds completely. In reality, such things as side reactions occur that make some chemical reactions rather messy. For example, in the actual combustion of some carbon-containing compounds, such as methane, some CO is produced as well as CO2. However, we will continue to ignore side reactions, unless otherwise noted. The second assumption, that the reaction proceeds completely, is more troublesome. Many chemical reactions do not proceed to completion as written, for a variety of reasons (some of which we will consider in Chapter 13 \"Chemical Equilibrium\"). When we calculate an amount of product assuming that all the reactant reacts, we calculate the theoretical yield, an amount that is theoretically produced as calculated using the balanced chemical reaction. In many cases, however, this is not what really happens. In many cases, less—sometimes much less—of a product is made during the course of a chemical reaction. The amount that is actually produced in a reaction is called the actual yield. By definition, the actual yield is less than or equal to the theoretical yield. If it is not, then an error has been made. Both theoretical yields and actual yields are expressed in units of moles or grams. It is also common to see something called a percent yield. The percent yield is a comparison between the actual yield and the theoretical yield and is defined as Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: actual yield", "output": [ "What is the amount actually produced in a reaction called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7773ee22acd14484b1d083a89dfe9238", "input": "Passage: A mitotic spindle forms from the centrioles and passes through the nuclear membrane, which remains intact. Chromosomes attach to the mitotic spindle, which separates the chromosomes and elongates the cell. Answer: elongates the cell", "output": [ "A mitotic spindle forms from the centrioles and passes through the nuclear membrane, which remains intact. chromosomes attach to the mitotic spindle, which separates the chromosomes and does what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2eaac3e8d53d4303abd5ae55e12889b4", "input": "Passage: Birds live in a variety of different habitats. Birds that live in different habitats will encounter different foods and different predators. Birds can be carnivores (feeding on other animals), herbivores (feeding on plants), or generalists (feeding on a variety of foods). The lifestyle of the bird can affect what it looks like. For example, can you think of some examples of beaks that are adapted to the type of food a bird eats? Carnivorous birds include hawks, falcons, eagles, osprey, vultures and owls. Herbivorous birds include the goose, cockatoo and parrot. The American Crow is an example of a generalist. In addition, a specialist is a bird (or other animal) that is specially adapted to eat a certain food. An example of a specialist is a hummingbird, whose long, thin beak is excellent for reaching into flowers for nectar, but not very good for eating other foods. Answer: carnivore", "output": [ "What do you call an animal that feeds on other animals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-85871f61489f4ffda8d8a6dd61e0c681", "input": "Passage: Summary Bond order is the number of electron pairs that hold two atoms together. Single bonds have a bond order of one, and multiple bonds with bond orders of two (a double bond) and three (a triple bond) are quite common. In closely related compounds with bonds between the same kinds of atoms, the bond with the highest bond order is both the shortest and the strongest. In bonds with the same bond order between different atoms, trends are observed that, with few exceptions, result in the strongest single bonds being formed between the smallest atoms. Tabulated values of average bond energies can be used to calculate the enthalpy change of many chemical reactions. If the bonds in the products are stronger than those in the reactants, the reaction is exothermic and vice versa. Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: bond order", "output": [ "The number of electron pairs that hold two atoms together is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4c5ae3f6efa44632b93ea26defe86f3d", "input": "Passage: Figure 22.31 The force on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field is. Answer: convergent evolution", "output": [ "What is name of the phenomenon where similar traits evolve independently in species that do not share a common ancestry?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4e0006366e774f5794c444ef9421718b", "input": "Passage: Metal exposed to the outside elements will usually corrode if not protected. The corrosion process is a series of redox reactions involving the metal of the sculpture. In some situations, the metals are deliberately left unprotected so that the surface will undergo changes that may enhance the esthetic value of the work. Answer: corrosion", "output": [ "What process typically occurs to metal exposed to outside elements?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ed5c0eacb06f45b1a783c0d05eb82160", "input": "Passage: Hinge Joints In hinge joints, the slightly rounded end of one bone fits into the slightly hollow end of the other bone. In this way, one bone moves while the other remains stationary, like the hinge of a door. The elbow is an example of a hinge joint. The knee is sometimes classified as a modified hinge joint (Figure 38.28). Answer: hinge joint", "output": [ "The elbow is an example of a what type of joint?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d501197868384910aa1a052cdd9e90e6", "input": "Passage: Lipids are biochemical compounds that living things use to store energy and make cell membranes. Types of lipids include fats, oils, and phospholipids. Answer: lipids", "output": [ "What are biochemical compounds that living things use to store energy and make cell membranes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-457fd6e924604e86accc694717085044", "input": "Passage: The building blocks of DNA are nucleotides. The important components of the nucleotide are a nitrogenous base, deoxyribose (5-carbon sugar), and a phosphate group (Figure 14.5). The nucleotide is named depending on the nitrogenous base. The nitrogenous base can be a purine such as adenine (A) and guanine (G), or a pyrimidine such as cytosine (C) and thymine (T). Answer: nucleotides", "output": [ "What are the building blocks of dna?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a1de246e251d4594a2853d3df1a2bc58", "input": "Passage: Living things must have chemical energy from food to power life processes. Most of the chemical energy in food comes ultimately from the energy in sunlight. Answer: sunlight", "output": [ "Most of food's chemical energy ultimately comes from what source?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1a5d13b3854b4201bd0d152527ba2220", "input": "Passage: Creep is the very slow movement of rock and soil down a hillside. Creep occurs so slowly you can’t see it happening. You can only see the effects of creep after years of movement ( Figure below ). The slowly moving ground causes trees, fence posts, and other structures on the surface to tilt downhill. Answer: creep", "output": [ "What is the apt term for the very slow movement of rock and soil down a hillside?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e67ac14525cf4fa2a56dbf03a5aad0c1", "input": "Passage: A binary molecular compound is a molecular compound that is composed of two elements. In general, the elements that combine to form binary molecular compounds are both nonmetals. This contrasts with ionic compounds, which usually involve bonds between metal ions and nonmetal ions. Because ionic charges cannot be used to name these compounds or to write their formulas, a different naming system must be used for molecular compounds. Another difference between ionic and molecular compounds is that two nonmetal atoms will frequently combine with one another in a variety of ratios. For example, nitrogen and oxygen combine to make several binary compounds, including NO, NO 2 , and N 2 O. Obviously they can’t all be called nitrogen oxide! How would someone know which one you were talking about? Each of the three compounds has very different properties and reactivity. A system to distinguish between compounds such as these is necessary. Answer: two elements", "output": [ "A binary molecular compound is a molecular compound that is composed of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9864158881a74e328381b966d08a738f", "input": "Passage: Stems are organs that hold plants upright. They allow plants to get the sunlight and air they need. Stems also bear leaves, flowers, cones, and smaller stems. These structures grow at points called nodes. The stem between nodes is called an internode. (See Figure below . ). Answer: stem", "output": [ "What is the basic structure that holds plants upright, allowing plants to get the sunlight and air they need?" ] }, { "id": "task594-95051451883b47a386019bf6623f664e", "input": "Passage: 6. Mercury is small, rocky and covered with craters. Why?. Answer: craters", "output": [ "Mercury is small, rocky and covered with what objects?" ] }, { "id": "task594-658ae64194764a9889afa057b639ce08", "input": "Passage: Reptiles are also amniotes, which means their embryos are surrounded by a thin membrane. Answer: amniotes", "output": [ "Because their embryos are surrounded by a thin membrane, reptiles are considered what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9f18bde30a124c3baa1a2bccf9a9f047", "input": "Passage: The first horizon is the “A“ horizon. It is more commonly called the topsoil . The topsoil is usually the darkest layer of the soil. It is the layer with the most organic material. Humus forms from all the plant and animal debris that falls to or grows on the ground. The topsoil is also the region with the most biological activity. Many organisms live within this layer. Plant roots stretch down into this layer. The roots help to hold the topsoil in place. Topsoil is needed to grow most crops ( Figure below ). Answer: topsoil", "output": [ "What is the \"a\" horizon commonly known as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f118deaf580940ceaed2a4dd8219cfef", "input": "Passage: Pressure Relationships Inspiration (or inhalation) and expiration (or exhalation) are dependent on the differences in pressure between the atmosphere and the lungs. In a gas, pressure is a force created by the movement of gas molecules that are confined. For example, a certain number of gas molecules in a two-liter container has more room than the same number of gas molecules. Answer: lungs", "output": [ "Pressure relationships inspiration (or inhalation) and expiration (or exhalation) are dependent on the differences in pressure between the atmosphere and these?" ] }, { "id": "task594-27d26db96b3f485c9f518edc14ef8ba3", "input": "Passage: If plaque blocks coronary arteries that supply blood to the heart, coronary heart disease results. Poor blood flow to the heart may cause chest pain or a heart attack. A heart attack occurs when the blood supply to part of the heart muscle is completely blocked so that cardiac muscle cells die. Coronary heart disease is the leading cause of death in U. S adults. Answer: plaque", "output": [ "Coronary heart disease is caused when what blocks coronary arteries?" ] }, { "id": "task594-54c930664e634b42bd78381497ecf2c5", "input": "Passage: Weeks 4–7 Respiratory development in the embryo begins around week 4. Ectodermal tissue from the anterior head region invaginates posteriorly to form olfactory pits, which fuse with endodermal tissue of the developing pharynx. An olfactory pit is one of a pair of structures that will enlarge to become the nasal cavity. At about this same time, the lung bud forms. The lung bud is a dome-shaped structure composed of tissue that bulges from the foregut. The foregut is endoderm just inferior to the pharyngeal pouches. The laryngotracheal bud is a structure that forms from the longitudinal extension of the lung bud as development progresses. The portion of this structure nearest the pharynx becomes the trachea, whereas the distal end becomes more bulbous, forming bronchial buds. A bronchial bud is one of a pair of structures that will eventually become the bronchi and all other lower respiratory structures (Figure 22.29). Answer: nasal cavity", "output": [ "Respiratory development in the embryo begins around week 4. ectodermal tissue from the anterior head region invaginates posteriorly to form olfactory pits, which fuse with endodermal tissue of the developing pharynx. an olfactory pit is one of a pair of structures that will enlarge to become this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1531836b1bfb41c899ca85187b1a1b67", "input": "Passage: Soil is a precious resource. It allows us to grow food and the materials we use to make everything from the shirt you have on to the medicine you took this morning. Soil is made up of small pieces of rock that have broken down over hundreds, if not thousands, of years. Soil is also partly made up of the remains of plants and animals, and is home to many organisms, from earthworms to ants. But soil can be damaged by unsustainable farming practices and clear-cut logging. In this chapter, you will learn how soil forms, what it contains, and how to protect it. Answer: soil", "output": [ "What precious resource allows us to grow food as well as materials we turn into clothing and medicine?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5f148ba76bed406e8cd42efde7b83b5e", "input": "Passage: Mercury manometers are often used to measure arterial blood pressure. An inflatable cuff is placed on the upper arm as shown in Figure 11.17. By squeezing the bulb, the person making the measurement exerts pressure, which is transmitted undiminished. Answer: blood pressure", "output": [ "What are mercury manometers often used to measure?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f7924491f6c04bf1a203daac07081e02", "input": "Passage: that the weak interaction could change quark flavor. It should also change neutrino flavor—that is, any type of neutrino could change spontaneously into any other, a process called neutrino oscillations. However, this can occur only if neutrinos have a mass. Why? Crudely, because if neutrinos are massless, they must travel at the speed of light and time will not pass for them, so that they cannot change without an interaction. In 1999, results began to be published containing convincing evidence that neutrino oscillations do occur. Using the Super-Kamiokande detector in Japan, the oscillations have been observed and are being verified and further explored at present at the same facility and others. Neutrino oscillations may also explain the low number of observed solar neutrinos. Detectors for observing solar neutrinos are specifically designed to detect electron neutrinos ν e produced in huge numbers by fusion in the Sun. A large fraction of electron neutrinos. Answer: mass", "output": [ "A spontaneous change process called neutrino oscillations can occur only if neutrinos have what property?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fb6069c8626549338b70c990acdc6236", "input": "Passage: Platelets are cell fragments involved in blood clotting. They stick to tears in blood vessels and to each other, forming a plug at the site of injury. They also release chemicals that are needed for clotting to occur. Answer: platelets", "output": [ "What is the term for the cell fragments involved in blood clotting, which stick to tears in blood vessels and to each other?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9b2840c0ffc640dabb3a0cfcd238aa9f", "input": "Passage: As the name suggests, open-pit mining creates a big pit from which the ore is mined. Figure below shows an open-pit diamond mine in Russia. The size of the pit grows as long as the miners can make a profit. Strip mines are similar to open-pit mines, but the ore is removed in large strips. A quarry is a type of open-pit mine that produces rocks and minerals that are used to make buildings and roads. Answer: open-pit mine", "output": [ "A quarry, which produces rocks and minerals used to make buildings and roads, is an example of what type of mine?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2fcd2a5494f14e6c88fe08f0f3f7486a", "input": "Passage: Mother of pearl is also known as nacre. Nacre is the iridescent inner shell layer. It can be found in buttons, watch faces, knives, guns, and jewelry. It is also used to decorate various musical instruments. Answer: nacre", "output": [ "What is another name for mother of pearl?" ] }, { "id": "task594-59a9361af78c4db99dd1695d97ff9f4d", "input": "Passage: In eukaryotic cells, the nucleus divides before the cell itself divides. The process in which the nucleus divides is called mitosis. Before mitosis occurs, a cell’s DNA is replicated. This is necessary so that each daughter cell will have a complete copy of the genetic material from the parent cell. How is the replicated DNA sorted and separated so that each daughter cell gets a complete set of the genetic material? To understand how this happens, you need to know more chromosomes. Answer: mitosis", "output": [ "The process in which the nucleus divides is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c20710f74f3948dc8831b3b7d79c2bb6", "input": "Passage: An ionic bond is the force of attraction that holds together oppositely charged ions. It forms when atoms of a metal transfer electrons to atoms of a nonmetal. When this happens, the atoms become oppositely charged ions. Answer: ionic", "output": [ "What bond is the force of attraction that holds together oppositely charged ions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d433c0ffd2084be3abb044c0b560c76a", "input": "Passage: Deposition also occurs when a stream or river empties into a large body of still water. In this case, a delta forms. A delta is shaped like a triangle. It spreads out into the body of water. An example is shown in Figure above . Answer: delta", "output": [ "What triangular feature is formed when a river empties into a large body of still water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7c7954661d324a45986b753d0a3405c3", "input": "Passage: The walls of the ventricle are lined with trabeculae carneae, ridges of cardiac muscle covered by endocardium. In addition to these muscular ridges, a band of cardiac muscle, also covered by endocardium, known as the moderator band (see Figure 19.9) reinforces the thin walls of the right ventricle and plays a crucial role in cardiac conduction. It arises from the inferior portion of the interventricular septum and crosses the interior space of the right ventricle to connect with the inferior papillary muscle. When the right ventricle contracts, it ejects blood into the pulmonary trunk, which branches into the left and right pulmonary arteries that carry it to each lung. The superior surface of the right ventricle begins to taper as it approaches the pulmonary trunk. At the base of the pulmonary trunk is the pulmonary semilunar valve that prevents backflow from the pulmonary trunk. Answer: moderator band", "output": [ "What reinforces the thin walls of the right ventricle and plays a crucial role in cardiac conduction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-038cf294386e41fc935cbe126bc1fa2c", "input": "Passage: Primates are generally divided into prosimian and non-prosimian primates. Answer: primates", "output": [ "What are generally divided into prosimian and non-prosimian?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c062e49ede0849e9854829be9ae37a6b", "input": "Passage: Energy can be transferred between molecules during collisions. Collisions are completely elastic. Answer: elastic", "output": [ "Because collisions are ______, energy can be transferred between molecules during them." ] }, { "id": "task594-10055307e44c4b3f8a0472596f590e82", "input": "Passage: You hit a baseball out of the park and head for first base. You’re excited. The score is tied, and now your team has a chance of getting a winning home run. Then you hear a crash. Oh no! The baseball hit a window in a neighboring house. The glass has a big hole in it, surrounded by a web of cracks (see Figure below ). The glass has changed. It’s been broken into jagged pieces. But the glass is still glass. Breaking the window is an example of a physical change in matter. Answer: physical", "output": [ "Breaking a window with a baseball is an example of what kind of change in matter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2ac4ccbb5d2a4110a0ba29336e8ba713", "input": "Passage: Geologic maps detail the types and locations of rocks found in an area. Answer: geologic maps", "output": [ "What type of maps detail detail the types and locations of rocks found in an area?" ] }, { "id": "task594-457d313ae45049fc9b6ba58dbc6eeef2", "input": "Passage: Hemophilia is a group of diseases in which blood does not clot normally. Factors in blood are involved in clotting. When you bleed, your body begins a coagulation cascade of reactions, involving special proteins known as coagulation factors, to stop that bleeding. When one or more of these clotting factors are missing, there is a higher chance of having dificulties stoping the bleeding. Hemophiliacs lacking the normal Factor VIII are said to have Hemophilia A (or Factor VIII deficiency), the most common form. Hemophilia is a genetic disease, passed down through family. It is linked to the X-chromosome, so it mostly affects males. F8 is the gene for the Factor VIII protein. Mutations in the F8 gene lead to the production of an abnormal version of coagulation factor VIII, or reduce the amount of the protein. The altered or missing protein cannot participate effectively in the blood clotting process. Answer: hemophilia", "output": [ "What is the term for diseases in which blood does not clot normally?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3f4c51bfee2845119b4ad102edeeaa2a", "input": "Passage: Nervous systems throughout the animal kingdom vary in structure and complexity, as illustrated by the variety of animals shown in Figure 35.2. Some organisms, like sea sponges, lack a true nervous system. Others, like jellyfish, lack a true brain and instead have a system of separate but connected nerve cells (neurons) called a “nerve net. ” Echinoderms such as sea stars have nerve cells that are bundled into fibers called nerves. Flatworms of the phylum Platyhelminthes have both a central nervous system (CNS), made up of a small “brain” and two nerve cords, and a peripheral nervous system (PNS) containing a system of nerves that extend throughout the body. The insect nervous system is more complex but also fairly decentralized. It contains a brain, ventral nerve cord, and ganglia (clusters of connected neurons). These ganglia can control movements and behaviors without input from the brain. Octopi may have the most complicated of invertebrate nervous systems—they have neurons that are organized in specialized lobes and eyes that are structurally similar to vertebrate species. Answer: true brain", "output": [ "What do jellyfish lack in their nervous system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-95709cb1dca544f884e6234691025cb8", "input": "Passage: Water is the main ingredient of many solutions. A solution is a mixture of two or more substances that has the same composition throughout. Some solutions are acids and some are bases. To understand acids and bases, you need to know more about pure water. In pure water (such as distilled water), a tiny fraction of water molecules naturally breaks down to form ions. An ion is an electrically charged atom or molecule. The breakdown of water is represented by the chemical equation. Answer: solution", "output": [ "What is the term for a mixture of two or more substances that has the same composition throughout?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eec03ab131c445649e872121fccf791e", "input": "Passage: Figure 9.3 Intervertebral Disc An intervertebral disc unites the bodies of adjacent vertebrae within the vertebral column. Each disc allows for limited movement between the vertebrae and thus functionally forms an amphiarthrosis type of joint. Intervertebral discs are made of fibrocartilage and thereby structurally form a symphysis type of cartilaginous joint. Answer: fibrocartilage", "output": [ "What are intervertebral discs made of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1c132eaa959b4617848fd3383416ede7", "input": "Passage: Metallic solids are composed entirely of metallic atoms. In other solid structures, the electrons involved in bonding tend to be localized, or fixed in place in the covalent bonds. However, the electrons in metallic bonds are delocalized over the entire crystal. The fact that the electrons are free to move between different atoms causes metallic solids to be very good conductors of electricity. Answer: metallic", "output": [ "Metallic solids are composed entirely of which atoms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7c1d9ed3d9174d1380ecc9cabb40b3d9", "input": "Passage: An esterification is a condensation reaction in which an ester is formed from an alcohol and a carboxylic acid. Esterification is a subcategory of condensation reactions because a water molecule is produced in the reaction. The reaction is catalyzed by a strong acid, usually sulfuric acid. When the carboxylic acid butanoic acid is heated with an excess of methanol and a few drops of sulfuric acid, the ester methyl butanoate is produced. Methyl butanoate has the scent of pineapples. The reaction is shown below with both molecular and structural formulas. Answer: esterification", "output": [ "What do you call a condensation reaction in which an ester is formed from an alcohol and a carboxylic acid?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b7d61481a7c74742a84a30de68e06c1f", "input": "Passage: The four planets closest to the Sun - Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars - are the inner planets . They are similar to Earth. All are solid, dense, and rocky. None of the inner planets has rings. Compared to the outer planets, the inner planets are small. They have shorter orbits around the Sun and they spin more slowly. Venus spins backwards and spins the slowest of all the planets. Answer: mercury", "output": [ "Which planet is closest to the sun?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0b353bccdd5f423fa21a4d06f2c848d8", "input": "Passage: Muscle tissue consists of cells that can contract, or shorten. Examples include skeletal muscle, which is attached to bones and makes them move. Other types of muscle include cardiac muscle, which makes the heart beat, and smooth muscle, which is found in other internal organs. Answer: cardiac muscle", "output": [ "What kind of muscle is responsible for making the human heart beat?" ] }, { "id": "task594-52bc4cf2115a46babc23ced73bce41b4", "input": "Passage: The internal resistance r can behave in complex ways. As noted, r increases as a battery is depleted. But internal resistance may also depend on the magnitude and direction of the current through a voltage source, its temperature, and even its history. The internal resistance of rechargeable nickel-cadmium cells, for example, depends on how many times and how deeply they have been depleted. Answer: increases", "output": [ "As a battery is depleted what happens to its internal resistance?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0aa791c423bd4b3e930c8c9ec5ec230c", "input": "Passage: ; Power released is equal to the voltage multiplied by the current. Answer: voltage x current", "output": [ "What is the equation of power released?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7aa1726c554b447b950093c66bd38092", "input": "Passage: The cell is the smallest unit of structure and function of all living organisms. A cell is also the smallest unit of life, with single-celled organisms present on this planet for over 3.5 billion years. Single-celled ( unicellular ) organisms like bacteria are obviously composed of just one cell, whereas multicellular organisms can be composed of trillions of cells. Multicellular organisms include protists (though single-celled protists also exist), fungi, plants and animals. Most plant and animal cells are between 1 and 100 µm and therefore can only be observed under the microscope. Answer: the cell", "output": [ "What is the smallest unit of structure and function of all living organisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-41f8a839196d4dbe962166476b8ae8f9", "input": "Passage: Pharyngeal slits : Pharyngeal slits are located in the pharynx. The pharynx is the tube that joins the mouth to the digestive and respiratory tracts. Answer: pharynx", "output": [ "What is the name of the tube that joins the mouth to the digestive and respiratory tracts?" ] }, { "id": "task594-00094ada6abd4180a5e0340562b474e7", "input": "Passage: Birds live and breed in most terrestrial habitats on Earth. They can be found on all seven continents, from the Arctic to Antarctica. However, the majority of bird species are native to tropical areas of the planet. Answer: tropical", "output": [ "What areas of the planet are most birds native to?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ded36c5b16d449de827049502fee4a75", "input": "Passage: When electrons are removed from an atom, that process requires energy to pull the electron away from the nucleus. Addition of an electron releases energy from the process. Answer: energy", "output": [ "What is required when electrons are removed from an atom, and released from the process when an electron is added?" ] }, { "id": "task594-12cef5b2892549e98b03775605166162", "input": "Passage: Lead is a soft, malleable, and corrosion resistant material. The ancient Romans used lead to make water pipes, some of which are still in use today. Answer: lead", "output": [ "What is a soft, malleable, and corrosion resistant material called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-71bc82f1847a4f81bc1be94235e7cc97", "input": "Passage: Sponges reproduce both asexually and sexually. Asexual reproduction occurs by budding. Sexual reproduction occurs by the production of eggs and sperm. Males release sperm into the water through the osculum. Sperm may enter a female sponge through a pore and fertilize her eggs. The resulting zygotes develop into larvae. Answer: asexual", "output": [ "Budding in sponges is a form of what type of reproduction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ddd9397c260e480d99f7439a982d2890", "input": "Passage: Earthquake: What Does Magnitude Mean? at http://www. livescience. com/20538-earthquake-magnitude-video. html (2:00). Answer: magnitude", "output": [ "What is the strength of an earthquake called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c8d689d8b7c44a9391d04b597e0e5a0d", "input": "Passage: People use fresh water from aquifers from springs or wells. Answer: fresh water", "output": [ "What do people use from aquifers from springs or wells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-47df94c9bb3a436a8cf4d8917fd9ab64", "input": "Passage: When an acid and a base react, the reaction is called a neutralization reaction . That’s because the reaction produces neutral products. Water is always one product, and a salt is also produced. A salt is a neutral ionic compound. You can learn more about salts and how they form at this URL: http://www. youtube. com/watch?v=zjIVJh4JLNo . Answer: neutralization", "output": [ "What is the reaction called when an acid and a base react?" ] }, { "id": "task594-45de3756cb1b4dbea30ab7801809edd8", "input": "Passage: Note Surgical removal is often advised for a gallbladder that becomes infected, inflamed, or perforated. This surgery does not seriously affect digestion because bile is still produced. Answer: bile", "output": [ "Gall bladder removal surgery does not seriously affect digestion because ______ is still being produced." ] }, { "id": "task594-dae20b1d4e8b46aeb2d65433bbc990cb", "input": "Passage: There are three different types of RNA. All three types are needed to make proteins. Answer: proteins", "output": [ "There are three different types of rna. all three types are needed to make what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-455c0ed34bb04ba698e1f686c83a2a95", "input": "Passage: Figure below shows the structures inside a typical eukaryotic cell. The model cell in the figure represents an animal cell. Refer to the model as you read about the structures below. You can also explore the structures in the interactive animal cell at this link:. Answer: outside", "output": [ "In most fish, where does the embryo develop in relation to the mother's body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4de60daf339443d9b24c3c2a82bff6b3", "input": "Passage: The generation of genetic maps requires markers, just as a road map requires landmarks (such as rivers and mountains). Early genetic maps were based on the use of known genes as markers. More sophisticated markers, including those based on non-coding DNA, are now used to compare the genomes of individuals in a population. Although individuals of a given species are genetically similar, they are not identical; every individual has a unique set of traits. These minor differences in the genome between individuals in a population are useful for the purposes of genetic mapping. In general, a good genetic marker is a region on the chromosome that shows variability or polymorphism (multiple forms) in the population. Some genetic markers used in generating genetic maps are restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLP), variable number of tandem repeats (VNTRs), microsatellite polymorphisms, and the single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). RFLPs (sometimes pronounced “rif-lips”) are detected when the DNA of an individual is cut with a restriction endonuclease that recognizes specific sequences in the DNA to generate a series of DNA fragments, which are then analyzed by gel electrophoresis. The DNA of every individual will give rise to a unique pattern of bands when cut with a particular set of restriction endonucleases; this is sometimes referred to as an individual’s DNA “fingerprint. ” Certain regions of the chromosome that are subject to polymorphism will lead to the generation of the unique banding pattern. VNTRs are repeated sets of nucleotides present in the non-coding regions of DNA. Non-coding, or “junk,” DNA has no known biological function; however, research shows that much of this DNA is actually transcribed. While its function is uncertain, it is certainly active, and it may be involved in the regulation of coding genes. The number of repeats may vary in individual organisms of a population. Microsatellite polymorphisms are similar to VNTRs, but the repeat unit is very small. SNPs are variations in a single nucleotide. Because genetic maps rely completely on the natural process of recombination, mapping is affected by natural increases or decreases in the level of recombination in any given area of the genome. Some parts of the genome are recombination hotspots, whereas others do not show a propensity for recombination. For this reason, it is important to look at mapping information developed by multiple methods. Answer: traits", "output": [ "Although individuals of a given species are genetically similar, they are not identical; every individual has a unique set of these?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9e2ab730934c49d29a3bf4455d9e8de8", "input": "Passage: Mammals breathe with the help of a diaphragm . This is the large muscle that extends across the bottom of the chest below the lungs. When the diaphragm contracts, it increases the volume of the chest. This decreases pressure on the lungs and allows air to flow in. When the diaphragm relaxes, it decreases the volume of the chest. This increases pressure on the lungs and forces air out. Answer: diaphragm", "output": [ "What is the large muscle that extends across the bottom of the chest below the lungs called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-622cbfdef29f4d3d84fbe75c9af832a0", "input": "Passage: Nonvascular plants include the mosses, the hornworts, and the liverworts. Answer: nonvascular", "output": [ "What type of plants are the mosses, the hornwarts, and the liverworts considered to be?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cebeedb31a254efeb092bce17a2344e3", "input": "Passage: When physical or chemical changes occur, they are generally accompanied by a transfer of energy. The law of conservation of energy states that in any physical or chemical process, energy is neither created nor destroyed. In other words, the entire energy in the universe is conserved. In order to better understand the energy changes taking place during a reaction, we need to define two parts of the universe, called the system and the surroundings. The system is the specific portion of matter in a given space that is being studied during an experiment or an observation. The surroundings is everything in the universe that is not part of the system. In practical terms for a laboratory chemist, the system is the particular chemicals being reacted, while the surroundings is the immediate vicinity within the room. During most processes, energy is exchanged between the system and the surroundings. If the system loses a certain amount of energy, that same amount of energy is gained by the surroundings. If the system gains a certain amount of energy, that energy is supplied by the surroundings. Answer: energy", "output": [ "Physical or chemical changes are generally accompanied by a transfer of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6d252996f78b426cbd41f4ce8742a7f7", "input": "Passage: Earth and Moon orbit each other. This Earth-Moon system orbits the Sun in a regular path ( Figure below ). Gravity is the force of attraction between all objects. Gravity keeps the Earth and Moon in their orbits. Earth’s gravity pulls the Moon toward Earth’s center. Without gravity, the Moon would continue moving in a straight line off into space. Answer: gravity", "output": [ "What keeps the earth orbiting the sun?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ce1f67798ce247608820d650a7ec437f", "input": "Passage: Features of continents include mountain ranges, plateaus, and plains. Answer: continents", "output": [ "Mountain ranges, plateaus, and plains are features of what large landforms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9661a764582044bebe9df0efbb16c63d", "input": "Passage: Coal is the source of most electricity. Answer: coal", "output": [ "What is the source of most electricity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6ef112cfef0943f2909e41ddf2ada532", "input": "Passage: 26.4 Microscopes Although the eye is marvelous in its ability to see objects large and small, it obviously has limitations to the smallest details it can detect. Human desire to see beyond what is possible with the naked eye led to the use of optical instruments. In this section we will examine microscopes, instruments for enlarging the detail that we cannot see with the unaided eye. The microscope is a multiple-element system having more than a single lens or mirror. (See Figure 26.15) A microscope can be made from two convex lenses. The image formed by the first element becomes the object for the second element. The second element forms its own image, which is the object for the third element, and so on. Ray tracing helps to visualize the image formed. If the device is composed of thin lenses and mirrors that obey the thin lens equations, then it is not difficult to describe their behavior numerically. Answer: convex", "output": [ "A microscope can be made from two of what kind of lenses?" ] }, { "id": "task594-814387c0cade4bab93b791b080d1f4b9", "input": "Passage: Another sign of a species’ state of health is the density of its populations. Population density is the average number of individuals in a population for a given area. Density is a measure of how crowded or spread out the individuals in a population are on average. For example, a population of 100 deer that live in an area of 10 square kilometers has a population density of 10 deer per square kilometer. Answer: population density", "output": [ "What is the term for the average number of individuals in a population for a given area?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b0d0f66480f04b438f15d2361899d7d1", "input": "Passage: Pressure Associated with the Lungs The pressure inside the lungs increases and decreases with each breath. The pressure drops to below atmospheric pressure (negative gauge pressure) when you inhale, causing air to flow into the lungs. It increases above atmospheric pressure (positive gauge pressure) when you exhale, forcing air out. Lung pressure is controlled by several mechanisms. Muscle action in the diaphragm and rib cage is necessary for inhalation; this muscle action increases the volume of the lungs thereby reducing the pressure within them Figure 11.39. Surface tension in the alveoli creates a positive pressure opposing inhalation. (See Cohesion and Adhesion in Liquids: Surface Tension and Capillary Action. ) You can exhale without muscle action by letting surface tension in the alveoli create its own positive pressure. Muscle action can add to this positive pressure to produce forced exhalation, such as when you blow up a balloon, blow out a candle, or cough. Answer: inhalation", "output": [ "During what phase of breathing does the pressure inside the lungs drops to below atmospheric pressure?" ] }, { "id": "task594-94fcf52f9ecc4ad08ab562e8714c1e02", "input": "Passage: Radio waves are electromagnetic waves with the longest wavelengths, lowest frequencies, and least amount of energy. They are used for radio and television broadcasts and many other purposes. Answer: radio waves", "output": [ "What waves do radio and television use?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8a77e3a7655e4afb9359cd2644cb7541", "input": "Passage: Millions of fossils have been found since Darwin’s time. They show that evolution may occur in fits and starts. Long period of little or gradual change may be interrupted by bursts of rapid change. The rate of evolution is influenced by how the environment is changing. Today, Earth’s climate is changing rapidly. How do you think this might affect the rate of evolution?. Answer: evolution", "output": [ "Fossil records show that what process may occur in \"fits and starts\"?" ] }, { "id": "task594-244d6bf7d2ee48a38cd4e489a0ccce3f", "input": "Passage: Aquatic plants are plants that live in water. Living in water has certain advantages for plants. One advantage is, well, the water. There’s plenty of it and it’s all around. Therefore, most aquatic plants do not need adaptations for absorbing, transporting, and conserving water. They can save energy and matter by not growing extensive root systems, vascular tissues, or thick cuticles on leaves. Support is also less of a problem because of the buoyancy of water. As a result, adaptations such as strong woody stems and deep anchoring roots are not necessary for most aquatic plants. Answer: aquatic plants", "output": [ "What kind of plants do not need adaptations for absorbing, transporting, and conserving water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-876dbd10b2be42c4b18700296ec94ebb", "input": "Passage: Ambrosia beetles live in the bark of trees. Like ants and termites, they grow fungi inside the bark of trees and use it to help digest their food. Answer: digest food", "output": [ "Like ants and termites, they grow fungi inside the bark of trees and use it to help do what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cf06e5354aea497a9d944d48f81b2b85", "input": "Passage: After tissues, organs are the next level of organization of the human body. An organ is a structure that consists of two or more types of tissues that work together to do the same job. Examples of human organs include the brain, heart, lungs, skin, and kidneys. Human organs are organized into organ systems, many of which are shown in Figure below . An organ system is a group of organs that work together to carry out a complex overall function. Each organ of the system does part of the larger job. Answer: organ", "output": [ "What is a structure that consists of two or more types of tissues that work together to do the same job?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1921318dfc834c7fb94b9d6f498517da", "input": "Passage: Water waves, sound waves, and the waves that travel along a rope are mechanical waves . Mechanical waves require a material medium such as water, air, or rope. Light waves, however, are electromagnetic waves and travel without a material medium. They are not mechanical waves. Answer: mechanical", "output": [ "What waves require a material medium such as water, air, or rope?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7a82e7b5fe8e48b0bdfe62e05fc452b8", "input": "Passage: Waves that travel through matter—such as the fabric of a flag—are called mechanical waves. The matter they travel through is called the medium. When the energy of a wave passes through the medium, particles of the medium move. The more energy the wave has, the farther the particles of the medium move. The distance the particles move is measured by the wave’s amplitude. Answer: mechanical waves", "output": [ "What term describes waves that travel through matter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9b374af5fc49422a8134c1b9f5be4981", "input": "Passage: Salamanders are carnivorous , eating only other animals, not plants. They will eat almost any smaller animal, such as worms, centipedes, crickets, spiders, and slugs. Some will even eat small invertebrates. Finally, salamanders have the ability to grow back lost limbs, as well as other body parts. This process is known as regeneration. Answer: regeneration", "output": [ "What is the term used for the ability of salamanders to grow back lost limbs and other body parts?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8f88bfb8ee8d48a8a466ee3dcb067070", "input": "Passage: The term carbohydrate comes from the fact that the majority contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of 1:2:1, making for an empirical formula of CH 2 O. This is somewhat misleading because the molecules are not actually hydrates of carbon at all. Carbohydrates are monomers and polymers of aldehydes and ketones that have multiple hydroxyl groups attached. Answer: carbohydrate", "output": [ "What contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of 1:2:1?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b939131bc9a949129e9f166186b2f803", "input": "Passage: The vagina is a cylinder-shaped organ that opens to the outside of the body. The other end joins with the uterus. Sperm deposited in the vagina swim up through the cervix, into the uterus, and from there into a fallopian tube. During birth, a baby passes from the uterus through the vagina to leave the body. Answer: the vagina", "output": [ "During birth, a baby passes from the uterus through what organ to leave the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-57bf0ce0c6cb4135b0454ab29375ce55", "input": "Passage: The experiment is a cornerstone in the scientific approach to gaining deeper knowledge about the natural world. Scientists use the principles of their hypothesis to make predictions, and then test them to see if their predictions are to be confirmed or rejected. Answer: their hypothesis", "output": [ "Scientists use the principles of what to make predictions, which they then test?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3f81a46594674c16904d21ddd785871d", "input": "Passage: Coefficients are used to balance chemical equations. A coefficient is a number placed in front of a chemical symbol or formula. It shows how many atoms or molecules of the substance are involved in the reaction. Answer: coefficients", "output": [ "What are used to balance chemical equations?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6affe7db2a964b5b8de075f7af0f7442", "input": "Passage: may be located in organs or tissues that have functions in addition to hormone production. Hormones circulate throughout the body and stimulate a response in cells that have receptors able to bind with them. The changes brought about in the receiving cells affect the functioning of the organ system to which they belong. Many of the hormones are secreted in response to signals from the nervous system, thus the two systems act in concert to effect changes in the body. Answer: nervous system signals", "output": [ "Many of the hormones are secreted in response to what signals of the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4ebf4abc01d840768622be9ee2737d73", "input": "Passage: The heating curve shown is for water but other substances have similarly shaped heating curves. Suppose you begin with solid water (ice) at -30°C and add heat at a constant rate. The heat you add in the beginning will be absorbed as kinetic energy and the temperature of the solid will increase. When you reach a temperature of 0°C (the melting point for water), the heat you add is no longer absorbed as kinetic energy. Instead, the added heat is absorbed as potential energy and the particles separate from each other. During the flat part of the curve labeled “melting”, heat is being added constantly but the temperature does not increase. At the left edge of this flat line, the water is solid; by the time enough heat has been added to get to the right edge, the water is liquid, but maintains the same temperature. Once all the water is in the liquid form, the added heat will once again be absorbed as kinetic energy and the temperature will increase again. During the time labeled “water being heated as a liquid”, all the added heat is absorbed as kinetic energy. Answer: potential energy", "output": [ "In what form is the heat absorbed when you heat ice and it reaches a temperature of 0 c?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4ce27fbaa7314250a2814c370478550f", "input": "Passage: Common foodborne viruses include norovirus and hepatitis A virus. Norovirus, which causes inflammation of the stomach and intestines, has been a recent issue on cruise ships, infecting hundreds of passengers and crew on certain voyages. Hepatitis A causes inflammation of the liver, which is treated with rest and diet changes. Parasites are tiny organisms that live inside another organism. Giardia is a parasite spread through water contaminated with the stools of people or animals who are infected. Food preparers who are infected with parasites can also contaminate food if they do not thoroughly wash their hands after using the bathroom and before handling food. Trichinella is a type of roundworm parasite. People may be infected with this parasite by consuming raw or undercooked pork or wild game. Answer: intestines", "output": [ "Norovirus causes the inflammation of the stomach and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a29ebfe6da134a269171eac13c1dcc7a", "input": "Passage: Schrödinger’s work on orbitals is the basis of the modern model of the atom, which scientists call the quantum mechanical model. The modern model is also commonly called the electron cloud model. That’s because each orbital around the nucleus of the atom resembles a fuzzy cloud around the nucleus, like the ones shown in the Figure below for a helium atom. The densest area of the cloud is where the electrons have the greatest chances of being. Answer: schrödinger", "output": [ "The modern model of the atom, which scientists call the quantum mechanical model, is based on what scientist's work on orbitals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-06eb221760d148e68b40354aa1492237", "input": "Passage: The three theories below are essential in Earth science. Each accounts for an enormous amount of data. Each is supported by many lines of evidence. All can be used to make predications. As new evidence arises, any of these theories may need to be altered. But none of these three are likely ever to be disproved. They are accepted by nearly all of the credible scientists in their fields. Answer: theory", "output": [ "In science, what is supported by much evidence, widely accepted by credible scientists, and unlikely to be disproved?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4732bc71f89e426ebe6e74694209152c", "input": "Passage: The current produced by electromagnetic induction is greater when the magnet or coil moves faster, the coil has more turns, or the magnet is stronger. If the magnet or coil is moved back and forth repeatedly, alternating current is produced. Answer: moves back and forth repeatedly", "output": [ "Alternative current is produced when a magnet or coil does what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-33d65d82168442a8b7dcd3bb3508cebd", "input": "Passage: Ester molecules are polar but have no hydrogen atom attached directly to an oxygen atom. They are therefore incapable of engaging in intermolecular hydrogen bonding with one another and thus have considerably lower boiling points than their isomeric carboxylic acids counterparts. Because ester molecules can engage in hydrogen bonding with water molecules, however, esters of low molar mass are somewhat soluble in water. Borderline solubility occurs in those molecules that have three to five carbon atoms. http://catalog. flatworldknowledge. com/bookhub/reader/2547 - gob-ch15_s07_t01lists the physical properties of some common esters. Answer: hydrogen-oxygen atom", "output": [ "Lack of which attachment makes ester molecules incapable of intermolecular hydrogen bonding?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3ce832baca484130910bddaeced7b42d", "input": "Passage: The cytoskeleton is a cellular \"scaffolding\" or \"skeleton\" that crisscrosses the cytoplasm. All eukaryotic cells have a cytoskeleton, and recent research has shown that prokaryotic cells also have a cytoskeleton. The eukaryotic cytoskeleton is made up of a network of long, thin protein fibers and has many functions. It helps to maintain cell shape, holds organelles in place, and for some cells, it enables cell movement. The cytoskeleton plays important roles in both the intracellular movement of substances and in cell division. Certain proteins act like a path that vesicles and organelles move along within the cell. The threadlike proteins that make up the cytoskeleton continually rebuild to adapt to the cell's constantly changing needs. Three main kinds of cytoskeleton fibers are microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments. Answer: cytoplasm", "output": [ "The cytoskeleton is a cellular \"scaffolding\" or \"skeleton\" that crisscrosses what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c3ddbe4384ba46019ce5b3ef8a3fc994", "input": "Passage: Investigations are at the heart of science. They are how scientists add to scientific knowledge and gain a better understanding of the world. Scientific investigations produce evidence that helps answer questions. Even if the evidence cannot provide answers, it may still be useful. It may lead to new questions for investigation. As more knowledge is discovered, science advances. Answer: through investigations", "output": [ "What methods allow scientists to add to scientific knowledge and gain a better understanding of the world?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a357687e5a0f4da4bca6c3e4235cccbd", "input": "Passage: When plants and other organisms die, decomposers break down their remains. In the process, they release nitrogen in the form of ammonium ions. Nitrifying bacteria change the ammonium ions into nitrates. Some of the nitrates are used by plants. Some are changed back to nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria. Answer: decomposers", "output": [ "Which members of the food chain break down remains of plants and other organisms when they die?" ] }, { "id": "task594-62b38fce488e4f4190abcb9813ed6610", "input": "Passage: Bases have a lower concentration of hydronium ions than pure water, and a pH higher than 7. Answer: bases", "output": [ "What is the name for substances with a ph above 7?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c330cddfb82e4e8abd3b44b9799514b2", "input": "Passage: In a wheel and axle, force may be applied either to the wheel or to the axle. This force is called the input force. A wheel and axle does not change the direction of the input force. However, the force put out by the machine, called the output force, is either greater than the input force or else applied over a greater distance. Answer: input force", "output": [ "What is the term for the force applied to a wheel and axle?" ] }, { "id": "task594-647d84c9814141eca47d4fa104b8300b", "input": "Passage: The White Mountains in New Hampshire are part of the Appalachian province. The mountains are only around 6,000 feet high. Answer: appalachian", "output": [ "The white mountains in new hampshire are part of what province?" ] }, { "id": "task594-15984c79bf974a109b5913d75b1f233e", "input": "Passage: In the solar system, the planets orbit around the Sun. The Sun and each of the planets of our solar system are round. Earth is the third planet from the Sun. It is one of the inner planets. Jupiter is an outer planet. It is the largest planet in the solar system at about 1,000 times the size of Earth. The Sun is about 1,000 times bigger than Jupiter! ( Figure below ). Answer: the sun", "output": [ "What do the planets orbit around in the solar system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f1e529f7f4234b048bdff4ee0de7b4b5", "input": "Passage: Bacterial STIs include chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis. Answer: bacterial", "output": [ "Chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis are examples of which type of sti?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5f33e73249bc4a718329c09d78cb9158", "input": "Passage: Anal Canal Finally, food residue reaches the last part of the large intestine, the anal canal, which is located in the perineum, completely outside of the abdominopelvic cavity. This 3.8–5 cm (1.5–2 in) long structure opens to the exterior of the body at the anus. The anal canal includes two sphincters. The internal anal sphincter is made of smooth muscle, and its contractions are involuntary. The external anal sphincter is made of skeletal muscle, which is under voluntary control. Except when defecating, both usually remain closed. Answer: large", "output": [ "In humans, the anus is attached to what kind of intestine?" ] }, { "id": "task594-96c1d2783ca546e3beef3de5a76c5773", "input": "Passage: Force is defined as a push or pull acting on an object. Forces include gravity, friction, and applied force. Answer: force", "output": [ "What is defined as a push or pull acting on an object?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ac8bd63c36484b2cafc2627b3bee02d1", "input": "Passage: The original rock is the source of the inorganic portion of the soil. Mechanical weathering breaks rock into smaller pieces. Chemical reactions change the rock's minerals. Answer: chemical", "output": [ "Which type of weathering causes changes int he rocks materials, chemical or mechanical?" ] }, { "id": "task594-081ab5806e6a4edb8e34e33b456815d6", "input": "Passage: After food is broken down into nutrient molecules, the molecules are absorbed by the blood. Absorption is the process in which nutrients or other molecules are taken up by the blood. Once absorbed by the blood, nutrients can travel in the bloodstream to cells throughout the body. Answer: internal", "output": [ "What type of fertilization do most reptiles use to reproduce?" ] }, { "id": "task594-412e497e2bcd4b57a418d9170b7375df", "input": "Passage: Bacterial Disease Vectors. Ticks spread bacteria that cause Lyme disease. Deerflies spread bacteria that cause tularemia. Answer: lyme disease", "output": [ "Ticks spread bacteria that causes what condition?" ] }, { "id": "task594-76234600fa704108ad219d3075fbc165", "input": "Passage: CHAPTER REVIEW 25.1 Physical Characteristics of Urine The kidney glomerulus filters blood mainly based on particle size to produce a filtrate lacking cells or large proteins. Most of the ions and molecules in the filtrate are needed by the body and must be reabsorbed farther down the nephron tubules, resulting in the formation of urine. Urine characteristics change depending on water intake, exercise, environmental temperature, and nutrient intake. Urinalysis analyzes characteristics of the urine and is used to diagnose diseases. A minimum of 400 to 500 mL urine must be produced daily to rid the body of wastes. Excessive quantities of urine may indicate diabetes insipidus or diabetes mellitus. The pH range of urine is 4.5 to 8.0, and is affected by diet. Osmolarity ranges from 50 to 1200 milliosmoles, and is a reflection of the amount of water being recovered or lost by renal nephrons. Answer: proteins", "output": [ "The kidney glomerulus filters blood mainly based on particle size to produce a filtrate lacking cells or large what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-923d1dc2cdef4f52960cd6161bfc16a0", "input": "Passage: The plasma membrane forms a barrier between the cytoplasm and the environment outside the cell. The plasma membrane has selective permeability. Answer: plasma membrane", "output": [ "What forms a barrier between the cytoplasm and the environment outside the cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f5929a13e36a4fe1b8206ba231ce9b2d", "input": "Passage: Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and membrane-bound structures called organelles. Answer: organelles", "output": [ "In addition to a nucleus what do eukaryotic cells have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2af5dd270be949929f9f9302759968e7", "input": "Passage: The Calvin cycle has three major steps: carbon fixation, reduction, and regeneration. All three steps take place in the stroma of a chloroplast. Answer: carbon fixation", "output": [ "What is the first step of the calvin cycle called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1f016daeabcc416fbac28de57ec01e32", "input": "Passage: The embryo develops from a fertilized egg. While still inside the seed, the embryo forms its first leaf (cotyledon) and starts to develop a stem (hypocotyl) and root (radicle). Answer: cotyledon", "output": [ "What is the name of the first leaf developed inside an embryo?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2c8f1567ac284a6bb4a8015c0251d300", "input": "Passage: Calculating acceleration is complicated if both speed and direction are changing. It’s easier to calculate acceleration when only speed is changing. To calculate acceleration without a change in direction, you just divide the change in velocity (represented by ) by the change in time (represented by ). The formula for acceleration in this case is:. Answer: time", "output": [ "To calculate acceleration without a change in direction, you just divide the change in velocity by the change in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d76aebba709e4a4ba57e0de88ae110a8", "input": "Passage: Appendix: Periodic Table of the Elements In this chapter, we present some data on the chemical elements. The periodic table, introduced in Chapter 3 \"Atoms, Molecules, and Ions\", lists all the known chemical elements, arranged by atomic number (that is, the number of protons in the nucleus). The periodic table is arguably the best tool in all of science; no other branch of science can summarize its fundamental constituents in such a concise and useful way. Many of the physical and chemical properties of the elements are either known or understood based on their positions on the periodic table. Periodic tables are available with a variety of chemical and physical properties listed in each element’s box. What follows here is a more complex version of the periodic table than what was presented inChapter 3 \"Atoms, Molecules, and Ions\". The Internet is a great place to find periodic tables that contain additional information. One item on most periodic tables is the atomic mass of each element. For many applications, only one or two decimal places are necessary for the atomic mass. However, some applications (especially nuclear chemistry; see Chapter 15 \"Nuclear Chemistry\") require more decimal places. The atomic masses in Table 17.1 \"The Basics of the Elements of the Periodic Table\" represent the number of decimal places recognized by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, the worldwide body that develops standards for chemistry. The atomic masses of some elements are known very precisely, to a large number of decimal places. The atomic masses of other elements, especially radioactive elements, are not known as precisely. Some elements, such as lithium, can have varying atomic masses depending on how their isotopes are isolated. The web offers many interactive periodic table resources. For example, seehttp://www. ptable. Answer: periodic table", "output": [ "What organizational tool, arguably the best in all of science, lists all the known chemical elements, arranged by atomic number?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eed025f6c23f4d089d650f06bbaad76f", "input": "Passage: Triceps and biceps muscles in the upper arm are opposing muscles. Answer: opposing", "output": [ "Triceps and biceps muscles in the upper arm are an example of what type of muscle relationship?" ] }, { "id": "task594-af11c1b135154694b4ff6301b9c770d7", "input": "Passage: Pivot Joint. The joint at which the radius and ulna meet is a pivot joint. Movement at this joint allows you to flip your palm over without moving your elbow joint. Answer: pivot joint", "output": [ "The joint that lies between the radius and the ulna is what kind of joint?" ] }, { "id": "task594-556c378152224f1f94e1575710933e49", "input": "Passage: Sound is a form of energy that travels in waves through matter. The ability to sense sound energy and perceive sound is called hearing . The organ that we use to sense sound energy is the ear. Almost all the structures in the ear are needed for this purpose. Together, they gather sound waves, amplify the waves, and change their kinetic energy to electrical signals. The electrical signals travel to the brain, which interprets them as the sounds we hear. Answer: sound", "output": [ "What type of energy travels through matter in wave form?" ] }, { "id": "task594-36e5c61f7cc641aea35b130a06df846c", "input": "Passage: Then, about 2 or 3 billion years ago, oxygen was gradually added to the atmosphere by early photosynthetic bacteria. After that, living things could use oxygen to break down glucose and make ATP. Today, most organisms make ATP with oxygen. They follow glycolysis with the Krebs cycle and electron transport to make more ATP than by glycolysis alone. Cellular respiration that proceeds in the presence of oxygen is called aerobic respiration . Answer: aerobic respiration", "output": [ "Cellular respiration that proceeds in the presence of oxygen is known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-083792d68e204f5f9c1a2615df747e5c", "input": "Passage: Dermal tissue covers the outside of a plant. It's like the plant's skin. Cells of dermal tissue secrete a waxy substance called cuticle. Cuticle helps prevent water loss and damage to the plant. Answer: cuticle", "output": [ "What do cells of dermal tissue secrete?" ] }, { "id": "task594-61daad67bc49456d89019735591d49e2", "input": "Passage: Facts are true. Data, gathered correctly, is factual. Facts and data are not subject to opinion or bias. Answer: changing speed", "output": [ "Refraction happens when light bends from doing what in a new medium?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8c814b03ea2c4d6c8e3bdc9457514207", "input": "Passage: Organic chemistry is the study of the chemistry of carbon compounds. Answer: carbon compounds", "output": [ "Organic chemistry is the study of the chemistry of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3f1f30eb261b4f4db58b6de685af2572", "input": "Passage: CHAPTER SUMMARY 30.1 The Plant Body A vascular plant consists of two organ systems: the shoot system and the root system. The shoot system includes the aboveground vegetative portions (stems and leaves) and reproductive parts (flowers and fruits). The root system supports the plant and is usually underground. A plant is composed of two main types of tissue: meristematic tissue and permanent tissue. Meristematic tissue consists of actively dividing cells found in root and shoot tips. As growth occurs, meristematic tissue differentiates into permanent tissue, which is categorized as either simple or complex. Simple tissues are made up of similar cell types; examples include dermal tissue and ground tissue. Dermal tissue provides the outer covering of the plant. Ground tissue is responsible for photosynthesis; it also supports vascular tissue and may store water and sugars. Complex tissues are made up of different cell types. Vascular tissue, for example, is made up of xylem and phloem cells. Answer: permanent tissue", "output": [ "A plant is composed of two main types of tissue: meristematic tissue and what other kind of tissue?" ] }, { "id": "task594-db1ee8ea84404efba92605bbb50f667a", "input": "Passage: The molecular formula of carbon dioxide is CO 2 . One molecule of carbon dioxide consists of 1 atom of carbon and 2 atoms of oxygen. We can calculate the molar mass of carbon dioxide by adding together the molar masses of each atom present in the compound. Answer: co 2", "output": [ "What is the molecular formula of carbon dioxide?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0ce7f58c13984e01aa78543cea6f87f2", "input": "Passage: If the parents had four offspring, their most likely genotypes would be one BB, two Bb, and one bb. But the genotype ratios of their actual offspring may differ. That's because which gametes happen to unite is a matter of chance, like a coin toss. The Punnett square just shows the possible genotypes and their most likely ratios. Answer: genotypes", "output": [ "The punnett square shows the possible what, and their most likely ratios?" ] }, { "id": "task594-714ec563282944e88e123bc32eb35c96", "input": "Passage: Plants can also reproduce sexually, but their reproductive organs are different from animals’ gonads. Plants that have flowers have their reproductive parts in the flower. The sperm is contained in the pollen, while the egg is contained in the ovary, deep within the flower. The sperm can reach the egg two different ways:. Answer: the sperm", "output": [ "What reproductive part is stored in a plant's pollen?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5a105803b52443ef8544f963d1bff6e7", "input": "Passage: Radioactive decay is the breakdown of unstable elements into stable elements. To understand this process, recall that the atoms of all elements contain the particles protons, neutrons, and electrons. Answer: radioactive decay", "output": [ "What is the breakdown of unstable elements into stable elements called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dce9c2003955431babe3dbd27d9fbbb5", "input": "Passage: Figure 7.32 Thoracic Cage The thoracic cage is formed by the (a) sternum and (b) 12 pairs of ribs with their costal cartilages. The ribs are anchored posteriorly to the 12 thoracic vertebrae. The sternum consists of the manubrium, body, and xiphoid process. The ribs are classified as true ribs (1–7) and false ribs (8–12). The last two pairs of false ribs are also known as floating ribs (11–12). Answer: thoracic cage", "output": [ "The sternum and 12 pairs of ribs with their costal cartilages make up what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1b164201c18f4917a472d5d9a1bb3340", "input": "Passage: Some mutations that lead to cancer may be inherited. However, most of the mutations are caused by environmental factors. Anything in the environment that can cause cancer is called a carcinogen. Common carcinogens include certain chemicals and some types of radiation. Answer: cancer", "output": [ "A carcinogen is nything in the environment that can cause what disease?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e7023c2691e94b698cac4951441c048c", "input": "Passage: All plants have a characteristic life cycle that includes alternation of generations . Plants alternate between haploid and diploid generations. Alternation of generations allows for both asexual and sexual reproduction. Beginning with the diploid sporophyte , spores form from meiosis. Asexual reproduction with spores produces haploid individuals called gametophytes , which produce haploid gametes by mitosis. Sexual reproduction with gametes and fertilization produces the diploid sporophyte. A typical plant’s life cycle is diagrammed in Figure below . Answer: diploid sporophyte", "output": [ "What does sexual reproduction with gametes and fertilization produce?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bb6ffdd2f4c241fe8d5a5dad9821967e", "input": "Passage: The average kinetic energy of the molecules is proportional to the temperature of the sample. Answer: temperature", "output": [ "The kinetic energy of molecules is generally proportionate to what other property that they have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1606d07f62414be6b677e2ab6efa36b4", "input": "Passage: The temperature dependence of solubility can be exploited to prepare supersaturated solutions of certain compounds. A solution may be saturated with the compound at an elevated temperature (where the solute is more soluble) and subsequently cooled to a lower temperature without precipitating the solute. The resultant solution contains solute at a concentration greater than its equilibrium solubility at the lower temperature (i. , it is supersaturated) and is relatively stable. Precipitation of the excess solute can be initiated by adding a seed crystal (see the video in the Link to Learning earlier in this module) or by mechanically agitating the solution. Some hand warmers, such as the one pictured in Figure 11.18, take advantage of this behavior. Answer: supersaturated", "output": [ "The temperature dependence of solubility can be exploited to prepare what solutions of certain compounds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c88a9a5a109c439aa0a37ea7b3673756", "input": "Passage: People have known about gravity for thousands of years. After all, they constantly experienced gravity in their daily lives. They knew that things always fall toward the ground. However, it wasn’t until Sir Isaac Newton developed his law of gravity in the late 1600s that people really began to understand gravity. Newton is pictured in Figure below . Answer: gravity", "output": [ "What did sir isaac newton's famous law help people understand?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0d8596dfe8d145108486421382dbf8b4", "input": "Passage: The enormous number of species is due to the tremendous variety of environments in which they can live. Answer: environments", "output": [ "The enormous number of species is due to the tremendous variety of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-216cc99a7b06409d831c9a5cd6cd8f9a", "input": "Passage: It is not yet clear why biodiversity increases closer to the equator, but hypotheses include the greater age of the ecosystems in the tropics versus temperate regions, which were largely devoid of life or drastically impoverished during the last ice age. The greater age provides more time for speciation. Another possible explanation is the greater energy the tropics receive from the sun versus the lesser energy input in temperate and polar regions. But scientists have not been able to explain how greater energy input could translate into more species. The complexity of tropical ecosystems may promote speciation by increasing the habitat heterogeneity, or number of ecological niches, in the tropics relative to higher latitudes. The greater heterogeneity provides more opportunities for coevolution, specialization, and perhaps greater selection pressures leading to population differentiation. However, this hypothesis suffers from some circularity—ecosystems with more species encourage speciation, but how did they get more species to begin with? The tropics have been perceived as being more stable than temperate regions, which have a pronounced climate and day-length seasonality. The tropics have their own forms of seasonality, such as rainfall, but they are generally assumed to be more stable environments and this stability might promote speciation. Regardless of the mechanisms, it is certainly true that biodiversity is greatest in the tropics. The number of endemic species is higher in the tropics. The tropics also contain more biodiversity hotspots. At the same time, our knowledge of the species living in the tropics is lowest and because of recent, heavy human activity the potential for biodiversity loss is greatest. Answer: in the tropics", "output": [ "Where do you find the greatest biodiversity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3b5cde4f018d4558b367ee52ada4fffb", "input": "Passage: To this point, we have examined the relationships between any two of the variables of , , and , while the third variable is held constant. However, situations arise where all three variables change. The combined gas law expresses the relationship between the pressure, volume, and absolute temperature of a fixed amount of gas. For a combined gas law problem, only the amount of gas is held constant. Answer: pressure", "output": [ "The combined gas law involves three properties of a gas - volume, absolute temperature, and what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9075af944ae5455fbf9a0180a3654419", "input": "Passage: The speed of a gas particle is directly proportional to the temperature of the system. Answer: gas", "output": [ "The speed of a particle in what state is directly proportional to the temperature of the system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b0571b8014934bf9828fa63ba1cf7481", "input": "Passage: Water has remarkable properties. Water expands when it freezes, even though all other substances contract. This means that in the winter ice on a pond or lake will float. Water has high surface tension because polar molecules tend to stick together. That's why drops stick together or some bugs can walk on the surface of a pond. Without water, life might not be able to exist on Earth. If it did exist, it would not be as diverse or as complex. Answer: polar molecules sticking together", "output": [ "What can water's high surface tension be attributed t?" ] }, { "id": "task594-576d8359ea104a2395970b500be725be", "input": "Passage: Osmosis is the transport of water through a semipermeable membrane from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. Osmosis is driven by the imbalance in water concentration. For example, water is more concentrated in your body than in Epsom salt. When you soak a swollen ankle in Epsom salt, the water moves out of your body into the lower-concentration region in the salt. Similarly, dialysis is the transport of any other molecule through a semipermeable membrane due to its concentration difference. Both osmosis and dialysis are used by the kidneys to cleanse the blood. Osmosis can create a substantial pressure. Consider what happens if osmosis continues for some time, as illustrated in Figure 12.23. Water moves by osmosis from the left into the region on the right, where it is less concentrated, causing the solution on the right to rise. This movement will continue until the pressure ρgh created by the extra height of fluid on the right is large enough to stop further osmosis. This pressure is called a back pressure. The back pressure. Answer: water concentration", "output": [ "Osmosis is driven by the imbalance of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-037fb58dc6614d6ab5e4729c8bdf7370", "input": "Passage: Gravity cannot be seen. It does not require things to touch. Gravity is an invisible force. Many things are pulled to the Earth by gravity. Can you think of some things that fall toward the Earth?. Answer: gravity", "output": [ "What is the invisible force that pulls things to earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-622d47c58e3e48aba5e103876fe3cff1", "input": "Passage: A heart attack happens when the blood cannot reach the heart because a blood vessel is blocked. If cardiac muscle is starved of oxygen for more than roughly five minutes, it will die. Cardiac muscle cells cannot be replaced, so once they die, they are dead forever. Coronary heart disease is the leading cause of death of adults in the United States. The image below shows the way in which a blocked coronary artery can cause a heart attack and cause part of the heart muscle to die ( Figure below ). Maybe one day stem cells will be used to replace dead cardiac muscle cells. Answer: heart attack", "output": [ "What happens when the blood cannot reach the heart because a blood vessel is blocked?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1963deca64bf42adb1847b03c9a026cd", "input": "Passage: Monatomic ions form when a single atom gains or loses electrons. For the main group elements, cations are generally formed by removing all of the valence electrons from the atom. Since the numbers of valence electrons for the representative elements are constant within a particular group, all we need is the group number of a given element to know its charge when it becomes a cation. Group 1 elements form ions with a 1+ charge, Group 2 metal ions have a 2+ charge, and the ions of Group 13 elements tend to have a 3+ charge. Heavier p-block metals such as tin and lead are special cases and will be discussed with the transition metal ions. The name of a monatomic cation is the same as the name of the neutral element. For example, the sodium atom (Na) loses a single electron to form the sodium ion (Na + ), while Al 3+ is an aluminum ion. Answer: monatomic ions", "output": [ "What form when a single atom gains or loses electrons?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a760ebf412b94d0b9072b369afad3880", "input": "Passage: Polar Bears. Thick fur and a layer of blubber keep polar bears warm in their Arctic ecosystem. Why do you think their fur is white? Why might it be an adaptation in an Arctic biome?. Answer: arctic", "output": [ "What type of ecosystem do polar bears live in?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2050a3102a8d4b998c64d9d1f1899913", "input": "Passage: CHAPTER REVIEW 27.1 Anatomy and Physiology of the Male Reproductive System Gametes are the reproductive cells that combine to form offspring. Organs called gonads produce the gametes, along with the hormones that regulate human reproduction. The male gametes are called sperm. Spermatogenesis, the production of sperm, occurs within the seminiferous tubules that make up most of the testis. The scrotum is the muscular sac that holds the testes outside of the body cavity. Spermatogenesis begins with mitotic division of spermatogonia (stem cells) to produce primary spermatocytes that undergo the two divisions of meiosis to become secondary spermatocytes, then the haploid spermatids. During spermiogenesis, spermatids are transformed into spermatozoa (formed sperm). Upon release from the seminiferous tubules, sperm are moved to the epididymis where they continue to mature. During ejaculation, sperm exit the epididymis through the ductus deferens, a duct in the spermatic cord that leaves the scrotum. The ampulla of the ductus deferens meets the seminal vesicle, a gland that contributes fructose and proteins, at the ejaculatory duct. The fluid continues through the prostatic urethra, where secretions from the prostate are added to form semen. These secretions help the sperm to travel through the urethra and into the female reproductive tract. Secretions from the bulbourethral glands protect sperm and cleanse and lubricate the penile (spongy) urethra. The penis is the male organ of copulation. Columns of erectile tissue called the corpora cavernosa and corpus spongiosum fill with blood when sexual arousal activates vasodilatation in the blood vessels of the penis. Testosterone regulates and maintains the sex organs and sex drive, and induces the physical changes of puberty. Interplay between the testes and the endocrine system precisely control the production of testosterone with a negative feedback loop. Answer: testosterone", "output": [ "What is responsible for the physical changes of puberty?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d344746be7aa471a81a70c04a8af7d0f", "input": "Passage: An ecosystem is a group of living things and their environment. It is made up of both living and nonliving things. Answer: ecosystem", "output": [ "What is defined as a group of living and nonliving things and their environment?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d49b323b1f4b443f90f4a184fd536871", "input": "Passage: It might be fun to lay out in the sun like these two girls are doing. But getting too much sun can be very dangerous. Overexposure to sunlight raises your risk for skin cancer. Answer: skin cancer", "output": [ "The risk of what is raised by overexposure to the sun?" ] }, { "id": "task594-49decd964d1c485ea8f96d32e16d55ab", "input": "Passage: The name silicon is derived from the Latin word for flint, silex. The metalloid silicon readily forms compounds containing Si-O-Si bonds, which are of prime importance in the mineral world. This bonding capability is in contrast to the nonmetal carbon, whose ability to form carbon-carbon bonds gives it prime importance in the plant and animal worlds. Answer: silex", "output": [ "The name silicon is derived from the latin word for flint?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f094562802d14739840779437b8df7db", "input": "Passage: Flickr:futureatlas. com (http://futureatlas. com/blog/). Human activities like burning gasoline in cars are contributing to a global change in our climate . CC BY 2.0. Answer: climate change", "output": [ "Burning gas to run our cars is an example of how human activity is contributing to what global event?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d5c24c89f86b412ebcfa982d47b12624", "input": "Passage: At the end of the Cretaceous Period, or 65 million years ago, all dinosaurs (except those which led to birds) went extinct. Some scientists believe a possible cause is a collision between the Earth and a comet or asteroid. The collision could have caused tidal waves, changed the climate, and reduced sunlight by 10-20%. A decrease in photosynthesis would have resulted in less plant food, leading to the extinction of the dinosaurs. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "A comet striking the earth may have caused mass extinction, this would have decreased sunlight, which would have effected what plant process reducing food?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a41b7704d28c4998b1c1ab6dfc481df9", "input": "Passage: At the top of the stratosphere is a thin layer called the stratopause. It acts as a boundary between the stratosphere and the mesosphere. Answer: stratopause", "output": [ "What is the name of the thin layer that acts as a boundary between the stratosphere and the mesosphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e3d46d0c00844df0a987cea68d1a2089", "input": "Passage: Examples of behaviors with annual cycles include migration and hibernation. Both are innate behaviors. They are triggered by changes in the environment, such as the days growing shorter in the fall. Answer: annual", "output": [ "Triggered by changes in the environment, migration and hibernation occur as cycles on what temporal basis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cb8b2a851a22474ebaae62b409743266", "input": "Passage: Light includes infrared light, visible light, and ultraviolet light. As you can see from the Figure above , light falls roughly in the middle of the electromagnetic spectrum. It has shorter wavelengths and higher frequencies than microwaves, but not as short and high as X rays. Answer: light", "output": [ "What falls roughly in the middle of the electromagnetic spectrum, having shorter wavelengths and higher frequencies than microwaves, but not as short and high as x rays?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1b5bbb9897914597abae88f8e1976f70", "input": "Passage: Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have different masses. Answer: isotopes", "output": [ "Atoms of the same element that have different masses are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-adf2a2bc66f84f9dafdc949a7733b056", "input": "Passage: Covalent bonds are chemical bonds between atoms of nonmetals that share valence electrons. In some covalent bonds, electrons are not shared equally between the two atoms. These are called polar covalent bonds. The Figure below shows the polar bonds in a water molecule (H 2 O). The oxygen atom attracts the shared electrons more strongly than the hydrogen atoms do because the nucleus of the oxygen atom has more positively charged protons. As a result, the oxygen atom becomes slightly negative in charge, and the hydrogen atoms become slightly positive in charge. For another example of polar bonds, see the video at this URL: http://www. youtube. com/watch?v=1lnjg81daBs. Answer: covalent bonds", "output": [ "What are chemical bonds between atoms of nonmetals that share valence electrons called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d5e6b0a430c64d5899d177f524c12de4", "input": "Passage: Water is an example of a common chemical compound. As you can see in the Figure below , each water molecule consists of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. Water always has this 2:1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen. Like water, all compounds consist of a fixed ratio of elements. It doesn’t matter how much or how little of a compound there is. It always has the same composition. Answer: water", "output": [ "What molecule consists of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ae5b49bf4bca4649bd8634f9a8acfd3a", "input": "Passage: The speed of a wave is a product of its wavelength and frequency. Because the speed of electromagnetic waves through space is constant, the wavelength or frequency of an electromagnetic wave can be calculated if the other value is known. Answer: frequency", "output": [ "The speed of a wave is a product of its wavelength and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-443531dccf304dc5b02a9912a03effc7", "input": "Passage: Binary fission can be described as a series of steps, although it is actually a continuous process. The steps are described below and also illustrated in Figure below . They include DNA replication, chromosome segregation, and finally the separation into two daughter cells. Answer: binary fission", "output": [ "Dna replication, chromosome segregation, and the separation into two daughter cells are steps in what process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1169e04d75144a1c8d31cd59aa7027fc", "input": "Passage: Neptune's appearance changes due to its turbulent atmosphere. Winds are stronger than on any other planet in the solar system. Wind speeds can reach 1,100 km/h (700 mph). This is close to the speed of sound! The rapid winds surprised astronomers. This is because Neptune receives little energy from the Sun to power weather systems. It is not surprising that Neptune is one of the coldest places in the solar system. Temperatures at the top of the clouds are about –218°C (–360°F). Answer: turbulent atmosphere", "output": [ "Why does neptune's appearance change?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5af8d4126e0046cc9a63d1e5376989f9", "input": "Passage: A catalyst works by providing a lower energy pathway from reactants to products. The use of a catalyst involves intermediate reactions which have lower activation complexes than the original reaction. On a simplified reaction energy diagram, this can be thought of as lowering the activation energy for a given transformation. If the activation energy of a reaction is decreased, more collisions will have enough energy to overcome this lower barrier, so the reactant-to-product transformation will occur more frequently. As a result, the overall reaction rate will be higher than for an identical reaction with a larger activation energy barrier. Answer: catalyst", "output": [ "What works by providing a lower energy pathway from reactants to products?" ] }, { "id": "task594-745301a0e5db427e813fbb6a7b701695", "input": "Passage: Through the process of transformation, the human gene for insulin is placed into bacteria. The bacteria then use that gene to make a protein. The protein can be separated from the bacteria and then used to treat patients. The mass production of insulin by bacteria made this medicine much more affordable. Answer: transformation", "output": [ "Through which process is the human gene for insulin placed into bacteria?" ] }, { "id": "task594-846603a5ac49458eafa83e9349cf73a8", "input": "Passage: Our solar system began about 5 billion years ago. The Sun, planets, and other solar system objects all formed at about the same time. The leading hypothesis for how they formed is called the nebular hypothesis . Answer: five billion", "output": [ "Approximately how many billion years ago did our solar system begin?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a4db802276f8446b9affd92ad4beda55", "input": "Passage: Many kinds of waves exist, such as sound waves and water waves. Visible light is also a wave. It is a specific type of a more general phenomenon called an electromagnetic wave. All waves can be described in terms of the basic physical properties frequency and wavelength . These two properties are related to the speed of a wave by the following equation:. Answer: electromagnetic", "output": [ "What type of wave is visible light?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a6bbde30ad3949418e49223605466d7b", "input": "Passage: atoms held together by covalent bonds; they tend to be very hard and have high melting points. Metallic solids have unusual properties: in addition to having high thermal and electrical conductivity and being malleable and ductile, they exhibit luster, a shiny surface that reflects light. An alloy is a mixture of metals that has bulk metallic properties different from those of its constituent elements. Alloys can be formed by substituting one metal atom for another of similar size in the lattice (substitutional alloys), by inserting smaller atoms into holes in the metal lattice (interstitial alloys), or by a combination of both. Although the elemental composition of most alloys can vary over wide ranges, certain metals combine in only fixed proportions to form intermetallic compounds with unique properties. Answer: constituent elements", "output": [ "An alloy is a mixture of metals that has bulk metallic properties different from those of its what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a5a4b7272b8345dc877367c98fa2034f", "input": "Passage: Fermented Foods. Fermentation is a type of respiration that doesn’t use oxygen. Fermentation by bacteria is used in brewing and baking. It is also used to make the foods pictured here. Answer: fermentation", "output": [ "What type of respiration does not use oxygen?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fa12e0cbd6c3495b98f0d099f777b964", "input": "Passage: Many human diseases are caused by protists. Most of them are caused by protozoa. They are parasites that invade and live in the human body. The parasites get a place to live and nutrients from the human host. In return, they make the host sick. Examples of human diseases caused by protozoa include giardiasis and malaria. Answer: protozoa", "output": [ "Giardiasis and malaria are diseases caused by what organism?" ] }, { "id": "task594-febf1c944688401687f567556ade0028", "input": "Passage: A: Most ocean waves are caused by wind blowing across the water. Moving air molecules transfer some of their energy to molecules of ocean water. The energy travels across the surface of the water in waves. The stronger the winds are blowing, the larger the waves are and the more energy they have. Answer: wind", "output": [ "Most ocean waves are caused by what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f624e6522e5343288cd6e3a2fb71ab2e", "input": "Passage: For a given substance, the entropy of the liquid state is greater than the entropy of the solid state. Likewise, the entropy of the gas is greater than the entropy of the liquid. Therefore, entropy increases in processes in which solid or liquid reactants form gaseous products. Entropy also increases when solid reactants form liquid products. Answer: entropy", "output": [ "What increases in processes in which solid or liquid reactants form gaseous products and when solid reactants form liquid products?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4ac13aec38eb4195beb9d80203ae75c9", "input": "Passage: The scientists used geologic dating techniques on seafloor rocks. They found that the youngest rocks on the seafloor were at the mid-ocean ridges. The rocks get older with distance from the ridge crest. The scientists were surprised to find that the oldest seafloor is less than 180 million years old. This may seem old, but the oldest continental crust is around 4 billion years old. Answer: mid-ocean ridges", "output": [ "Scientists found that the youngest rocks on the seafloor were where?" ] }, { "id": "task594-403958ab22cf4f97b4e92f8ec0d42c84", "input": "Passage: Sugars are simple carbohydrates. Molecules of sugar have just a few carbon atoms. The simplest sugar is glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ). Glucose is the sugar that the cells of living things use for energy. Plants and some other organisms make glucose in the process of photosynthesis. Living things that cannot make glucose obtain it by consuming plants or these other organisms. Answer: glucose", "output": [ "What is the sugar that the cells of living things use for energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2a8f522520284996ae232ed49bd3c4b0", "input": "Passage: Reproduction in prokaryotic cells is by binary fission ; a process of growth, enlargement and division. This will be discussed in the Cell Division: Prokaryotic (Advanced) concept. Answer: binary fission", "output": [ "Reproduction in prokaryotic cells is by what process of growth, enlargement and division?" ] }, { "id": "task594-238e50c47ad543b2b02af51b524c8871", "input": "Passage: Many plants also produce hormones and toxins to fight pathogens. For example, willow trees, like the one in Figure below , produce salicylic acid to kill bacteria. The same compound is used in many acne products for the same reason. Answer: salicylic acid", "output": [ "What do willow trees produce to kill bacteria?" ] }, { "id": "task594-367e257d2df04e2c8091492d9f786ff8", "input": "Passage: What explains buoyant force? Recall from the earlier lesson \"Pressure of Fluids\" that a fluid exerts pressure in all directions but the pressure is greater at greater depth. Therefore, the fluid below an object exerts greater force on the object than the fluid above the object. This is illustrated in Figure below . Buoyant force explains why objects may float in water. No doubt you’ve noticed, however, that some objects do not float in water. If buoyant force applies to all objects in fluids, why do some objects sink instead of float? The answer has to do with their weight. Answer: buoyant force", "output": [ "What force explains why objects may float in water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-929265f7f1c64ac189f28533619b5b2b", "input": "Passage: Insulin was the first human protein to be produced in this way. Insulin helps cells take up glucose from the blood. People with type 1 diabetes have a mutation in the gene that normally codes for insulin. Without insulin, their blood glucose rises to harmfully high levels. At present, the only treatment for type 1 diabetes is the injection of insulin from outside sources. Until recently, there was no known way to make insulin outside the human body. The problem was solved by gene cloning. The human insulin gene was cloned and used to transform bacterial cells, which could then produce large quantities of human insulin. Answer: insulin", "output": [ "What helps cells take up glucose from the blood?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a85fa7af1b9b4405aead0c89f9a986e1", "input": "Passage: Predators play an important role in an ecosystem. For example, if they did not exist, then a single species could become dominant over others. Grazers on a grassland keep grass from growing out of control. Predators can be keystone species . These are species that can have a large effect on the balance of organisms in an ecosystem. For example, if all of the wolves are removed from a population, then the population of deer or rabbits may increase. If there are too many deer, then they may decrease the amount of plants or grasses in the ecosystem. Decreased levels of producers may then have a detrimental effect on the whole ecosystem. In this example, the wolves would be a keystone species. Answer: keystone", "output": [ "What type of species have a large effect on the balance of organisms in an ecosystem?" ] }, { "id": "task594-32ac9923e447422c89aac6342e219421", "input": "Passage: Reactions and Compounds of Nitrogen Like carbon, nitrogen has four valence orbitals (one 2s and three 2p), so it can participate in at most four electron-pair bonds by using sp3 hybrid orbitals. Unlike carbon, however, nitrogen does not form long chains because of repulsive interactions between lone pairs of electrons on adjacent atoms. These interactions become important at the shorter internuclear distances encountered with the smaller, second-period elements of groups 15, 16, and 17. (For more information on internuclear distance, see Chapter 7 \"The Periodic Table and Periodic Trends\", Section 7.2 \"Sizes of Atoms and Ions\" and Chapter 8 \"Ionic versus Covalent Bonding\", Section 8.2 \"Ionic Bonding\". ) Stable compounds with N–N bonds are limited to chains of no more than three N atoms, such as the azide ion (N 3−). Nitrogen is the only pnicogen that normally forms multiple bonds with itself and other second-period elements, using π overlap of adjacent np orbitals. Thus the stable form of elemental nitrogen is N 2, whose N≡N bond is so strong (DN≡N = 942 kJ/mol) compared with the N–N and N=N bonds (DN–N = 167 kJ/mol; DN=N = 418 kJ/mol) that all compounds containing N–N and N=N bonds are thermodynamically unstable with respect to the formation of N2. In fact, the formation of the N≡N bond is so thermodynamically favored that virtually all compounds containing N–N bonds are potentially explosive. Again in contrast to carbon, nitrogen undergoes only two important chemical reactions at room temperature: it reacts with metallic lithium to form lithium nitride, and it is reduced to ammonia by certain microorganisms. (For more information lithium, seeChapter 21 \"Periodic Trends and the \". ) At higher temperatures, however, N2 reacts with more electropositive elements, such as those in group 13, to give binary nitrides, which range from covalent to ionic in character. Like the corresponding compounds of carbon, binary compounds of nitrogen with oxygen, hydrogen, or other nonmetals are usually covalent molecular substances. Few binary molecular compounds of nitrogen are formed by direct reaction of the elements. At elevated temperatures, N2 reacts with H2 to form ammonia, with O2 to form a mixture of NO and NO2, and with carbon to form cyanogen (N≡C–C≡N); elemental nitrogen does not react with the halogens or the other chalcogens. Nonetheless, all the binary nitrogen halides (NX3) are known. Except for NF3, all are toxic,. Answer: four", "output": [ "What is the most electron-pair bonds a nitrogen atom can participate in?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b7e9ea5bdde7454682770beb3a602b89", "input": "Passage: Figure 27.1 The leaf chameleon (Brookesia micra) was discovered in northern Madagascar in 2012. At just over one inch long, it is the smallest known chameleon. (credit: modification of work by Frank Glaw, et al. , PLOS). Answer: smallest known chameleon", "output": [ "The leaf chameleon (brookesia micra) was discovered in northern madagascar in 2012. at just over one inch long, it is what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b6f8709df0a14109baa4f40e7a3912b7", "input": "Passage: When fossil fuels burn, they release thermal energy, water vapor, and carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide produced by fossil fuel use is a major cause of global warming. The burning of fossil fuels also releases many pollutants into the air. Pollutants such as sulfur dioxide form acid rain, which kills living things and damages metals, stonework, and other materials. Pollutants such as nitrogen oxides cause smog, which is harmful to human health. Tiny particles, or particulates, released when fossil fuels burn also harm human health. Natural gas releases the least pollution; coal releases the most (see Figure below ). Petroleum has the additional risk of oil spills, which may seriously damage ecosystems. Answer: carbon dioxide", "output": [ "What gas produced by fossil fuel use is a major cause of global warming?" ] }, { "id": "task594-883d4fcc828c4f0a9d72cc6d6224413c", "input": "Passage: Primary succession occurs in an area that has never before been colonized. Pioneer species include bacteria and lichens that can grow on bare rock and help make soil. Answer: primary succession", "output": [ "What kind of succession occurs in an area that has never before been colonized?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9636289e39e54e7c8c60ec16799b24c9", "input": "Passage: Like hurricanes, winter storms develop from cyclones. But in the case of winter storms, the cyclones form at higher latitudes. In North America, cyclones often form when the jet stream dips south in the winter. This lets dry polar air pour south. At the same time, warm moist air from the Gulf of Mexico flows north. When the two air masses meet, the differences in temperature and pressure cause strong winds and heavy precipitation. Blizzards and lake-effect snow storms are two types of winter storms that occur in the U. S. Answer: cyclones", "output": [ "Hurricanes and winter storms both develop from what, which often form when the jet stream dips south in the winter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d7c12c8a650c4e33a1bc7352232e699e", "input": "Passage: A cell is the simplest unit of structure and function of all living organisms. From the smallest bacteria to the largest whale, all life is made of at least one cell. Answer: cell", "output": [ "What is the simplest unit of structure and function of all living organisms called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4b1af51fc73e42419d3ce6cf1eeec615", "input": "Passage: Some predator species play a special role in their community. They are called keystone species. When the population size of a keystone species changes, the populations of many other species are affected. Prairie dogs, pictured in Figure below , are an example of a keystone species. Their numbers affect most of the other species in their community. Prairie dog actions improve the quality of soil and water for plants, upon which most other species in the community depend. Answer: keystone species", "output": [ "What do you call a predator species that affects other species' populations when its own population size changes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5b2b97cf535c410d89ab243bae3f4041", "input": "Passage: Some invertebrates can also reproduce asexually. This may occur by fission or budding. Fission takes place when an animal simply divides into two parts. Each part then regrows the missing part. The result is two whole organisms. Budding may take place when a parent forms a small bump, or bud. The bud remains attached to the parent while it develops into a new individual. Answer: fission", "output": [ "What type of reproduction takes place when an animal simply divides into two parts?" ] }, { "id": "task594-51b2e428f1e64ae38776e69ee1e18195", "input": "Passage: Chapter 23 1 Figure 23.5 All eukaryotic cells have mitochondria, but not all eukaryotic cells have chloroplasts. 3 Figure 23.18 C 4 D 6 C 8 D 10 B 12 C 14 A 16 A 18 Eukaryotic cells arose through endosymbiotic events that gave rise to the energy-producing organelles within the eukaryotic cells such as mitochondria and chloroplasts. The nuclear genome of eukaryotes is related most closely to the Archaea, so it may have been an early archaean that engulfed a bacterial cell that evolved into a mitochondrion. Mitochondria appear to have originated from an alpha-proteobacterium, whereas chloroplasts originated as a cyanobacterium. There is also evidence of secondary endosymbiotic events. Other cell components may also have resulted from endosymbiotic events. 20 As an intestinal parasite, Giardia cysts would be exposed to low pH in the stomach acids of its host. To survive this environment and reach the intestine, the cysts would have to be resistant to acidic conditions. 22 By definition, an obligate saprobe lacks the ability to perform photosynthesis, so it cannot directly obtain nutrition by searching for light. Instead, a chemotactic mechanism that senses the odors released during decay might be a more effective sensing organ for a saprobe. 24 The trypanosomes that cause this disease are capable of expressing a glycoprotein coat with a different molecular structure with each generation. Because the immune system must respond to specific antigens to raise a meaningful defense, the changing nature of trypanosome antigens prevents the immune system from ever clearing this infection. Massive trypanosome infection eventually leads to host organ failure and death. Answer: chloroplasts", "output": [ "All eukaryotic cells have mitochondria, but not all eukaryotic cells have what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-78790129eee448eb911fd62decc821d4", "input": "Passage: The scientist must next form a conclusion. The scientist must study all of the data. What statement best explains the data? Did the experiment prove the hypothesis? Sometimes an experiment shows that a hypothesis is correct. Other times the data disproves the hypothesis. Sometimes it's not possible to tell. If there is no conclusion, the scientist may test the hypothesis again. This time he will use some different experiments. No matter what the experiment shows the scientist has learned something. Even a disproved hypothesis can lead to new questions. Answer: hypothesis", "output": [ "If no conclusion is reached after an experiment, the scientist may retest what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f0287cccbf1a402b993830f3835abd7b", "input": "Passage: A volcano is a vent through which molten rock and gas escape from a magma chamber. Volcanoes differ in many features, such as height, shape, and slope steepness. Some volcanoes are tall cones, and others are just cracks in the ground ( Figure below ). As you might expect, the shape of a volcano is related to the composition of its magma. The three types of volcanoes are composite, shield, and cinder cones. Answer: composite, shield, cinder cones", "output": [ "What are the 3 types of volcanoes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2a438d62ca99429098a8a2a739bb9bc4", "input": "Passage: Other dry climates get a little more precipitation. They are called steppes . These regions have short grasses and low bushes (see Figure below ). Steppes occur at higher latitudes than deserts. They are dry because they are in continental interiors or rain shadows. Answer: steppes", "output": [ "What is the term for dry climate regions at higher altitudes that have short grasses and low bushes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-35b266bb24df44a8855d3b80b93b8313", "input": "Passage: When waves of two different frequencies interfere, a phenomenon known as beating occurs. The frequency of a beat is the difference of the two frequencies. Answer: beating", "output": [ "When waves of two different frequencies interfere, what phenomenon occurs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2a3a30960b1d4fb5aa44e82482cb1cf7", "input": "Passage: Ice caps are large glaciers that cover a larger area than just a valley. An ice cap can bury an entire mountain range or region ( Figure below ). Glaciers come off of ice caps into valleys. Answer: ice caps", "output": [ "What are large glaciers that cover a larger area than just a valley?" ] }, { "id": "task594-64a59ed206a64c279aea1229fa58255c", "input": "Passage: One of the simplest machines is the lever, which is a rigid bar pivoted at a fixed place called the fulcrum. Torques are involved in levers, since there is rotation about a pivot point. Distances from the physical pivot of the lever are crucial, and we can obtain a useful expression for the MA in terms of these distances. Answer: fulcrum", "output": [ "One of the simplest machines is the lever, which is a rigid bar pivoted at a fixed place called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a031139c1b734231935a17639963689d", "input": "Passage: Most of Earth’s water is salt water in the oceans. As seen below, only 3 percent of Earth’s water is fresh ( Figure below ). Freshwater is water that contains little or no dissolved salt. Most freshwater is frozen in ice caps and glaciers. Glaciers cover the peaks of some tall mountains. For example, the Cascades Mountains in North America and the Alps Mountains in Europe are capped with ice. Ice caps cover vast areas of Antarctica and Greenland. Chunks of ice frequently break off ice caps. They form icebergs that float in the oceans. Answer: oceans", "output": [ "In what type of body of water is most of the earth's water located?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ed2635f00a244d3fbd31748e210ff639", "input": "Passage: Igneous rocks cool from magma. The appearance of the rock is created by the composition of the magma. It is also determined by the rate that the magma cools. If the magma cools deep underground, it cools slowly. If the magma cools at or very near the surface, it cools quickly. This results in two different rock types. The rock types can be told apart by the size of their crystals. The size of the crystals creates the texture of the rock. Answer: magma cooling", "output": [ "What is igneous rock created from?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a4d8021971c8490ca14dabbe83d5c25d", "input": "Passage: The different feeding positions in a food chain or web are called trophic levels. Answer: trophic", "output": [ "Different feeding \"positions\" in a food chain or web are associated with what kinds of levels?" ] }, { "id": "task594-41280aaa041947a7abfb5371f6539b82", "input": "Passage: The epidermis is the outer layer of skin. It consists almost entirely of epithelial cells. There are no blood vessels, nerve endings, or glands in this skin layer. Nonetheless, this layer of skin is very active. It is constantly being renewed. How does this happen?. Answer: skin", "output": [ "Lacking blood vessels, nerve endings, or glands, the epidermis is the outer layer of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-505b431a52774572951ac9e3cfae7c43", "input": "Passage: Cilia and flagella are extensions of the plasma membrane. Answer: plasma membrane", "output": [ "Cilia and flagella are extensions of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cc92229c18264a9c96f37185a4423204", "input": "Passage: Monotreme reproduction is the least risky for the mother. However, eggs are harder to protect than is an embryo or a fetus in a pouch or uterus. Therefore, monotreme offspring may have a lower chance of surviving than the offspring of therian mammals. Answer: monotreme", "output": [ "What kind of mammalian reproduction is risky for the offspring but not the mother?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a13ceeb6a0674f5aaf91b67e4738c6b2", "input": "Passage: Nitrogen is a diatomic element with five valence electrons. Create a model of a molecule of nitrogen. Answer: 5", "output": [ "How many valence electrons does nitrogen have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1edf6fa20e13434aa967fab6ea47b125", "input": "Passage: Human cells normally have two sets of chromosomes, one set inherited from each parent. There are 23 chromosomes in each set, for a total of 46 chromosomes per cell. Each chromosome in one set is matched by a chromosome of the same type in the other set, so there are actually 23 pairs of chromosomes per cell. Each pair consists of chromosomes of the same size and shape that also contain the same genes. The chromosomes in a pair are known as homologous chromosomes . Answer: 23", "output": [ "How many chromosomes are in each set?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f86e23c1f8e64b5794e566aea2995407", "input": "Passage: Hundreds of species of birds have gone extinct as a result of human actions. A well-known example is the passenger pigeon. It was once the most common bird in North America, but over-hunting and habitat destruction led to its extinction in the 1800s. Habitat destruction and use of the pesticide DDT explain the recent extinction of the dusky seaside sparrow. This native Florida bird was declared extinct in 1990. Answer: human actions", "output": [ "Which single most factor is responsible for the extinction of hundreds of species of birds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-35231bec5e934cc8b952e3a459f8b4eb", "input": "Passage: Flatworms reflect several major evolutionary advances in invertebrates. They have three embryonic cell layers, including mesoderm. The mesoderm layer allows them to develop organ systems. For example, they have muscular and excretory systems. The muscular system allows them to move from place to place over solid surfaces. The excretory system lets them maintain a proper balance of water and salts. Flatworms also show cephalization and bilateral symmetry. Answer: excretory", "output": [ "What system lets flatworms maintain a proper balance of water and salts?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b14f4da7f7b943dea44284c4ce9996e2", "input": "Passage: Alloys that are mostly composed of mercury are known as amalgams . Amalgams often have special properties that stem from the fact that mercury exists as a liquid at room temperature. As a result, metal amalgams are used for a variety of purposes, including dentistry and the extraction of other pure metals such as gold. Answer: amalgams", "output": [ "What are alloys that are mostly composed of mercury known as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b4a15ac87fc84dfea10838214e02f79f", "input": "Passage: The solubility of gases is also affected by pressure. Pressure is the force pushing against a given area. Increasing the pressure on a gas increases its solubility. Did you ever open a can of soda and notice how it fizzes out of the can? Soda contains dissolved carbon dioxide. Opening the can reduces the pressure on the gas in solution, so it is less soluble. As a result, some of the carbon dioxide comes out of solution and rushes into the air. Answer: increase", "output": [ "Increasing the pressure on a gas has what effect on its solubility?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a0bc0ff4a48846f7a4598034f441e946", "input": "Passage: Bases are less common as foods, but they are nonetheless present in many household products. Many cleaners contain ammonia, a base. Sodium hydroxide is found in drain cleaner. Antacids , which combat excess stomach acid, are comprised of bases such as magnesium hydroxide or sodium hydrogen carbonate. Answer: bases", "output": [ "What are antacids comprised of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-79d1065e187647c1b83f9464d5b386e3", "input": "Passage: 11.4 Variation of Pressure with Depth in a Fluid If your ears have ever popped on a plane flight or ached during a deep dive in a swimming pool, you have experienced the effect of depth on pressure in a fluid. At the Earth’s surface, the air pressure exerted on you is a result of the weight of air above you. This pressure is reduced as you climb up in altitude and the weight of air above you decreases. Under water, the pressure exerted on you increases with increasing depth. In this case, the pressure being exerted upon you is a result of both the weight of water above you and that of the atmosphere above you. You may notice an air pressure change on an elevator ride that transports you many stories, but you need only dive a meter or so below the surface of a pool to feel a pressure increase. The difference is that water is much denser than air, about 775 times as dense. Consider the container in Figure 11.10. Its bottom supports the weight of the fluid in it. Let us calculate the pressure exerted on the bottom by the weight of the fluid. That pressure is the weight of the fluid mg divided by the area A supporting it (the area of the bottom of the container):. Answer: air", "output": [ "At the earth’s surface, the air pressure exerted on you is a result of the weight of what above you?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4ea87502d6ce44bc909bb100f6c145ba", "input": "Passage: Animals and Plants: Herbivory Coevolution of flowering plants and insects is a hypothesis that has received much attention and support, especially because both angiosperms and insects diversified at about the same time in the middle Mesozoic. Many authors have attributed the diversity of plants and insects to pollination and herbivory, or consumption of plants by insects and other animals. This is believed to have been as much a driving force as pollination. Coevolution of herbivores and plant defenses is observed in nature. Unlike animals, most plants cannot outrun predators or use mimicry to hide from hungry animals. A sort of arms race exists between plants and herbivores. To “combat” herbivores, some plant seeds—such as acorn and unripened persimmon—are high in alkaloids and therefore unsavory to some animals. Other plants are protected by bark, although some animals developed specialized mouth pieces to tear and chew vegetal material. Spines and thorns (Figure 26.18) deter most animals, except for mammals with thick fur, and some birds have specialized beaks to get past such defenses. Answer: coevolution", "output": [ "What hypothetical link between development of herbivores and plant defenses is observed in nature, for instance in seeds that are unsavory to animals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-122776f3a9b84f9ebe8a59e8adeed521", "input": "Passage: Acetylene is an interesting example of a molecule with two central atoms, which are both C atoms. Polyatomic ions are bonded together with covalent bonds. Because they are ions, however, they participate in ionic bonding with other ions. So both major types of bonding can occur at the same time. Answer: acetylene", "output": [ "What is an interesting example of a molecule with two central atoms, which are both c atoms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e3ff6dc0f18e4f43bd3619452a149f46", "input": "Passage: As shown in Figure above , each state of matter looks quite different at the molecular level. In the case of liquids and solids, the distances between particles are negligible relative to the size of each particle; they are essentially in direct contact with one another. In liquids, particles are free to move and exchange neighbors, resulting in the properties of a fluid. In solids, they are rigidly fixed in space and held tightly to neighboring particles. Answer: solids", "output": [ "In what state of matter are particles rigidly fixed in space and held tightly to neighboring particles?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6f1900e93fca4cbab5425672a05ef2f7", "input": "Passage: Scientific notation is a way of writing very large or very small numbers that uses exponents. Numbers are written in the format a × 10 b . Answer: infancy", "output": [ "When does a baby double in length and triple in weight?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5cabc5ea78184f46a88cfaa481f5768f", "input": "Passage: Most arthropods have three body segments. The segments are the head, thorax, and abdomen. You can see the three segments in a range of arthropods in Figure below . In some arthropods, the head and thorax are joined together. Answer: abdomen", "output": [ "The three segments of arthropods are the head, thorax and what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a62efa68574c4234bf6ffe27ff4d313f", "input": "Passage: A : A theory is needed to explain gravity. In science, a theory is a broad explanation that is supported by a great deal of evidence. Answer: theory", "output": [ "What is another name for a broad explanation that is supported by a great deal of evidence?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1f67fb2cbba3439cafa711d8afd0cd89", "input": "Passage: Bones are far from static, or unchanging. Instead, they are dynamic, living tissues that are constantly being reshaped. Under the direction of osteocytes, osteoblasts continuously build up bone, while osteoclasts continuously break it down. You can watch an animated video of these processes in bone at http://www. youtube. com/watch?v=yENNqRJ2mu0 . Answer: dynamic", "output": [ "Bones are far from static, or unchanging. instead, they are what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-06c52e3fce9543679f9799cc2e2c3c09", "input": "Passage: The spiral staircase in Figure below also contains an inclined plane. Do you see it? The stairs that wrap around the inside of the walls make up the inclined plane. The spiral staircase is an example of a screw. A screw is a simple machine that consists of an inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder or cone. No doubt you are familiar with screws like the wood screw in Figure below . The screw top of the container in the figure is another example. Screws move objects to a higher elevation (or greater depth) by increasing the force applied. Answer: force applied", "output": [ "Screws move objects to a higher elevation by increasing what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1b2c117dcc0a4f1bb1d49195b67f6b12", "input": "Passage: Most halogens have a variety of important uses. A few are described in the Table below . Answer: thrust", "output": [ "What is the force pushing a rocket called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-077727333a34425fab4b08080dec328a", "input": "Passage: Cells come in many different shapes. Cells with different functions often have different shapes. Answer: shape", "output": [ "Cells with different functions often differ in what physical property?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7785acf8a78b4963aa045f285dd7eca5", "input": "Passage: Earth is spinning as air moves over its surface. This causes the Coriolis effect. Winds blow on a diagonal over the surface due to Coriolis effect. From which direction do the northern trade winds blow?. Answer: coriolis effect", "output": [ "Earth spinning as air moves over its surface causes what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-714e10cb50364424ad9ce3972843fb7c", "input": "Passage: The pressure of a sample of gas is measured with an open-end manometer, partially shown to the right. The liquid in the manometer is mercury. Assuming atmospheric pressure is 29.92 in. Hg, determine the pressure of the gas in: (a) torr (b) Pa (c) bar. Answer: manometer", "output": [ "The pressure of a sample of gas is measured with an open-end what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7e85f05b628e4b4094abfb4d301a70a9", "input": "Passage: Cells that divide uncontrollably may form a tumor, or abnormal mass of cells. Tumors may be benign or malignant. Benign tumors remain localized and generally do not harm health. Malignant tumors are cancerous. There are no limits to their growth, so they can invade and damage neighboring tissues. Cells from malignant tumors may also break away from the tumor and enter the bloodstream. They are carried to other parts of the body, where new tumors may form. The most common and the most deadly cancers for U. S. adults are listed in Table below . Answer: tumor", "output": [ "What do you call an abnormal mass formed when cells divide uncontrollably?" ] }, { "id": "task594-85bf37cb7d2940ba90d1f18514dfdeef", "input": "Passage: Superposition refers to the position of rock layers and their relative ages ( Figure below ). Relative age means age in comparison with other rocks, either younger or older. The relative ages of rocks are important for understanding Earth’s history. New rock layers are always deposited on top of existing rock layers. Therefore, deeper layers must be older than layers closer to the surface. This is the law of superposition. Answer: superposition", "output": [ "Deeper layers of rock must be older than layers closer to the surface, this is the law of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f984f3700511475683765e3d0d74c90e", "input": "Passage: The many steps in the process of aerobic cellular respiration can be divided into three stages. The first stage, glycolysis, produces ATP without oxygen. Because this part of the cellular respiration pathway is universal, biologists consider it the oldest segment. Note that glycogen and fats can also enter the glycolysis pathway. The second stage is the Krebs Cycle, and the third stage is the electron transport chain. It is during the third stage that chemiosmosis produces numerous ATP molecules. Answer: aerobic cellular respiration", "output": [ "Glycolysis, the krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain are stages in what process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-726db2ec62924d6cb89e1775ae6ef070", "input": "Passage: Molar masses can be used to determine the mass of a given quantity of material. Answer: molar masses", "output": [ "What can be used to determine the mass of a quantity of material?" ] }, { "id": "task594-16a795e0664f49d9abcd258ea8d0a515", "input": "Passage: The pressure increases dramatically due to large increase in temperature. Answer: large increase", "output": [ "What needs to happen to temperature to cause pressure to increase dramatically?" ] }, { "id": "task594-00939d41fd75463f973ed5702033a804", "input": "Passage: Within the first 8 weeks of gestation, a developing embryo establishes the rudimentary structures of all of its organs and tissues from the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. This process is called organogenesis. Like the central nervous system, the heart also begins its development in the embryo as a tube-like structure, connected via capillaries to the chorionic villi. Cells of the primitive tube-shaped heart are capable of electrical conduction and contraction. The heart begins beating in the beginning of the fourth week, although it does not actually pump embryonic blood until a week later, when the oversized liver has begun producing red blood cells. (This is a temporary responsibility of the embryonic liver that the bone marrow will assume during fetal development. ) During weeks 4–5, the eye pits form, limb buds become apparent, and the rudiments of the pulmonary system are formed. During the sixth week, uncontrolled fetal limb movements begin to occur. The gastrointestinal system develops too rapidly for the embryonic abdomen to accommodate it, and the intestines temporarily loop into the umbilical cord. Paddle-shaped hands and feet develop fingers and toes by the process of apoptosis (programmed cell death), which causes the tissues between the fingers to disintegrate. By week 7, the facial structure is more complex and includes nostrils, outer ears, and lenses (Figure 28.15). By the eighth week, the head is nearly as large as the rest of the embryo’s body, and all major brain structures are in place. The external genitalia are apparent, but at this point, male and female embryos are indistinguishable. Bone begins to replace cartilage in the embryonic skeleton through the process of ossification. By the end of the embryonic period, the embryo is approximately 3 cm (1.2 in) from crown to rump and weighs approximately 8 g (0.25 oz). Answer: organogenesis", "output": [ "Within the first 8 weeks of gestation, a developing embryo establishes the rudimentary structures of all of its organs and tissues from the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. this process is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a0812484d84b4c088bea4404e7a0e7c0", "input": "Passage: One source of indoor air pollution is radon gas. Radon is a radioactive gas that may seep into buildings from rocks underground. Exposure to radon gas may cause lung cancer. Another potential poison in indoor air is carbon monoxide. It may be released by faulty or poorly vented furnaces or other fuel-burning appliances. Indoor furniture, carpets, and paints may release toxic compounds into the air as well. Other possible sources of indoor air pollution include dust, mold, and pet dander. Answer: indoor air pollution", "output": [ "Carbon monoxide, radon gas, dust and pet dander are sources of what kind of pollution?" ] }, { "id": "task594-13243c77a83a406889037e2ad1558008", "input": "Passage: The gonads are glands that secrete sex hormones. Male gonads are called testes. They secrete the male sex hormone testosterone. The female gonads are called ovaries. They secrete the female sex hormone estrogen. Sex hormones stimulate the changes of puberty. They also control the production of sperm or eggs by the gonads. Answer: sex hormones", "output": [ "What stimulates the changes of pubery?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b740048b28d845559af69bac41413be8", "input": "Passage: Note the Pattern Because carbohydrates have a carbonyl functional group and several hydroxyl groups, they can undergo a variety of reactions. Two familiar polysaccharides are starch and cellulose, which both hydrolyze to produce thousands of glucose units. They differ only in the connection between glucose units and the amount of branching in the molecule (Figure 24.22 \"The Polysaccharides Starch and Cellulose\"). Starches can be coiled or branched and are hydrolyzed by the enzymes in our saliva and pancreatic juices. Animal starch, called glycogen, is stored in the liver and muscles. It consists of branched glucose units linked by bonds Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: muscles", "output": [ "Animal starch, called glycogen, is stored in the liver and where else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a025899ee01e40af913b42a990a6d0f3", "input": "Passage: Group selection A proposed alternative to inclusive fitness (sometimes known as kin selection) is the concept of group selection. In this type of evolutionary scenario, small groups of organisms of the same species are effectively acting as single (perhaps colonial) organisms. It is the reproductive success of the group (rather than individuals within the group), compared to other groups of the organism that is the basis of selection. Groups that display cooperative and altruistic traits have a selective advantage over groups that do not. Again, the mathematical analysis is similar (and it has been claimed that mathematically group and kin selection are equivalent).169 The costs of a trait must be offset by the benefits, but now the key factor is membership in a particular group (and typically, members of a group tend to be related to one another). The life cycle of the bacterium Myxococcus xanthus provides an example of this type of behavior. When environmental conditions are harsh, the cells aggregate into dense, 100 μm diameter, “fruiting bodies”, each containing ~100,000 stress resistant spores. When the environment improves, and prey becomes available, the spores are released en mass and return to active life. They move and feed in a cooperative manner through the release of digestive enzymes, which because they are acting in a quorum mode, can reach high levels.170 A well-coordinated group is expected to have a significant reproductive advantage over more anarchic collection of individuals. Answer: evolutionary", "output": [ "An alternative to inclusive fitness is group selection, a type of what scenario where small groups of organisms of the same species are effectively acting as single (perhaps colonial) organisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e05f116e9b8a4fecbd5fa470e08f85e9", "input": "Passage: 12.4 Viscosity and Laminar Flow; Poiseuille’s Law • Laminar flow is characterized by smooth flow of the fluid in layers that do not mix. • Turbulence is characterized by eddies and swirls that mix layers of fluid together. • Fluid viscosity η is due to friction within a fluid. Representative values are given in Table 12.1. Viscosity has units of. Answer: turbulence", "output": [ "What property is characterized by eddies and swirls that mix layers of fluid together, unlike laminar flow?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8aa9d5af1c3e4d68b2d1c12f1f0c70e7", "input": "Passage: on a daily basis as a preventive measure. However, aspirin can also lead to serious side effects, including increasing the risk of ulcers. A patient is well advised to consult a physician before beginning any aspirin regimen. A class of drugs collectively known as thrombolytic agents can help speed up the degradation of an abnormal clot. If a thrombolytic agent is administered to a patient within 3 hours following a thrombotic stroke, the patient’s prognosis improves significantly. However, some strokes are not caused by thrombi, but by hemorrhage. Thus, the cause must be determined before treatment begins. Tissue plasminogen activator is an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of plasminogen to plasmin, the primary enzyme that breaks down clots. It is released naturally by endothelial cells but is also used in clinical medicine. New research is progressing using compounds isolated from the venom of some species of snakes, particularly vipers and cobras, which may eventually have therapeutic value as thrombolytic agents. Answer: clot", "output": [ "Snake venom may join the class of drugs collectively known as thrombolytic agents, which can help speed up the degradation of an abnormal what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f8286ff5dbba475eb86bcc5440c29969", "input": "Passage: Visible light is the wavelengths of light humans can see. Answer: visible light", "output": [ "What is the term for the wavelengths of light humans can see?" ] }, { "id": "task594-48a7b3ceb12242c697b079a306f0f63a", "input": "Passage: Many of the problems with fossil fuels are worse for coal than for oil or natural gas. Burning coal releases more carbon dioxide than either oil or natural gas. Yet coal is the most common fossil fuel, so we continue to burn large amounts of it. That makes coal the biggest contributor to global warming. Answer: coal", "output": [ "What is the most common fossil fuel?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8068c077f2be4ae49a7834e072b5a99b", "input": "Passage: The global biosphere, which includes all areas that contain life, from the sea to the atmosphere. Answer: life", "output": [ "The global biosphere includes all areas of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-55b1e01874a746ec8afe52b2d3251060", "input": "Passage: Some sunlight is good for your health. Vitamin D is made in the skin when it is exposed to sunlight. But getting too much sun can be unhealthy. A sunburn is a burn to the skin that is caused by overexposure to UV radiation from the sun's rays or tanning beds. Answer: vitamin d", "output": [ "Which vitamin is made in the skin when it is exposed to sunlight?" ] }, { "id": "task594-59d9b8e013af4697bd08036b9f43ae29", "input": "Passage: In eukaryotic cells, the DNA is kept in the nucleus. The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope. Within the nucleus is the nucleolus. Answer: nucleus", "output": [ "In eukaryotic cells, where is the dna kept?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0fa0ac2634754da68efd7690a3aef7a8", "input": "Passage: Algae play significant roles as producers in aquatic ecosystems. Microscopic forms live suspended in the water column. They are the main component of phytoplankton . As such, they contribute to the food base of most marine ecosystems. Answer: algae", "output": [ "What is the main component of phytoplankton?" ] }, { "id": "task594-74aa5dfb8a654450856a2a046a3d1e1a", "input": "Passage: The Cellular Basis of Immunological Memory As already discussed, one of the major features of an adaptive immune response is the development of immunological memory. During a primary adaptive immune response, both memory T cells and effector T cells are generated. Memory T cells are long-lived and can even persist for a lifetime. Memory cells are primed to act rapidly. Thus, any subsequent exposure to the pathogen will elicit a very rapid T cell response. This rapid, secondary adaptive response generates large numbers of effector T cells so fast that the pathogen is often overwhelmed before it can cause any symptoms of disease. This is what is meant by immunity to a disease. The same pattern of primary and secondary immune responses occurs in B cells and the antibody response, as will be discussed later in the chapter. Answer: lifetime", "output": [ "Memory t cells are long-lived and can even persist for how long?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cd78413682a844e7bfaea8f28cb9a721", "input": "Passage: Rising air currents carry water vapor into the atmosphere. As the water vapor rises in the atmosphere, it cools and condenses. Condensation is the process in which water vapor changes to tiny droplets of liquid water. The water droplets may form clouds. If the droplets get big enough, they fall as precipitation. Answer: water droplets", "output": [ "Clouds are formed from what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-de025c36ae1049e5affa819db99cc9d9", "input": "Passage: Mangrove roots are like stilts, allowing mangrove trees to rise high above the water. The trunk and leaves are above water even at high tide. A bloodroot plant uses food stored over the winter to grow flowers in the early spring. Answer: stilt like roots", "output": [ "Why do mangrove trees rise high above the water? which characteristic help them to do so?" ] }, { "id": "task594-58e90e8cac0643f7bc2b1acea9ba5e25", "input": "Passage: Forms of Energy The forms of energy include thermal energy, radiant energy, electrical energy, nuclear energy, and chemical energy (Figure 5.1 \"Forms of Energy\"). Thermal energy results from atomic and molecular motion; the faster the motion, the greater the thermal energy. The temperature of an object is a measure of its thermal energy content. Radiant energy is the energy carried by light, microwaves, and radio waves. Objects left in bright sunshine or exposed to microwaves become warm because much of the radiant energy they absorb is converted to thermal energy. Electrical energy results from the flow of electrically charged particles. When the ground and a cloud develop a separation of charge, for example, the resulting flow of electrons from one to the other produces lightning, a natural form of electrical energy. Nuclear energy is stored in the nucleus of an atom, and chemical energy is stored within a chemical compound because of a particular arrangement of atoms. (a) Thermal energy results from atomic and molecular motion; molten steel at 2000°C has a very high thermal energy content. (b) Radiant energy (e. , from the sun) is the energy in light, microwaves, and radio waves. (c) Lightning is an example of electrical energy, which is due to the flow of electrically charged particles. (d)Nuclear. Answer: thermal", "output": [ "The temperature of an object is a measure of what type of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b8f1d51a6c094225920e06822c47f394", "input": "Passage: Tight junctions are composed of strands of transmembrane proteins embedded in the plasma membranes of two adjacent cells. The extracellular domains of these proteins directly join to one another. These joining proteins associate with peripheral membrane proteins located on the intracellular side of plasma membrane. These peripheral proteins anchor the strands to the actin component of the cytoskeleton, effectively forming a molecular complex that joins together the cytoskeletons of adjacent cells. The major types anchoring proteins of tight junctions are the claudins and the occludins. Answer: claudins and occludins", "output": [ "What are the major types anchoring proteins?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4c5eeb05667c4780902de58ff9a1b23b", "input": "Passage: Telescopes on Earth all have one big problem: incoming light must pass through the atmosphere. This blocks some wavelengths of radiation. Also, motion in the atmosphere distorts light. You see this when you see stars twinkling in the night sky. Many observatories are built on high mountains. There is less air above the telescope, so there is less interference from the atmosphere. Space telescopes avoid problems from the atmosphere completely since they orbit outside the atmosphere. Answer: the atmosphere", "output": [ "Many observatories are built on high mountains to avoid interference from what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-74db73e423524f5f93b7071514fd892d", "input": "Passage: The time interval required for one complete wave to pass a point is called the period . During the period of the wave, an entire wavelength from one crest to the next crest passes a position. The number of waves that pass a single position in one second is called the frequency . The period of a wave and its frequency are reciprocals of each other. Answer: period", "output": [ "What is the time interval required for one complete wave to pass a point called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-48a10da84beb48bf9b86b8ea0172bf67", "input": "Passage: 3.3 Acidic and basic conditions affect living organisms. Answer: acidic", "output": [ "Living organisms are affected by changes in ph which can include basic conditions and what other kinds of conditions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b7c432fd610448d082f1c2c99d11614c", "input": "Passage: PV = nRT This equation is known as the ideal gas law. An ideal gas is defined as a hypothetical gaseous substance whose behavior is independent of attractive and repulsive forces and can be completely described by the ideal gas law. In reality, there is no such thing as an ideal gas, but an ideal gas is a useful conceptual model that allows us to understand how gases respond to changing conditions. As we shall see, under many conditions, most real gases exhibit behavior that closely approximates that of an ideal gas. The ideal gas law can therefore be used to predict the behavior of real gases under most conditions. As you will learn in Section 10.8 \"The Behavior of Real Gases\", the ideal gas law does not work well at very low temperatures or very high pressures, where deviations from ideal behavior are most commonly observed. Answer: gas", "output": [ "The important equation pv = nrt holds true for substances in what state of matter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8c94d9251f234b5ebc4dfa00487d4838", "input": "Passage: dome-shaped plug of thick lava that cools near the vent of a volcano. Answer: to reach the nectar at the bottom of flowers", "output": [ "Why do hummingbirds have long narrow bills?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1683cbc4658f4f11b777289d6b86b35d", "input": "Passage: Most plant cells have a large central vacuole . It can make up as much as 90 percent of a plant cell’s total volume. The central vacuole is like a large storage container. It may store substances such as water, enzymes, and salts. It may have other roles as well. For example, the central vacuole helps stems and leaves hold their shape. It may also contain pigments that give flowers their colors. Answer: vacuole", "output": [ "Most plant cells have a large central what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-678b0e9ac60e44289aa7484fdc43da75", "input": "Passage: inner aspect of the atlas, where it is held in place by a ligament. Rotation at this joint allows you to turn your head from side to side. A second pivot joint is found at the proximal radioulnar joint. Here, the head of the radius is largely encircled by a ligament that holds it in place as it articulates with the radial notch of the ulna. Rotation of the radius allows for forearm movements. Answer: type 2", "output": [ "Which common type of diabetes is also known as noninsulin-dependent or adult-onset diabetes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-93f5f27c08974844808d8832120d0925", "input": "Passage: The folded surfaces of the gills provide a large surface area to ensure that the fish gets sufficient oxygen. Diffusion is a process in which material travels from regions of high concentration to low concentration until equilibrium is reached. In this case, blood with a low concentration of oxygen molecules circulates through the gills. The concentration of oxygen molecules in water is higher than the concentration of oxygen molecules in gills. As a result, oxygen molecules diffuse from water (high concentration) to blood (low concentration), as shown in Figure 39.5. Similarly, carbon dioxide molecules in the blood diffuse from the blood (high concentration) to water (low concentration). Answer: diffusion", "output": [ "What term is used to describe a process in which material travels from regions of high concentration to low concentration until equilibrium is reached?" ] }, { "id": "task594-14c70ed266714f5c9ebd6820c4648dac", "input": "Passage: To change the motion of an object, inertia must be overcome by an unbalanced force acting on the object. Until the soccer player kicks the ball in Figure below , the ball remains motionless on the ground. However, when the ball is kicked, the force on it is suddenly unbalanced. The ball starts moving across the field because its inertia has been overcome. Answer: inertia", "output": [ "What must be overcome to change the motion of an object?" ] }, { "id": "task594-16f4d67727294cd7b03b8ccad966b67c", "input": "Passage: Air pollution is harmful to human beings and other living things. About 22 million people die from air pollution each year. Breathing polluted air increases the risk of developing lung diseases such as asthma and lung cancer. Breathing bad air also increases the chances of dying from other diseases. Children are most likely to be affected by air pollution. That’s because their lungs are still developing and growing. Children also take in more air for their size than adults do. Some air pollutants damage the environment as well as the health of living things. The type of damage depends on the pollutant. Air pollution can also harm the environment. Answer: 22 million", "output": [ "How many people die from air pollution each year?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e4bd56a47cd64211a056962661408530", "input": "Passage: Gap genes control the shape of a developing zygote early in its development. Gap mutants are missing segments in their embryos. These genes are highly regulated. Answer: gap genes", "output": [ "What controls the shape of a developing zygote early in its development?" ] }, { "id": "task594-59ac42c732e044418d5baeb642402492", "input": "Passage: Most tunicates live a sessile existence in shallow ocean waters and are suspension feeders. The primary foods of tunicates are plankton and detritus. Seawater enters the tunicate’s body through its incurrent siphon. Suspended material is filtered out of this water by a mucus net (pharyngeal slits) and is passed into the intestine through the action of cilia. The anus empties into the excurrent siphon, which expels wastes and water. Lancelets possess a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail in the adult stage (Figure 15.35). The notochord extends into the head, which gives the subphylum its name (Cephalochordata). Extinct fossils of this subphylum date to the middle of the Cambrian period (540–488 mya). The living forms, the lancelets, are named for their blade-like shape. Lancelets are only a few centimeters long and are usually found buried in sand at the bottom of warm temperate and tropical seas. Like tunicates, they are suspension feeders. Answer: detritus", "output": [ "Most tunicates live a sessile existence in shallow ocean waters and are suspension feeders. the primary foods of tunicates are plankton and this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8f0e0676d69d444caeb11ab7ca79cc93", "input": "Passage: The respiratory system is responsible for breathing. Answer: respiratory system", "output": [ "What system of the body is generally responsible for breathing?" ] }, { "id": "task594-60594e63723746ca84998536037cb708", "input": "Passage: A newborn baby has a soft spot on the top of its head. Over the next few months, the soft spot gradually hardens. What explains this?. Answer: hardens", "output": [ "A newborn baby has a soft spot on the top of its head. over the next few months, the soft spot gradually does what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2cc491e8569846978ec8a2b1abee2b52", "input": "Passage: The rate the magma cools determines the texture of the rock. Answer: texture", "output": [ "The rate the magma cools determines what property of the rock?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f063f5c0cb5b4cfcb5211e3e0a4144c3", "input": "Passage: Pulmonary circulation is the part of the circulatory system that carries blood between the heart and lungs (the term “pulmonary” means “of the lungs”). It is illustrated in Figure below . Deoxygenated blood leaves the right ventricle through pulmonary arteries, which transport it to the lungs. In the lungs, the blood gives up carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen. The oxygenated blood then returns to the left atrium of the heart through pulmonary veins. Answer: carbon dioxide", "output": [ "What gas do the lungs give up as they take in oxygen?" ] }, { "id": "task594-860ec60d569341e0b67adffbf31d97f9", "input": "Passage: Plants alternate between diploid-cell plants and haploid-cell plants. This is called alternation of generations , because the plant type alternates from generation to generation. In alternation of generations, the plant alternates between a sporophyte that has diploid cells and a gametophyte that has haploid cells. Answer: alternation of generation", "output": [ "When plant type alternates from generation to generation what is this called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6592d05a5fca4289b1db3268823f5c65", "input": "Passage: The next structure is the stamen , consisting of the stalk-like filament that holds up the anther , or pollen sac. The pollen, which is found at the top of the stamen, is the male gametophyte. Answer: pollen", "output": [ "What is found at the top of the stamen?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ab6bf67f580e4c958108d99e569b400f", "input": "Passage: The corona ( Figure below ) is the outermost part of the Sun's atmosphere. It is the Sun’s halo, or “crown. ” With a temperature of 1 to 3 million K, the corona is much hotter than the photosphere. The corona extends millions of kilometers into space. Sometime you should try to see a total solar eclipse. If you do, you will see the Sun’s corona shining out into space. Answer: corona", "output": [ "What is the outermost part of the sun's atmosphere called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8564d6a2146749c0b9eb1ba82a809b1f", "input": "Passage: A lichen is a mutualistic relationship between a fungus and a photosynthetic organism. The other organism is usually a cyanobacterium or green alga. The fungus grows around the bacterial or algal cells. The fungus benefits from the constant supply of food produced by the photosynthesizer. The photosynthesizer benefits from the water and nutrients absorbed by the fungus. Figure below shows lichen growing on a rock. Answer: the photosynthesizer", "output": [ "The fungus benefits from the constant supply of food produced by what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b37f26e380754db99f0e8487e2d9459f", "input": "Passage: With the help of muscles, joints allow the body to move with relatively little force. Answer: joints", "output": [ "Along with muscles, what helps the body move with relatively little force?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2bc7a3ed50a24e128beac49877cb212e", "input": "Passage: A peptide bond is the amide bond that occurs between the amino nitrogen of one amino acid and the carboxyl carbon of another amino acid. The resulting molecule is called a dipeptide. Notice that the particular side chains of each amino acid are irrelevant since the R groups are not involved in the peptide bond. Answer: a peptide bond", "output": [ "What is the amide bond that occurs between the amino nitrogen of one amino acid and the carboxyl carbon of another amino acid?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2591b5e7d42b4635891da438e29e37b9", "input": "Passage: Rivers and streams flow across continents. They cut away at rock, forming river valleys ( Figure below ). These are destructive forces. The bits and pieces of rock carried by rivers are deposited where rivers meet the oceans. These can form deltas, like the Mississippi River delta. They can also form barrier islands, like Padre Island in Texas. Rivers bring sand to the shore, which forms our beaches. These are constructive forces. Answer: constructive forces", "output": [ "What type of forces are involved when deposited rock forms deltas or barrier islands?" ] }, { "id": "task594-50b51fe04ee3424dad02d03a202af0e2", "input": "Passage: Nuclear energy is produced by splitting the nucleus of an atom. This releases a huge amount of energy. Answer: nuclear energy", "output": [ "Splitting the nucleus of an atom produces a massive amount of what type of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0fce33a882fe423c9941d460a3ec25d7", "input": "Passage: A unique mutation is found in people in a small town in Italy. The mutation protects them from developing atherosclerosis, which is the dangerous buildup of fatty materials in blood vessels. The individual in which the mutation first appeared has even been identified. Answer: atherosclerosis", "output": [ "What disease refers to the dangerous buildup of fatty materials in blood vessels?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6f4100d57d904bcda315c4cfaf040213", "input": "Passage: The modern atomic theory states that all matter is composed of atoms. Answer: atoms", "output": [ "The modern atomic theory states that all matter is composed of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-230262726edd4c01ad39816ad5f890f6", "input": "Passage: matrix and deposit calcium, which hardens the matrix. The non-mineralized portion of the bone or osteoid continues to form around blood vessels, forming spongy bone. Connective tissue in the matrix differentiates into red bone marrow in the fetus. The spongy bone is remodeled into a thin layer of compact bone on the surface of the spongy bone. Endochondral Ossification Endochondral ossification is the process of bone development from hyaline cartilage. All of the bones of the body, except for the flat bones of the skull, mandible, and clavicles, are formed through endochondral ossification. In long bones, chondrocytes form a template of the hyaline cartilage diaphysis. Responding to complex developmental signals, the matrix begins to calcify. This calcification prevents diffusion of nutrients into the matrix, resulting in chondrocytes dying and the opening up of cavities in the diaphysis cartilage. Blood vessels invade the cavities, and osteoblasts and osteoclasts modify the calcified cartilage matrix into spongy bone. Osteoclasts then break down some of the spongy bone to create a marrow, or medullary, cavity in the center of the diaphysis. Dense, irregular connective tissue forms a sheath (periosteum) around the bones. The periosteum assists in attaching the bone to surrounding tissues, tendons, and ligaments. The bone continues to grow and elongate as the cartilage cells at the epiphyses divide. In the last stage of prenatal bone development, the centers of the epiphyses begin to calcify. Secondary ossification centers form in the epiphyses as blood vessels and osteoblasts enter these areas and convert hyaline cartilage into spongy bone. Until adolescence, hyaline cartilage persists at the epiphyseal plate (growth plate), which is the region between the diaphysis and epiphysis that is responsible for the lengthwise growth of long bones (Figure 38.21). Answer: chondrocytes", "output": [ "This calcification prevents diffusion of nutrients into the matrix, resulting in what dying and the opening up of cavities in the diaphysis cartilage?" ] }, { "id": "task594-10b2349e5d7b4453b37dd092d4bc8780", "input": "Passage: As larvae, tunicates can swim freely to find food. As adults, tunicates lack a post-anal tail and notochord, and they can no longer swim. Instead, they remain in one place and are filter feeders. Tunicates can reproduce both sexually and asexually. The same adults produce sperm and eggs. However, fertilization always involves gametes from different parents. Asexual reproduction is by budding. Answer: asexual", "output": [ "Budding is a form of what type of reproduction in tunicates?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3b52e8109c2f4c37a8a9b6a5d4bff6e3", "input": "Passage: Fungi can produce antibiotics , such as penicillin. Antibiotics are important medicines that kill bacteria, and penicillin was the first identified cure against many deadly bacterial species. Antibiotics only treat bacterial diseases; they can not be used to treat viral or fungal diseases. Answer: bacterial diseases", "output": [ "Which type of diseases do antibiotics treat?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d83e7a46c1a14c3fb1b04cf9e05199a5", "input": "Passage: In a parasitism, the parasitic species benefits, while the host species is harmed. Answer: parasitism", "output": [ "One species benefits while the host species is harmed in what type of relationship?" ] }, { "id": "task594-45cd9f6e9de04b8fb1daa2d169377660", "input": "Passage: The orbicularis oris is a circular muscle that moves the lips, and the orbicularis oculi is a circular muscle that closes the eye. The occipitofrontalis muscle moves up the scalp and eyebrows. The muscle has a frontal belly and an occipital (near the occipital bone on the posterior part of the skull) belly. In other words, there is a muscle on the forehead ( frontalis) and one on the back of the head ( occipitalis), but there is no muscle across the top of the head. Instead, the two bellies are connected by a broad tendon called the epicranial aponeurosis, or galea aponeurosis (galea = “apple”). The physicians originally studying human anatomy thought the skull looked like an apple. The majority of the face is composed of the buccinator muscle, which compresses the cheek. This muscle allows you to whistle, blow, and suck; and it contributes to the action of chewing. There are several small facial muscles, one of which is the corrugator supercilii, which is the prime mover of the eyebrows. Place your finger on your eyebrows at the point of the bridge of the nose. Raise your eyebrows as if you were surprised and lower your eyebrows as if you were frowning. With these movements, you can feel the action of the corrugator supercilli. Additional muscles of facial expression are presented in Figure 11.8. Answer: closes the eye", "output": [ "The orbicularis oris is a circular muscle that moves the lips, and the orbicularis oculi is a circular muscle that does what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-628b6dc69edf48b882f786ce781354a4", "input": "Passage: to the embryo as it develops into the new generation of sporophyte. This distinguishing feature of land plants gave the group its alternate name of embryophytes. Sporangia in Seedless Plants The sporophyte of seedless plants is diploid and results from syngamy (fusion) of two gametes. The sporophyte bears the sporangia (singular, sporangium): organs that first appeared in the land plants. The term “sporangia” literally means “spore in a vessel,” as it is a reproductive sac that contains spores Figure 25.3. Inside the multicellular sporangia, the diploid sporocytes, or mother cells, produce haploid spores by meiosis, where the 2n chromosome number is reduced to 1n (note that many plant sporophytes are polyploid: for example, durum wheat is tetraploid, bread wheat is hexaploid, and some ferns are 1000-ploid). The spores are later released by the sporangia and disperse in the environment. Two different types of spores are produced in land plants, resulting in the separation of sexes at different points in the lifecycle. Seedless nonvascular plants produce only one kind of spore and are called homosporous. The gametophyte phase is dominant in these plants. After germinating from a spore, the resulting gametophyte produces both male and female gametangia, usually on the same individual. In contrast, heterosporous plants produce two morphologically different types of spores. The male spores are called microspores, because of their smaller size, and develop into the male gametophyte; the comparatively larger megaspores develop into the female gametophyte. Heterospory is observed in a few seedless vascular plants and in all seed plants. Answer: sporangia", "output": [ "Which term literally means 'spore in a vessel'?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8555b92a50614ba5a597b45c3848e982", "input": "Passage: The term theory is used differently in science than it is used in everyday language. A scientific theory is a broad explanation that is widely accepted because it is supported by a great deal of evidence. Because it is so well supported, a scientific theory has a very good chance of being a correct explanation for events in nature. Because it is a broad explanation, it can explain many observations and pieces of evidence. In other words, it can help connect and make sense of many phenomena in the natural world. Answer: evidence", "output": [ "What allows theories to be widely accepted?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e260b39fc97c43018487dc1eb7fd19df", "input": "Passage: Echinoderms generally reproduce by external fertilization; regeneration is fairly common among echinoderms. Answer: external fertilization", "output": [ "What is the method of reproduction for echinoderms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-962aaec53e034b95ae3a56cac523b1d7", "input": "Passage: Discussion for (a) This value is the net work done on the package. The person actually does more work than this, because friction opposes the motion. Friction does negative work and removes some of the energy the person expends and converts it to thermal energy. The net work equals the sum of the work done by each individual force. Strategy and Concept for (b) The forces acting on the package are gravity, the normal force, the force of friction, and the applied force. The normal force and force of gravity are each perpendicular to the displacement, and therefore do no work. Solution for (b) The applied force does work. Answer: thermal", "output": [ "Friction does negative work and removes some of the energy the person expends and converts it to which kind of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5cd46eb27c2c40838c42519172d519cd", "input": "Passage: Acid–Base Titrations Because most common acids and bases are not intensely colored, a small amount of an acid– base indicator is usually added to detect the equivalence point in an acid–base titration. The point in the titration at which an indicator changes color is called theendpoint. The procedure is illustrated in Example 21. Answer: end point", "output": [ "The point in the titration at which an indicator changes color is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fa1b4488fec3401690841c85177025b7", "input": "Passage: A solution is another name for a homogeneous mixture. http://catalog. flatworldknowledge. com/bookhub/reader/2547 - gob-ch01defined a mixture as a material composed of two or more substances. In a solution, the combination is so intimate that the different substances cannot be differentiated by sight, even with a microscope. Compare, for example, a mixture of salt and pepper and another mixture consisting of salt and water. In the first mixture, we can readily see individual grains of salt and the flecks of pepper. A mixture of salt and pepper is not a solution. However, in the second mixture, no matter how carefully we look, we cannot see two different substances. Salt dissolved in water is a solution. Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: solution", "output": [ "What is a homogeneous mixture also known as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6d93d4e7e00e4bef90b48bd025405af4", "input": "Passage: Fossil fuels—including oil, natural gas, and coal—provide most of the energy used in the world today. Burning fossil fuels produces air pollution as well as carbon dioxide that causes global climate change. Answer: carbon dioxide", "output": [ "Burning fossil fuels produces air pollution and what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9513911588e24ffca26c59651d4c53f0", "input": "Passage: Most natural gas comes from the wells that produce petroleum. An increasing amount comes from a new method. Hydraulic fracturing, called fracking , is very much in the news lately. Fracking makes it easier and quicker to get natural gas from the rock ( Figure below ). Answer: wells that produce petroleum", "output": [ "Where does most natural gas come from?" ] }, { "id": "task594-61980f231512486a8ae0aaf764b46ed3", "input": "Passage: Placental mammals are therian mammals in which a placenta develops during pregnancy. The placenta sustains the fetus while it grows inside the mother’s uterus. Placental mammals give birth to relatively large and mature infants. Most mammals are placental mammals. Answer: the fetus", "output": [ "What does the placenta sustain during pregnancy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5a42402b4d9843628eac683cbc101f2b", "input": "Passage: Competitive Exclusion Principle Resources are often limited within a habitat and multiple species may compete to obtain them. All species have an ecological niche in the ecosystem, which describes how they acquire the resources they need and how they interact with other species in the community. The competitive exclusion principle states that two species cannot occupy the same niche in a habitat. In other words, different species cannot coexist in a community if they are competing for all the same resources. An example of this principle is shown in Figure 45.24, with two protozoan species, Paramecium aurelia and Paramecium caudatum. When grown individually in the laboratory, they both thrive. But when they are placed together in the same test tube (habitat), P. aurelia outcompetes P. caudatum for food, leading to the latter’s eventual extinction. Answer: competitive exclusion", "output": [ "Which principle states that two species cannot occupy the same niche in a habitat?" ] }, { "id": "task594-799e60c1db33469ab92a93e089376423", "input": "Passage: A magnet is an object that attracts certain materials such as iron. All magnets have north and south magnetic poles. The poles are regions where the magnet is strongest. Answer: poles", "output": [ "In a magnet, what are the regions called that are the strongest?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bbe7f5f00f3841d593bc8f8e8382ce2f", "input": "Passage: Nonvascular plants include mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. They are the only plants with a life cycle in which the gametophyte generation is dominant. Figure below shows the life cycle of moss. The familiar, green, photosynthetic moss plants are gametophytes. The sporophyte generation is very small and dependent on the gametophyte plant. Answer: nonvascular plants", "output": [ "Mosses, liverworts, and hornworts are examples of what type of plant in which gametophyte generation is dominant?" ] }, { "id": "task594-768d6b1ceea8482192f1ba547d2e2259", "input": "Passage: Preserved traces can include footprints, burrows, or even wastes. Examples of these types of fossils, called trace fossils are picture below ( Figure below and Figure below ). Answer: trace fossils", "output": [ "Footprints, burrows, and waste are considered what type of fossils?" ] }, { "id": "task594-aa1feeba846b4149b4fcfba14a7bfbfd", "input": "Passage: Pressure has very little effect on the solubility of solids or liquids, but has a significant effect on the solubility of gases. Gas solubility increases as the partial pressure of a gas above the liquid increases. Suppose a certain volume of water is in a closed container with the space above it occupied by carbon dioxide gas at standard pressure. Some of the CO 2 molecules come into contact with the surface of the water and dissolve into the liquid. Now suppose that more CO 2 is added to the space above the container, causing a pressure increase. More CO 2 molecules are now in contact with the water and so more of them dissolve. Thus the solubility increases as the pressure increases. As with a solid, the CO 2 that is undissolved reaches an equilibrium with the dissolved CO 2 , represented by the following equation. Answer: gases", "output": [ "Pressure has a significant effect on the solubility of what state of matter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-650c8fd19a9547a09f26528a4afa4481", "input": "Passage: For a better understanding of alkaline Earth metals, let’s take a closer look at two of them: calcium (Ca) and strontium (Sr). Calcium is a soft, gray, nontoxic alkaline Earth metal. Although pure calcium doesn’t exist in nature, calcium compounds are very common in Earth’s crust and in sea water. Calcium is also the most abundant metal in the human body, occurring as calcium compounds such as calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate. These calcium compounds are found in bones and make them hard and strong. The skeleton of the average adult contains about a kilogram of calcium. Because calcium—like barium—absorbs x-rays, bones show up white in x-ray images. Calcium is an important component of a healthy human diet. Good food sources of calcium are pictured in Figure below . Answer: calcium", "output": [ "What is a soft, gray, nontoxic alkaline earth metal?" ] }, { "id": "task594-265cca72132840b2858203b93cac76d9", "input": "Passage: Silicates are the largest mineral group. About 1,000 silicate minerals are known. Silicate minerals are also extremely common. They make up over 90% of Earth's crust!. Answer: silicates", "output": [ "What is the largest mineral group, comprising over 90% of earth's crust?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6671b9e1e37448d681002544faa75b6e", "input": "Passage: Δp = F netΔt, we can see how the change in momentum equals the average net external force multiplied by the time this force acts. The quantity F net Δt is given the name impulse. Impulse is the same as the change in momentum. Impulse: Change in Momentum Change in momentum equals the average net external force multiplied by the time this force acts. Answer: momentum", "output": [ "Change in what equals the average net external force multiplied by the time this force acts?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6f119b2b65d042a4bcc146b332eddab8", "input": "Passage: The body can also respond effectively to short-term exposure to cold. One response to cold is shivering, which is random muscle movement that generates heat. Another response is increased breakdown of stored energy to generate heat. When that energy reserve is depleted, however, and the core temperature begins to drop significantly, red blood cells will lose their ability to give up oxygen, denying the brain of this critical component of ATP production. This lack of oxygen can cause confusion, lethargy, and eventually loss of consciousness and death. The body responds to cold by reducing blood circulation to the extremities, the hands and feet, in order to prevent blood from cooling there and so that the body’s core can stay warm. Even when core body temperature remains stable, however, tissues exposed to severe cold, especially the fingers and toes, can develop frostbite when blood flow to the extremities has been much reduced. This form of tissue damage can be permanent and lead to gangrene, requiring amputation of the affected region. Answer: coccyx", "output": [ "Which bone is derived from the fusion of four very small coccygeal vertebrae?" ] }, { "id": "task594-51b93c9846a1470aab21e41e033ea77b", "input": "Passage: Spring tides occur during the new moon and full moon. The Sun and Moon are in a straight line either on the same side of Earth or on opposite sides. Their gravitational pull combines to cause very high and very low tides. Spring tides have the greatest tidal range. Answer: spring", "output": [ "What tides occur during the new moon and full moon?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5c0ec83adc644e87a9b5a0a87e433494", "input": "Passage: Some of the characteristics an organism has may help it survive. These characteristics are called adaptations . Some adaptations are better than others. Answer: adaptations", "output": [ "What characteristics of an organism help it survive?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8ac4769b89cb4b7f9d0c7b96f7a09ec8", "input": "Passage: No doubt you’ve had a sore throat before, and you’ve probably eaten cheese or yogurt. If so, then you’ve encountered the fascinating world of prokaryotes. Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus. They also lack other membrane-bound organelles. Prokaryotes are tiny and sometimes bothersome, but they are the most numerous organisms on Earth. Without them, the world would be a very different place. Prokaryotes are the simplest organisms. The first cells and organisms to evolve would be classified as prokaryotic. Answer: prokaryotes", "output": [ "What group of single-celled organisms lacking a nucleus comprises the most numerous organisms on earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ae2a633a158f4d1bbf949619b26d9e26", "input": "Passage: Some of the pollutants from fossil fuels can be filtered out of exhaust before it is released into the air. Other pollutants can be changed to harmless compounds before they are released. Two widely used technologies are scrubbers and catalytic converters. Answer: fossil fuels", "output": [ "A catalytic converter filters pollutants in exhaust created by burning what before releasing it into the air?" ] }, { "id": "task594-abb9d86c1aff45a49e0853de2fdc09b5", "input": "Passage: Gas Exchange across the Alveoli In the body, oxygen is used by cells of the body’s tissues and carbon dioxide is produced as a waste product. The ratio of carbon dioxide production to oxygen consumption is the respiratory quotient (RQ). RQ varies between 0.7 and 1.0. If just glucose were used to fuel the body, the RQ would equal one. One mole of carbon dioxide would be produced for every mole of oxygen consumed. Glucose, however, is not the only fuel for the body. Protein and fat are also used as fuels for the body. Because of this, less carbon dioxide is produced than oxygen is consumed and the RQ is, on average, about 0.7 for fat and about 0.8 for protein. The RQ is used to calculate the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveolar spaces within the lung, the alveolar PO Above, 2 the partial pressure of oxygen in the lungs was calculated to be 150 mm Hg. However, lungs never fully deflate with an exhalation; therefore, the inspired air mixes with this residual air and lowers the partial pressure of oxygen within the alveoli. This means that there is a lower concentration of oxygen in the lungs than is found in the air outside the body. Knowing the RQ, the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli can be calculated:. Answer: waste product", "output": [ "In the body, oxygen is used by cells of the body’s tissues and carbon dioxide is produced as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4081ac5855be41608024075f570fe518", "input": "Passage: Human cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes, and each chromosome within a pair is called a homologous chromosome . For each of the 23 chromosome pairs, you received one chromosome from your father and one chromosome from your mother. Alleles are alternate forms of genes found on chromosomes. Homologous chromosomes have the same genes, though they may have different alleles. So, though homologous chromosomes are very similar, they are not identical. The homologous chromosomes are separated when gametes are formed. Therefore, gametes have only 23 chromosomes, not 23 pairs. Answer: 23", "output": [ "How many pairs of chromosomes are found in human cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b3bc3b476ebe4f8e953933f2357a7b73", "input": "Passage: Crocodilia, containing both alligators and crocodiles, is an order of large reptiles. Reptiles belonging to Crocodilia are the closest living relatives of birds. Reptiles and birds are the only known living descendants of the dinosaurs. Some would day that alligators and crocodiles actually look like small dinosaurs. Dinosaurs that evolved wings are the ancestors of birds. Answer: dinosaurs", "output": [ "Reptiles and birds are the only known living descendants of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9d1a416760b84a01a40410e9fae04cdf", "input": "Passage: Mushrooms are fungi that are eaten by people all over the globe. Answer: mushrooms", "output": [ "Which fungi eaten by people all over the world?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5865e765e764403fa5cec01f123a2056", "input": "Passage: Now consider what observer B sees happen to observer A. Observer B perceives light from the right reaching observer A before light from the left, because she has moved towards that flash lamp, lessening the distance the light must travel and reducing the time it takes to get to her. Light travels at speed c relative to both observers, but observer B remains equidistant between the points where the flashes were emitted, while A gets closer to the emission point on the right. From observer B’s point of view, then, there is a time interval between the arrival of the flashes to observer A. From observer B’s point of view, then, there is a time interval between the arrival of the flashes to observer A. In observer A's frame of reference, the flashes occur at different times. Observer B measures the flashes to arrive simultaneously relative to him but not relative to A. Now consider what observer A sees happening. She sees the light from the right arriving before light from the left. Since both lamps are the same distance from her in her reference frame, from her perspective, the right flash occurred before the left flash. Here a relative velocity between observers affects whether two events are observed to be simultaneous. Simultaneity is not absolute This illustrates the power of clear thinking. We might have guessed incorrectly that if light is emitted simultaneously, then two observers halfway between the sources would see the flashes simultaneously. But careful analysis shows this not to be the case. Einstein was brilliant at this type of thought experiment (in German, “Gedankenexperiment”). He very carefully considered how an observation is made and disregarded what might seem obvious. The validity of thought experiments, of course, is determined by actual observation. The genius of Einstein is evidenced by the fact that experiments have repeatedly confirmed his theory of relativity. In summary: Two events are defined to be simultaneous if an observer measures them as occurring at the same time (such as by receiving light from the events). Two events are not necessarily simultaneous to all observers. Answer: actual observation", "output": [ "The validity of thought experiments, of course, is determined by this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1f853c6830274d38a1e268e7d4738c50", "input": "Passage: The winds of a tornado can reach very high speeds. The faster the winds blow, the greater the damage they cause. Wind speed and damage are used to classify tornadoes ( Table below ). Answer: wind speed", "output": [ "How do they classify tornadoes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d3e02cc7e31347d0b22f2ec88a44619e", "input": "Passage: What do these two photos have in common? They both represent electromagnetic waves. These are waves that consist of vibrating electric and magnetic fields. They transmit energy through matter or across space. Some electromagnetic waves are generally harmless. The light we use to see is a good example. Other electromagnetic waves can be very harmful and care must be taken to avoid too much exposure to them. X rays are a familiar example. Why do electromagnetic waves vary in these ways? It depends on their properties. Like other waves, electromagnetic waves have properties of speed, wavelength, and frequency. Answer: electromagnetic", "output": [ "Vibrating electric and magnetic fields make up what kinds of waves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-12f3f4a98be543618253f1a0f3aad9a6", "input": "Passage: Sensory neurons transmit nerve impulses from sense organs and internal organs to the brain via the spinal cord. In other words, they carry information about the inside and outside environment to the brain. Answer: spinal cord", "output": [ "Sensory neurons transmit nerve impulses from sense organs and internal organs to the brain via the?" ] }, { "id": "task594-030aa4e694a14b2598f7f7f48ce94cb6", "input": "Passage: The cytoplasm consists of watery cytosol and cell structures. It has several functions. The cytoskeleton is the “skeleton” of the cell. It helps the cell keep its shape. Answer: cytoskeleton", "output": [ "What is the skeleton of the cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e1b8939bf65a4208982777a2169ea04b", "input": "Passage: Evolution is a change in the characteristics of living things over time. Evolution occurs by natural selection. Answer: evolution", "output": [ "What term is used to describe a change in the characteristics of living things over time?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5a8523e062e740e08de8ae9dfe720a23", "input": "Passage: Imagine you are stranded in a rowboat in the middle of the ocean. Suddenly, your boat springs a small leak, and you need to bail out water. You grab a bucket and begin to bail. After a few minutes, your efforts against the leak keep the water to only about half an inch, but any further bailing doesn’t change the water level; the leak brings in as much water as you bail out. You are at equilibrium. Two opposing processes have reached the same speed, and there is no more overall change in the process. Chemical reactions are like that as well. Most of them come to an equilibrium. The actual position of the equilibrium—whether it favors the reactants or the products—is characteristic of a chemical reaction; it is difficult to see just by looking at the balanced chemical equation. But chemistry has tools to help you understand the equilibrium of chemical reactions—the focus of our study in this chapter. So far in this text, when we present a chemical reaction, we have implicitly assumed that the reaction goes to completion. Indeed, our stoichiometric calculations were based on this; when we asked how much of a product is produced when so much of a reactant reacts, we are assuming that all of a reactant reacts. However, this is usually not the case; many reactions do not go to completion, and many chemists have to deal with that. In this chapter, we will study this phenomenon and see ways in which we can affect the extent of chemical reactions. Answer: equilibrium", "output": [ "What is the term for when two opposing processes reach the same speed, resulting in no overall change?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2de1ddde238a4e8392e11fa8649773ea", "input": "Passage: Not getting enough minerals can cause health problems. For example, not getting enough calcium may cause osteoporosis. This is a disease in which the bones become porous so they break easily. Getting too much of some minerals can also cause health problems. Many people get too much sodium. Sodium is added to most packaged foods. People often add more sodium to their food by using table salt. Too much sodium has been linked to high blood pressure in some people. Answer: osteoporosis", "output": [ "Not getting enough calcium may cause what health problem?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1b0e227c3f424417bf52cb6ae84ea70d", "input": "Passage: Nuclear fission is the splitting of the nucleus of an atom into two smaller nuclei. This type of reaction releases a great deal of energy from a very small amount of matter. It begins when the nucleus of a radioactive atom gains a neutron. Answer: nuclear fission", "output": [ "What term describes the splitting of the nucleus of an atom into two smaller nuclei?" ] }, { "id": "task594-99229e8884fb4a20b473e6bbdf871c75", "input": "Passage: Because carbohydrates have a carbonyl functional group and several hydroxyl groups, they can undergo a variety of biochemically important reactions. The carbonyl group, for example, can be oxidized to form a carboxylic acid or reduced to form an alcohol. The hydroxyl groups can undergo substitution reactions, resulting in derivatives of the original compound. One such derivative is Sucralose, an artificial sweetener that is six times sweeter than sucrose; it is made by replacing two of the hydroxyl groups on sucrose with chlorine. Carbohydrates can also eliminate hydroxyl groups, producing alkenes. Answer: alcohol", "output": [ "Because carbohydrates have a carbonyl functional group and several hydroxyl groups, they can undergo a variety of biochemically important reactions. the carbonyl group, for example, can be oxidized to form a carboxylic acid or reduced to form this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fe1c870ec34a4dd88efbee026b765802", "input": "Passage: Intramembranous ossification begins in utero during fetal development and continues on into adolescence. At birth, the skull and clavicles are not fully ossified nor are the sutures of the skull closed. This allows the skull and shoulders to deform during passage through the birth canal. The last bones to ossify via intramembranous ossification are the flat bones of the face, which reach their adult size at the end of the adolescent growth spurt. Answer: ossification", "output": [ "What process that begins in utero during fetal development and continues on into adolescence involves closing of the skull?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c2752e0648be40b8a9f545738af8ff1f", "input": "Passage: The theory of evolution by natural selection was proposed at about the same time by both Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace, shown in Figure below , and was set out in detail in Darwin's 1859 book On the Origin of Species . Natural selection is a process that causes heritable traits that are helpful for survival and reproduction to become more common, and harmful traits, or traits that are not helpful or advantageous for survival to become more rare in a population of organisms. This occurs because organisms with advantageous traits are more \"fit\" to survive in a particular environment and have \"adapted\" to the conditions of that environment. These individuals will have greater reproductive success than organisms less fit for survival in the environment. This will lead to an increase in the number of organisms with the advantageous trait(s) over time. Over many generations, adaptations occur through a combination of successive, small, random changes in traits, and natural selection of those variants best-suited for their environment. Natural selection is one of the cornerstones of modern biology. Answer: natural selection", "output": [ "What is the method of evolution by which advantageous heritable traits become more common over generations?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f3a8e9afef6b469d9a24f74f2643f1a9", "input": "Passage: Structure of the trp operon. The trp operon is composed of 5 structural genes, 1 regulatory gene and other regulatory sequences, including the promoter, operator and leader sequence. Within the leader sequence is the attenuator region. In the presence of tryptophan, the structural genes are not transcribed. Answer: they are not transcribed", "output": [ "What happens to structural genes in the presence of tryptophan?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eb9f5c82923345a3971d231b3c7214dc", "input": "Passage: The frequency , , is the number of cycles an object goes through in 1 second. Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz). 1 Hz = 1 cycle per sec. Answer: hertz", "output": [ "What is the base unit that frequency is typically measured in?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d10b48ec5a564f06bb4b2f82a7eafacf", "input": "Passage: The stability of an ecosystem depends on the actions of the decomposers. Examples of decomposers include mushrooms on a decaying log. Bacteria in the soil are also decomposers. Imagine what would happen if there were no decomposers. Wastes and the remains of dead organisms would pile up and the nutrients within the waste and dead organisms would not be released back into the ecosystem. Producers would not have enough nutrients. The carbon and nitrogen necessary to build organic compounds, and then cells, allowing an organism to grow, would be insufficient. Other nutrients necessary for an organism to function properly would also not be sufficient. Essentially, many organisms could not exist. Answer: decomposers", "output": [ "The stability of an ecosystem depends on the actions of what, exemplified by mushrooms on a decaying log and bacteria in soil?" ] }, { "id": "task594-042ce72779054104854c3c3edb4fd90c", "input": "Passage: Nucleic acids are large polymers formed by linking nucleotides together and are found in every cell. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the nucleic acid that stores genetic information. If all the DNA in a typical mammalian cell were stretched out end to end, it would extend more than 2 m. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is the nucleic acid responsible for using the genetic information encoded in DNA to produce the thousands of proteins found in living organisms. Answer: dna", "output": [ "What nucleic acid stores the genetic information?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c08d0dd8147b4e3abb4c424941ee0fb6", "input": "Passage: Inorganic chemistry is the study of chemicals that do not, in general, contain carbon. Inorganic chemicals are commonly found in rocks and minerals. One current important area of inorganic chemistry deals with the design and properties of materials involved in energy and information technology. Answer: carbon", "output": [ "Inorganic chemistry refers to the study of materials *not* containing which element?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bc60f13ac5624a028f6144b4ca59b627", "input": "Passage: Packaged foods are required by law to carry a nutrition facts label, like the one in Figure below . The labels show the nutrient content and ingredients of foods. Reading labels can help you choose foods that are high in nutrients you need more of (such as proteins) and low in nutrients you need less of (such as fats). Answer: nutrition facts label", "output": [ "According to law, what must packaged foods carry?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d5f7f36ab33042f99941ede1e5c5771d", "input": "Passage: An alloy is a mixture composed of two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal. You are probably familiar with some alloys such as brass and bronze. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. Alloys are commonly used in manufactured items because the properties of these metal mixtures are often superior to a pure metal. Bronze is harder than copper and more easily cast. Brass is very malleable and its acoustic properties make it useful for musical instruments. Answer: alloy", "output": [ "Brass and bronze are examples of what type of mixture composed of two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1544b585c13f48d7985a4965e8e9c48b", "input": "Passage: Innate behaviors occur in all animals. However, they are less common in species with higher levels of intelligence. Humans are the most intelligent species, and they have very few innate behaviors. The only innate behaviors in humans are reflexes. A reflex is a response that always occurs when a certain stimulus is present. For example, a human infant will grasp an object, such as a finger, that is placed in its palm. The infant has no control over this reaction because it is innate. Other than reflexes such as this, human behaviors are learned–or at least influenced by experience—rather than being innate. Answer: intelligence", "output": [ "Innate behaviors occur in all animals. however, they are less common in species with higher levels of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c0bffb242a0e4646a7c2ef55e5e34bd9", "input": "Passage: Chemical reactions always involve energy. When methane burns, for example, it releases energy in the form of heat and light. Other chemical reactions absorb energy rather than release it. Answer: heat and light", "output": [ "Chemical reactions always involve energy. when methane burns, for example, it releases energy in the form of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9bb0d52e5f37469f9e1044e2e25dd3bc", "input": "Passage: Beta (β) decay is a more complicated process. Unlike the α-emission, which simply expels a particle, the β-emission involves the transformation of a neutron in the nucleus to a proton and an electron. The electron is then ejected from the nucleus. In the process, the atomic number increases by one while the atomic weight stays the same. As is the case with α-emissions, β-emissions are often accompanied by γ-radiation. Answer: increases by one", "output": [ "How does the atomic number change during beta emission?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6dac687f9b4640bcbf26f6ceb99e980a", "input": "Passage: Group 13 is called the boron group, and boron is the only metalloid in this group. The other group 13 elements are metals. Answer: boron", "output": [ "What is the only metalloid in group 13?" ] }, { "id": "task594-edbb2a5cb917482fb3ff46c696f2e716", "input": "Passage: Blood from the lungs enters the left atrium of the heart. The left atrium pumps the blood to the left ventricle, which pumps it to the body. Answer: lungs", "output": [ "Blood from what organs enters the left atrium of the heart?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c2f78f932eb24d8ea43ab5dce4efbff7", "input": "Passage: A circuit that consists of two loops is called a parallel circuit. If one loop of a parallel circuit is interrupted, current can still flow through the other loop. Answer: parallel circuit", "output": [ "A circuit that consists of two loops is called a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-af992869ed9c4ce0a2e3c38e98d4dc35", "input": "Passage: Ultrasound is sound that has a wave frequency higher than the human ear can detect. It includes all sounds with wave frequencies higher than 20,000 waves per second, or 20,000 hertz (Hz). Answer: ultrasound", "output": [ "What do you call sound that has a wave frequency higher than the human ear can detect?" ] }, { "id": "task594-409ddf28e38b4bda9eb9b0c24a082568", "input": "Passage: There is always a slightly negative pressure within the thoracic cavity, which aids in keeping the airways of the lungs open. During inhalation, volume increases as a result of contraction of the diaphragm, and pressure decreases (according to Boyle’s Law). This decrease of pressure in the thoracic cavity relative to the environment makes the cavity less than the atmosphere (Figure 39.16a). Because of this drop in pressure, air rushes into the respiratory passages. To increase the volume of the lungs, the chest wall expands. This results from the contraction of the intercostal muscles, the muscles that are connected to the rib cage. Lung volume expands because the diaphragm contracts and the intercostals muscles contract, thus expanding the thoracic cavity. This increase in the volume of the thoracic cavity lowers pressure compared to the atmosphere, so air rushes into the lungs, thus increasing its volume. The resulting increase in volume is largely attributed to an increase in alveolar space, because the bronchioles and bronchi are stiff structures that do not change in size. Answer: thoracic", "output": [ "There is always a slightly negative pressure within what cavity, helping keep the airways of the lungs open?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5509b5870de34bf7887653316e4194f8", "input": "Passage: Dissolved substances have a higher entropy value than their corresponding precipitate. Answer: entropy", "output": [ "What value of dissolved substances is higher than that of their corresponding precipitate?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5a7c897cbb6c4058a2834121e5225005", "input": "Passage: Transform faults are the site of massive earthquakes. Answer: earthquakes", "output": [ "Transform faults are the site of massive what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-81f046ed3db4408db87ec9535584ec62", "input": "Passage: A chemical bond is a force of attraction between atoms or ions. Bonds form when atoms share or transfer valence electrons. Answer: chemical bond", "output": [ "What bond is a force of attraction between ions and atoms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b7ec2a59b67945fea0f6c2baefa6e4a6", "input": "Passage: Myopia is commonly called nearsightedness. People with myopia can see nearby objects clearly, but distant objects appear blurry. Myopia occurs when images focus in front of the retina because the eyeball is too long. This vision problem can be corrected with concave lenses, which curve inward. The lenses focus images correctly on the retina. Answer: nearsightedness", "output": [ "Myopia is commonly called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-35911da6417a4820ad8286e9fa164382", "input": "Passage: 20.3 | Capillary Exchange By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Identify the primary mechanisms of capillary exchange • Distinguish between capillary hydrostatic pressure and blood colloid osmotic pressure, explaining the contribution of each to net filtration pressure • Compare filtration and reabsorption • Explain the fate of fluid that is not reabsorbed from the tissues into the vascular capillaries The primary purpose of the cardiovascular system is to circulate gases, nutrients, wastes, and other substances to and from the cells of the body. Small molecules, such as gases, lipids, and lipid-soluble molecules, can diffuse directly through the membranes of the endothelial cells of the capillary wall. Glucose, amino acids, and ions—including sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride—use transporters to move through specific channels in the membrane by facilitated diffusion. Glucose, ions, and larger molecules may also leave the blood through intercellular clefts. Larger molecules can pass through the pores of fenestrated capillaries, and even large plasma proteins can pass through the great gaps in the sinusoids. Some large proteins in blood plasma can move into and out of the endothelial cells packaged within vesicles by endocytosis and exocytosis. Water moves by osmosis. Answer: through intercellular clefts", "output": [ "How do glucose, ions, and other larger molecules leave the blood?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a47d9d00549e47209ddaf911ed9afb09", "input": "Passage: 42.3 | Antibodies By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Explain cross-reactivity • Describe the structure and function of antibodies • Discuss antibody production An antibody, also known as an immunoglobulin (Ig), is a protein that is produced by plasma cells after stimulation by an antigen. Antibodies are the functional basis of humoral immunity. Antibodies occur in the blood, in gastric and mucus secretions, and in breast milk. Antibodies in these bodily fluids can bind pathogens and mark them for destruction by phagocytes before they can infect cells. Answer: immunoglobulin", "output": [ "What protein is produced when a plasma cell is stimulated by antigens?" ] }, { "id": "task594-689701217c444adc85ff8515b840e6bc", "input": "Passage: The Spinal Cord The description of the CNS is concentrated on the structures of the brain, but the spinal cord is another major organ of the system. Whereas the brain develops out of expansions of the neural tube into primary and then secondary vesicles, the spinal cord maintains the tube structure and is only specialized into certain regions. As the spinal cord continues to develop in the newborn, anatomical features mark its surface. The anterior midline is marked by the anterior median fissure, and the posterior midline is marked by the posterior median sulcus. Axons enter the posterior side through the dorsal (posterior) nerve root, which marks the posterolateral sulcus on either side. The axons emerging from the anterior side do so through the ventral (anterior) nerve root. Note that it is common to see the terms dorsal (dorsal = “back”) and ventral (ventral = “belly”) used interchangeably with posterior and anterior, particularly in reference to nerves and the structures of the spinal cord. You should learn to be comfortable with both. On the whole, the posterior regions are responsible for sensory functions and the anterior regions are associated with motor functions. This comes from the initial development of the spinal cord, which is divided into the basal plate and the alar plate. The basal plate is closest to the ventral midline of the neural tube, which will become the anterior face of the spinal cord and gives rise to motor neurons. The alar plate is on the dorsal side of the neural tube and gives rise to neurons that will receive sensory input from the periphery. The length of the spinal cord is divided into regions that correspond to the regions of the vertebral column. The name of a spinal cord region corresponds to the level at which spinal nerves pass through the intervertebral foramina. Immediately adjacent to the brain stem is the cervical region, followed by the thoracic, then the lumbar, and finally the sacral region. The spinal cord is not the full length of the vertebral column because the spinal cord does not grow significantly longer after the first or second year, but the skeleton continues to grow. The nerves that emerge from the spinal cord pass through the intervertebral formina at the respective levels. As the vertebral column grows, these nerves grow with it and result in a long bundle of nerves that resembles a horse’s tail and is named the cauda equina. The sacral spinal cord is at the level of the upper lumbar vertebral bones. The spinal nerves extend from their various levels to the proper level of the vertebral column. Answer: intervertebral foramina", "output": [ "The name of a spinal cord region corresponds to the level at which spinal nerves pass through the what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-943db8c29a2041ea80015ea68b0805fe", "input": "Passage: Scientists think that glycolysis evolved before the other stages of cellular respiration. This is because the other stages need oxygen, whereas glycolysis does not, and there was no oxygen in Earth’s atmosphere when life first evolved about 3.5 to 4 billion years ago. Cellular respiration that proceeds without oxygen is called anaerobic respiration . Answer: anaerobic respiration", "output": [ "What do you call cellular respiration that does not need oxygen to proceed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-94abe7a3064d4d14a0a7b678424ea586", "input": "Passage: Air movement takes place in the troposphere. Air moves because of differences in heating. The differences create convection currents and winds. Answer: differences in heating", "output": [ "What is the primary cause of air movement in the troposphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-76756e94d3cd46889da3d635ba374314", "input": "Passage: Descriptive statistics and graphs help organize data so patterns and trends are more apparent. Descriptive statistics include the mean and range. Types of graphs include bar, circle, and line graphs. Answer: graphs", "output": [ "Bar, circle, and line are all types of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-48ade0c3297e4e2db3daf63d8bcb4612", "input": "Passage: Intrusive igneous rocks cool from magma slowly in the crust. They have large crystals. Answer: crystals", "output": [ "Intrusive igneous rocks cool from magma slowly in the crust and have large what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fc507823172e44659721a727dc632fb6", "input": "Passage: Chemical changes are changes in the makeup and chemical properties of matter. An example of a chemical change is wood burning. Answer: chemical changes", "output": [ "What are changes in makeup and chemical properties of matter called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-95b1ab5c980a4d809c533cce898678aa", "input": "Passage: In eukaryotic cells, DNA and RNA synthesis occur in a separate compartment from protein synthesis. In prokaryotic cells, both processes occur together. What advantages might there be to separating the processes? What advantages might there be to having them occur together? The size of the genome in one of the most well-studied prokaryotes, E. coli, is 4.6 million base pairs (approximately 1.1 mm, if cut and stretched out). So how does this fit inside a small bacterial cell? The DNA is twisted by what is known as supercoiling. Supercoiling means that DNA is either under-wound (less than one turn of the helix per 10 base pairs) or over-wound (more than 1 turn per 10 base pairs) from its normal relaxed state. Some proteins are known to be involved in the supercoiling; other proteins and enzymes such as DNA gyrase help in maintaining the supercoiled structure. Eukaryotes, whose chromosomes each consist of a linear DNA molecule, employ a different type of packing strategy to fit their DNA inside the nucleus (Figure 14.11). At the most basic level, DNA is wrapped around proteins known as histones to form structures called nucleosomes. The histones are evolutionarily conserved proteins that are rich in basic amino acids and form an octamer. The DNA (which is negatively charged because of the phosphate groups) is wrapped tightly around the histone core. This nucleosome is linked to the next one with the help of a linker DNA. This is also known as the “beads on a string” structure. This is further compacted into a 30 nm fiber, which is the diameter of the structure. At the metaphase stage, the chromosomes are at their most compact, are approximately 700 nm in width, and are found in association with scaffold proteins. In interphase, eukaryotic chromosomes have two distinct regions that can be distinguished by staining. The tightly packaged region is known as heterochromatin, and the less dense region is known as euchromatin. Heterochromatin usually contains genes that are not expressed, and is found in the regions of the centromere and telomeres. The euchromatin usually contains genes that are transcribed, with DNA packaged around nucleosomes but not further compacted. Answer: protein", "output": [ "Unlike prokaryotic cells, dna and rna synthesis in eukaryotic cells occurs in a separate compartment from synthesis of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4a24ca0270ce40f289bfa9c9ee11482d", "input": "Passage: One of the earliest air pumps was made by Robert Boyle. The figure below is a diagram of his early pump. Answer: robert boyle", "output": [ "One of the earliest air pumps was made by?" ] }, { "id": "task594-54913b3436b04f4dae2e2c7290c9c21f", "input": "Passage: 9.6 | Anatomy of Selected Synovial Joints By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Describe the bones that articulate together to form selected synovial joints • Discuss the movements available at each joint • Describe the structures that support and prevent excess movements at each joint Each synovial joint of the body is specialized to perform certain movements. The movements that are allowed are determined by the structural classification for each joint. For example, a multiaxial ball-and-socket joint has much more mobility than a uniaxial hinge joint. However, the ligaments and muscles that support a joint may place restrictions on the total range of motion available. Thus, the ball-and-socket joint of the shoulder has little in the way of ligament support, which gives the shoulder a very large range of motion. In contrast, movements at the hip joint are restricted by strong ligaments, which reduce its range of motion but confer stability during standing and weight bearing. This section will examine the anatomy of selected synovial joints of the body. Anatomical names for most joints are derived from the names of the bones that articulate at that joint, although some joints, such as the elbow, hip, and knee joints are exceptions to this general naming scheme. Answer: uniaxial", "output": [ "A multiaxial ball-and-socket joint has much more mobility than a what hinge joint?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0846d2a4ed7749148d04e80c22e178c0", "input": "Passage: Summary Changes of state are examples of phase changes, or phase transitions. All phase changes are accompanied by changes in the energy of a system. Changes from a more-ordered state to a less-ordered state (such as a liquid to a gas) areendothermic. Changes from a less-ordered state to a more-ordered state (such as a liquid to a solid) are always exothermic. The conversion of a solid to a liquid is called fusion (or melting). The energy required to melt 1 mol of a substance is its enthalpy of fusion (ΔHfus). The energy change required to vaporize 1 mol of a substance is the enthalpy of vaporization (ΔHvap). The direct conversion of a solid to a gas is sublimation. The amount of energy needed to sublime 1 mol of a substance is its enthalpy of sublimation (ΔHsub) and is the sum of the enthalpies of fusion and vaporization. Plots of the temperature of a substance versus heat added or versus heating time at a constant rate of heating are calledheating curves. Heating curves relate temperature changes to phase transitions. A superheated liquid, a liquid at a temperature and pressure at which it should be a gas, is not stable. A cooling curve is not exactly the reverse of the heating curve because many liquids do not freeze at the expected temperature. Instead, they form a supercooled liquid, a metastable liquid phase that exists below the normal melting point. Supercooled liquids usually crystallize on standing, or adding a seed crystal of the same or another substance can induce crystallization. Answer: exothermic", "output": [ "Changes from a less-ordered state to a more-ordered state (such as a liquid to a solid) are always what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e28bd3a8cf1f4f508c3a084fbcb06370", "input": "Passage: Almost all plants make food by photosynthesis. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "Almost all plants make food through what process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8862a0237bf74a54b6faaf96707d9fac", "input": "Passage: Viruses are not affected by antibiotics. Several viral diseases can be treated with antiviral drugs or prevented with vaccines. Answer: viruses", "output": [ "What type of diseases do antibiotics not affect?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7dae6b0a4c6e454b86bf1ce96383cb1f", "input": "Passage: Hydrogen is a very reactive gas, and the alkali metals are even more reactive. In fact, they are the most reactive metals and, along with the elements in group 17, are the most reactive of all elements. The reactivity of alkali metals increases from the top to the bottom of the group, so lithium (Li) is the least reactive alkali metal and francium (Fr) is the most reactive. Because alkali metals are so reactive, they are found in nature only in combination with other elements. They often combine with group 17 elements, which are very “eager” to gain an electron. At the URL below, you can watch a video that shows just how reactive the alkali metals are. Answer: combination", "output": [ "Because alkali metals are so reactive, they are found in nature only in ________ with other elements?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bf975c2ce1c1442b96315675ee01559a", "input": "Passage: Temperature falls from the equator to the poles. Global air currents create wet and dry zones at different latitudes. They also create global winds. Answer: global air currents", "output": [ "What creates wet and dry zones at different latitudes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e3f77e0e1d7e49eabfb13993887ed788", "input": "Passage: Some machines change the direction of the force applied by the user. They may or may not also change the strength of the force or the distance over which the force is applied. Two examples of machines that work this way are the claw ends of hammers and flagpole pulleys. You can see in the Figure below how each of these machines works. In both cases, the direction of the force applied by the user is reversed by the machine. Answer: direction of force", "output": [ "Claw ends of hammers and flagpole pulleys are examples of simple machines that reverse what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3cab59699827427fbcb38e6f11e476c0", "input": "Passage: Pangaea has been breaking apart since about 250 million years ago. Divergent plate boundaries formed within the continents to cause them to rift apart. The continents are still moving apart. The Pacific is shrinking as the Atlantic is growing. The Appalachians ( Figure below ) are now on a passive margin. The mighty mountains have weathered and eroded to what they are today. Answer: 250", "output": [ "How many millions of years ago did pangaea begin breaking apart?" ] }, { "id": "task594-de3c745b6af148368a6050e636777c78", "input": "Passage: Paved roads and parking lots prevent rainwater from soaking into the ground. This increases runoff and the potential for soil erosion. Answer: paved", "output": [ "What type of roads and parking lots prevent rainwater from soaking into the ground?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b86664e630dd45339a5a21db835a2028", "input": "Passage: specialized tissue inside plant leaves where photosynthesis takes place. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "What important process takes place in specialized tissue inside plant leaves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1a13d37c97974bb0898b7ed8bf4263ec", "input": "Passage: all the life functions of an organism occur within cells,. Answer: cells", "output": [ "What basic structures are the site of all the life functions of an organism?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a814b2600b854abd853bf5100965082b", "input": "Passage: An evergreen plant keeps its green leaves year-round. It may have needle-like leaves to reduce water loss. Answer: evergreen plant", "output": [ "What type of plant keeps it green leaves year-round?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f81705fa82ef47b89a89d3dbb2a809c1", "input": "Passage: Radiocarbon is useful for relatively young, carbon-based materials. Other longer-lived isotopes are good for older rocks and minerals. Answer: carbon", "output": [ "Radiocarbon is useful for dating relatively young materials with what element as their base?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e1458d8f602948679a46aa66f7c8b7c6", "input": "Passage: Compared to other liquids, water has a relatively high surface tension and heat capacity. Both of these properties are partially a result of the strong hydrogen bonds that hold water molecules together. Answer: water", "output": [ "Compared to others, what type of liquid has a relatively high surface tension and heat capacity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d4b3cfdbff4041aba7d6799e77e52239", "input": "Passage: Digestion and Absorption Digestion is the mechanical and chemical break down of food into small organic fragments. It is important to break down macromolecules into smaller fragments that are of suitable size for absorption across the digestive epithelium. Large, complex molecules of proteins, polysaccharides, and lipids must be reduced to simpler particles such as simple sugar before they can be absorbed by the digestive epithelial cells. Different organs play specific roles in the digestive process. Answer: digestion", "output": [ "What process is used to chemically and mechanically break down the food you eat into smaller parts?" ] }, { "id": "task594-844b6e04616e4d8e866241128da998c5", "input": "Passage: chlorine is added to an aqueous solution of bromide. iodine crystals are added to a solution of potassium bromide. Bromide is present in naturally occurring salt solutions called brines. Based on your answers, propose an effective method to remove bromide from brine. Answer: salt", "output": [ "Bromide is present in brines, which are naturally occurring solutions of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-255d23c71eba4d12b5257ee39e4429ac", "input": "Passage: Why are so many amphibian species threatened by extinction, and why should you care? The second question is easy. Amphibians control pests, may be a source of new medicines, and help feed many other animals. The nature of amphibian skin may help explain why so many amphibian species are at risk. Their skin easily absorbs substances from the environment, such as pollutants in water or air. Therefore, they may suffer from poor environmental quality before other animals do. As such, they may provide an early-warning system of environmental damage. Answer: skin", "output": [ "Which part of the body of amphibians, easily absorbs substances from the environment?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f22e88d2a9584e93874e21d8019022e2", "input": "Passage: Chemical energy, the energy stored in molecules and atoms, is one type of potential energy. Certain reactions can cause this energy to be released as heat. Other reactions require an input of energy, in which case the products will store more potential energy than the reactants. When we studied phase changes, we saw a relationship between energy and the state of matter. To melt a solid or boil a liquid, energy needs to be added in order to break up the intermolecular forces holding particles together in more ordered states. The reverse processes, condensation and freezing, release energy, because more favorable intermolecular interactions are formed. Answer: intermolecular", "output": [ "Which forces hold particles together in more ordered states?" ] }, { "id": "task594-27c42da9d4ac43f8b693cdaebbc1578c", "input": "Passage: Acids and bases have had many uses throughout history. In this chapter we want to explore the properties of acids and bases and the reactions in which they take part. Answer: bases", "output": [ "Acids are the opposites of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d41d7bf08fb147f293afa4420f455d20", "input": "Passage: Figure 10.14 The role of normal p53 is to monitor DNA and the supply of oxygen (hypoxia is a condition of reduced oxygen supply). If damage is detected, p53 triggers repair mechanisms. If repairs are unsuccessful, p53 signals apoptosis. A cell with an abnormal p53 protein cannot repair damaged DNA and thus cannot signal apoptosis. Cells with abnormal p53 can become cancerous. (credit: modification of work by Thierry Soussi). Answer: oxygen", "output": [ "Hypoxia is a condition of the reduced supply of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4c8dcf926dda41f3a2103011cfa4baed", "input": "Passage: Neurodevelopmental Disorders Neurodevelopmental disorders occur when the development of the nervous system is disturbed. There are several different classes of neurodevelopmental disorders. Some, like Down Syndrome, cause intellectual deficits. Others specifically affect communication, learning, or the motor system. Some disorders like autism spectrum disorder and attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder have complex symptoms. Autism Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder. Its severity differs from person to person. Estimates for the prevalence of the disorder have changed rapidly in the past few decades. Current estimates suggest that one in 88 children will develop the disorder. ASD is four times more prevalent in males than females. Answer: neurodevelopmental disorders", "output": [ "What happens when development of nervous system is disturbed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-323b2823addb41b9a576a3798a898562", "input": "Passage: When a contractor builds a new home, she uses a set of plans called blueprints that show her how to build the house. The blueprints include circuit diagrams. The diagrams show how the wiring and other electrical components are to be installed in order to supply current to appliances, lights, and other electric devices. You can see an example of a very simple circuit in the Figure below . Different parts of the circuit are represented by standard circuit symbols. An ammeter measures the flow of current through the circuit, and a voltmeter measures the voltage. A resistor is any device that converts some of the electricity to other forms of energy. For example, a resistor might be a light bulb or doorbell. Answer: current through a circuit", "output": [ "What does an ammeter measure the flow of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8d6d79714a7b4319895ea930e6c50f0e", "input": "Passage: Plant Organ Systems In plants, just as in animals, similar cells working together form a tissue. When different types of tissues work together to perform a unique function, they form an organ; organs working together form organ systems. Vascular plants have two distinct organ systems: a shoot system, and a root system. The shoot system consists of two portions: the vegetative (nonreproductive) parts of the plant, such as the leaves and the stems, and the reproductive parts of the plant, which include flowers and fruits. The shoot system generally grows above ground, where it absorbs the light needed for photosynthesis. The root system, which supports the plants and absorbs water and minerals, is usually underground. Figure 30.2 shows the organ systems of a typical plant. Answer: organ", "output": [ "When different types of tissues work together to perform a unique function, what do they form?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3cffa8baa1624c0a9b9e583d8996d0fc", "input": "Passage: Cancer is a disease in which cells grow out of control and form abnormal masses of cells. It is generally caused by mutations in genes that regulate the cell cycle. Because of the mutations, cells with damaged DNA are allowed to divide without limits. Cancer genes can be inherited. You can learn more about hereditary cancer by watching the video at the following link: http://www. youtube. com/watch?v=LWk5FplsKwM (4:29). Answer: cancer", "output": [ "What is the disease in which cells grow out of control and form abnormal masses?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3088015c8ad94619badb12a12ab7582e", "input": "Passage: A kidney stone. The stones can form anywhere in the urinary system. Answer: urinary", "output": [ "Kidney stones can form anywhere in what system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4186186f87f34eafa7d62619ca9051a5", "input": "Passage: Earthworms are deposit feeders. They burrow through the ground, eating soil and extracting organic matter from it. Earthworm feces, called worm casts, are very rich in plant nutrients. Earthworm burrows help aerate soil, which is also good for plants. Answer: deposit", "output": [ "What type of feeders are earthworms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3fcc3d5088af4cb59f106ed1ed6c4523", "input": "Passage: Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of molecules. Consider a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen gas at a certain temperature. Use the formula for kinetic energy to explain why the hydrogen molecules move faster than the oxygen molecules. Then explain why there’s no hydrogen in the earth’s atmosphere, and why the moon has no atmosphere at all. Answer: temperature", "output": [ "What property is a measure of the average kinetic energy of molecules?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e2e0f8e9426c4f928e68e21c200c05e0", "input": "Passage: Biochemical compounds make up the cells and tissues of organisms. They are also involved in life processes, such as making and using food for energy. Given their diversity of functions, it’s not surprising that there are millions of different biochemical compounds. However, they can be grouped into just four main classes: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. The classes are summarized in Table below and described in the rest of this lesson. Answer: biochemical compounds", "output": [ "What type of compounds make up the cells and tissues of organisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8dcfb305eaf249d69578bfa4f6818514", "input": "Passage: Ketones are carbonyls in which the carbon atom makes single bonds with two other carbon atoms. Ketones are less reactive than aldehydes and are a common component in nail polish removers and paint strippers. Answer: ketones", "output": [ "What word describes a carbonyl where the carbon atom makes single bonds with two others?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e2a9ae5b2c074daca3c95d713c69559b", "input": "Passage: Gases in the coma and tail of a comet reflect light from the Sun. Comets are very hard to see except when they have comas and tails. That is why they appear only when they are near the Sun. They disappear again as they move back to the outer solar system. Answer: comas and tails", "output": [ "What parts of comets make them easy to see?" ] }, { "id": "task594-02c1b08c477147b499f825ce46f7591e", "input": "Passage: The inertia of an object depends on its mass. Objects with greater mass also have greater inertia. Think how hard it would be to push a big box full of books, like the one in Figure below . Then think how easy it would be to push the box if it was empty. The full box is harder to move because it has greater mass and therefore greater inertia. Answer: inertia", "output": [ "What property increases as an object's mass increases, making a full box harder to push than an empty one?" ] }, { "id": "task594-338e24bf8a2a4668a3b7d27cb8a84db7", "input": "Passage: Plants are multicellular eukaryotes. They have organelles called chloroplasts and cell walls made of cellulose. Plants also have specialized reproductive organs. Almost all plants make food by photosynthesis. Life as we know it would not be possible without plants. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "How do most plants create food?" ] }, { "id": "task594-75d958cf611b4935a38cbe5e957276d1", "input": "Passage: Figure 36.20 When light strikes rhodopsin, the G-protein transducin is activated, which in turn activates phosphodiesterase. Phosphodiesterase converts cGMP to GMP, thereby closing sodium channels. As a result, the membrane becomes hyperpolarized. The hyperpolarized membrane does not release glutamate to the bipolar cell. Answer: phosphodiesterase", "output": [ "When light strikes rhodopsin, the g-protein transducin is activated, which in turn activates what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-708eb0d8310a4a8fb07631f7a69066d6", "input": "Passage: When studying the different states that matter exhibits, we have been looking at pure substances . Pure substances have a constant composition and can only be changed through chemical reactions. Constant composition indicates that a sample of a pure substance always contains the same elements in the same proportions. There are two main types of pure substances:. Answer: chemical reactions", "output": [ "Pure substances have a constant composition and can only be changed through what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e3ecc257e31b42faab568521aab65e7a", "input": "Passage: Global carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel consumption and cement production. The black line represents all emission types combined. The colored lines show emissions from individual fossil fuels. Answer: carbon dioxide", "output": [ "Fossil fuel consumption is a major contributor to global emissions of what gas?" ] }, { "id": "task594-180fe44bbd754399845c73cd6617c975", "input": "Passage: Noctilucent clouds are the highest clouds in the atmosphere. Answer: noctilucent clouds", "output": [ "What are the highest clouds in the atmosphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f0d3ffa2ee5946df9702f392b9003283", "input": "Passage: Figure 3.19 A phospholipid is a molecule with two fatty acids and a modified phosphate group attached to a glycerol backbone. The phosphate may be modified by the addition of charged or polar chemical groups. Two chemical groups that may modify the phosphate, choline and serine, are shown here. Both choline and serine attach to the phosphate group at the position labeled R via the hydroxyl group indicated in green. Answer: phospholipid", "output": [ "What is a molecule with two fatty acids and a modified phosphate group attached to a glycerol backbone?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4cdf5b29d8284ebfa8c36d68ba08683c", "input": "Passage: Ahhhh! A tall glass of ice-cold lemonade is really refreshing on a hot day. Lemonade is a combination of lemon juice, water, and sugar. Do you know what kind of matter lemonade is? It’s obviously not an element because it consists of more than one substance. Is it a compound? Not all combined substances are compounds. Some—including lemonade—are mixtures. Answer: mixtures", "output": [ "Combined substances are either compounds or what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-18f3fc4961034085a9a7e03d66d64895", "input": "Passage: Antibodies also mark pathogens for destruction by phagocytic cells, such as macrophages or neutrophils, because phagocytic cells are highly attracted to macromolecules complexed with antibodies. Phagocytic enhancement by antibodies is called opsonization. In a process called complement fixation, IgM and IgG in serum bind to antigens and provide docking sites onto which sequential complement proteins can bind. The combination of antibodies and complement enhances opsonization even further and promotes rapid clearing of pathogens. Affinity, Avidity, and Cross Reactivity Not all antibodies bind with the same strength, specificity, and stability. In fact, antibodies exhibit different affinities (attraction) depending on the molecular complementarity between antigen and antibody molecules, as illustrated in Figure 42.25. An antibody with a higher affinity for a particular antigen would bind more strongly and stably, and thus would be expected to present a more challenging defense against the pathogen corresponding to the specific antigen. Answer: phagocytic", "output": [ "Antibodies also mark pathogens for destruction by which cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4d37c0e9bd4d48a8a436da2617ccadb8", "input": "Passage: Energy that the sun and other stars release into space is called electromagnetic energy . This form of energy travels through space as electrical and magnetic waves. Electromagnetic energy is commonly called light. It includes visible light, as well as radio waves, microwaves, and X rays ( Figure below ). Answer: electromagnetic energy", "output": [ "Energy that the sun and other stars release into space is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6e540ba91e9c4fdea7fc63952433cb31", "input": "Passage: Connections of Proteins to Glucose Metabolism Proteins are broken down by a variety of enzymes in cells. Most of the time, amino acids are recycled into new proteins. If there are excess amino acids, however, or if the body is in a state of famine, some amino acids will be shunted into pathways of glucose catabolism. Each amino acid must have its amino group removed prior to entry into these pathways. The amino group is converted into ammonia. In mammals, the liver synthesizes urea from two ammonia molecules and a carbon dioxide molecule. Thus, urea is the principal waste product in mammals from the nitrogen originating in amino acids, and it leaves the body in urine. Answer: proteins", "output": [ "Amino acids broken down by metabolic process are mostly recycled into new what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3062b0be0b3a4d849442ee571db98238", "input": "Passage: Maintaining a high metabolic rate takes a lot of energy. The energy must come from food. Therefore, mammals need a nutritious and plentiful diet. The diets of mammals are diverse. Except for leaf litter and wood, almost any kind of organic matter may be eaten by mammals. Some mammals are strictly herbivores or strictly carnivores. However, most mammals will eat other foods if necessary. Some mammals are omnivores. They routinely eat a variety of both plant and animal foods. Most mammals also feed on a variety of other species. The few exceptions include koalas, which feed only on eucalyptus plants, and giant pandas, which feed only on bamboo. Types of mammalian diets and examples of mammals that eat them are given in Table below . How would you classify your own diet?. Answer: energy", "output": [ "Maintaining a high metabolic rate takes a lot of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fd9ab60950e3436db418793f78c9fe3f", "input": "Passage: Molecular evidence for evolution includes that all living things share the same biochemical building blocks. Answer: evolution", "output": [ "The fact that all living things share the same biochemical building blocks is molecular evidence of what theorized process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c9700b51051d43a7ae44f507c7003d62", "input": "Passage: The biogeochemical cycle that recycles water is the water cycle. The water cycle involves a series of interconnected pathways involving both the biotic and abiotic components of the biosphere. Water is obviously an extremely important aspect of every ecosystem. Life cannot exist without water. Many organisms contain a large amount of water in their bodies, and many live in water, so the water cycle is essential to life on Earth. Water continuously moves between living organisms, such as plants, and non-living things, such as clouds, rivers, and oceans ( Figure below ). Answer: water cycle", "output": [ "What is the biogeochemical cycle that recycles water called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6f4e63c2cb7049289f50867cd0197ece", "input": "Passage: Hyperbaric chamber treatment is based on the behavior of gases. As you recall, gases move from a region of higher partial pressure to a region of lower partial pressure. In a hyperbaric chamber, the atmospheric pressure is increased, causing a greater amount of oxygen than normal to diffuse into the bloodstream of the patient. Hyperbaric chamber therapy is used to treat a variety of medical problems, such as wound and graft healing, anaerobic bacterial infections, and carbon monoxide poisoning. Exposure to and poisoning by carbon monoxide is difficult to reverse, because hemoglobin’s affinity for carbon monoxide is much stronger than its affinity for oxygen, causing carbon monoxide to replace oxygen in the blood. Hyperbaric chamber therapy can treat carbon monoxide poisoning, because the increased atmospheric pressure causes more oxygen to diffuse into the bloodstream. At this increased pressure and increased concentration of oxygen, carbon monoxide is displaced from hemoglobin. Another example is the treatment of anaerobic bacterial infections, which are created by bacteria that cannot or prefer not to live in the presence of oxygen. An increase in blood and tissue levels of oxygen helps to kill the anaerobic bacteria that are responsible for the infection, as oxygen is toxic to anaerobic bacteria. For wounds and grafts, the chamber stimulates the healing process by increasing energy production needed for repair. Increasing oxygen transport allows cells to ramp up cellular respiration and thus ATP production, the energy needed to build new structures. Answer: hyperbaric chamber therapy", "output": [ "Atmospheric pressure is increased, causing a greater amount of oxygen than normal to diffuse into the bloodstream of the patient, in what type of therapy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3400c22f29ad4f978c36431418c9b448", "input": "Passage: Wings are an obvious adaptation for flight. They are actually modified front legs. Birds move their wings using muscles in the chest. These muscles are quite large, making up as much as 35 percent of a bird’s body weight. Answer: wings", "output": [ "In birds, modified front legs are actually what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-83093f0d914746a39cca701be75f2d6b", "input": "Passage: Environmental scientists study the effects people have on their environment. This includes the landscape, atmosphere, water, and living things. These scientists ask all sorts of questions about how Earth systems are changing as a result of human actions. They try to predict what changes will come in the future. Answer: environmental scientists", "output": [ "What type of scientists study the effects people have on their environment?" ] }, { "id": "task594-47d474b118354da5ac6cc53bdae60820", "input": "Passage: Generators change the kinetic energy of a spinning turbine to electrical energy in a process called electromagnetic induction. You can read about generators and how they work in the chapter \"Electromagnetism. \". Answer: kinetic", "output": [ "Through a process called electromagnetic induction, generators change what energy form of a spinning turbine to electrical energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-10d3244f9b79410c990ab1bd5c265ba5", "input": "Passage: In comparing two solutions of unequal solute concentration, the solution with the higher solute concentration is hypertonic, and the solution with the lower concentration is hypotonic. Solutions of equal solute concentration are isotonic. Answer: hypertonic", "output": [ "The solution with the higher solute concentration is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-58abc97d9c7e40b3b87dca1d703580aa", "input": "Passage: Oxygen is made by trees and other plants during photosynthesis. We know that we need oxygen to live. But why? This oxygen is an essential component for the optimal production of usable energy - which occurs through cellular respiration. Answer: oxygen", "output": [ "What is made by trees and other plants during photosynthesis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d45d2fa174e84796ab2946e8dd123702", "input": "Passage: How Sciences Interconnect DNA in Forensics and Paternity The genetic material for all living things is a polymer of four different molecules, which are themselves a combination of three subunits. The genetic information, the code for developing an organism, is contained in the specific sequence of the four molecules, similar to the way the letters of the alphabet can be sequenced to form words that convey information. The information in a DNA sequence is used to form two other types of polymers, one of which are proteins. The proteins interact to form a specific type of organism with individual characteristics. A genetic molecule is called DNA, which stands for deoxyribonucleic acid. The four molecules that make up DNA are called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of a single- or double-ringed molecule containing nitrogen, carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen called a nitrogenous base. Each base is bonded to a five-carbon sugar called deoxyribose. The sugar is in turn bonded to a phosphate group (−PO 4 3−) When new DNA is made, a polymerization reaction occurs that binds the phosphate group of one nucleotide to the sugar group of a second nucleotide. The nitrogenous bases of each nucleotide stick out from this sugar-phosphate backbone. DNA is actually formed from two such polymers coiled around each other and held together by hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases. Thus, the two backbones are on the outside of the coiled pair of strands, and the bases are on the inside. The shape of the two strands wound around each other is called a double helix (see Figure 20.18). It probably makes sense that the sequence of nucleotides in the DNA of a cat differs from those of a dog. But it is also true that the sequences of the DNA in the cells of two individual pugs differ. Likewise, the sequences of DNA in you and a sibling differ (unless your sibling is an identical twin), as do those between you and an unrelated individual. However, the DNA sequences of two related individuals are more similar than the sequences of two unrelated individuals, and these similarities in sequence can be observed in various ways. This is the principle behind DNA fingerprinting, which is a method used to determine whether two DNA samples came from related (or the same) individuals or unrelated individuals. Answer: deoxyribonucleic acid", "output": [ "A genetic molecule is called dna, which stands for this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-543f7de228554ba3959c16ece5bcaff6", "input": "Passage: What is the difference between a trait and a genetic disorder ? Could a disorder be considered a trait? We tend to think of traits as hair color or skin color and disorders as something that is bad for you. But in terms of genetics, a genetic disorder is a trait. Both may be due to your genes. Traits may be inherited in any of a number of ways: autosomal dominant or recessive, sex-linked inheritance, or a more complex pattern of inheritance. Answer: traits", "output": [ "Hair color and skin color are known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-25fca7f0b6cf4bc3b30ace397171b3fd", "input": "Passage: Water also gets colder as you go deeper. The weight of the water pressing down from above increases as well. At great depths, life becomes very difficult. The pressure is so great that only specially adapted creatures can live there. Answer: colder", "output": [ "Does water get colder or warmer the deeper you go?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e111b47f8bd34aaca9159498e1f224c1", "input": "Passage: Whether or not a given isotope is radioactive is a characteristic of that particular isotope. Some isotopes are stable indefinitely, while others are radioactive and decay through a characteristic form of emission. As time passes, less and less of the radioactive isotope will be present, and the level of radioactivity decreases. An interesting and useful aspect of radioactive decay is half-life, which is the amount of time it takes for one-half of a radioactive isotope to decay. The half-life of a specific radioactive isotope is constant; it is unaffected by conditions and is independent of the initial amount of that isotope. Consider the following example. Suppose we have 100.0 g of tritium (a radioactive isotope of hydrogen). It has a half-life of 12.3 y. After 12.3 y, half of the sample will have decayed from hydrogen-3 to helium-3 by emitting a beta particle, so that only 50.0 g of the original tritium remains. After another 12.3 y— making a total of 24.6 y—another half of the remaining tritium will have decayed, leaving 25.0 g of tritium. After another 12.3 y—now a total of 36.9 y—another half of the remaining tritium will have decayed, leaving 12.5 g. This sequence of events is illustrated in Figure 15.1 \"Radioactive Decay\". Figure 15.1 Radioactive Decay. Answer: decay", "output": [ "Some isotopes are stable indefinitely, while others are radioactive and do what through a characteristic form of emission?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ba87295bb95e426bb1b639c45ffab4da", "input": "Passage: Most ocean waves are caused by winds. A wave is the transfer of energy through matter. A wave that travels across miles of ocean is traveling energy, not water. Ocean waves transfer energy from wind to the water. The energy is transferred from one water molecule to the next. The energy of a wave may travel for thousands of miles. The water itself moves very little. The picture below shows how water molecules move when a wave goes by ( Figure below ). Once the wave starts, it doesn't need more wind to keep it going. Answer: matter", "output": [ "A wave is the transfer of energy through what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-41af73ed697244c78b93cf1cfe767941", "input": "Passage: Arteries are muscular blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. They have thick walls that can withstand the pressure of blood being pumped by the heart. Arteries generally carry oxygen-rich blood. The largest artery is the aorta , which receives blood directly from the heart. Answer: aorta", "output": [ "What is the largest artery in the body called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-66ca305de4ce46189f4c8d7538e9a917", "input": "Passage: The Linnaean system of classification consists of a hierarchy of groupings, called taxa (singular, taxon). Taxa range from the kingdom to the species (see Figure below ). The kingdom is the largest and most inclusive grouping. It consists of organisms that share just a few basic similarities. Examples are the plant and animal kingdoms. The species is the smallest and most exclusive grouping. It consists of organisms that are similar enough to produce fertile offspring together. Closely related species are grouped together in a genus. Answer: linnaean system", "output": [ "What do we call the system of classification consisting of a hierarchy of groupings called taxa?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ff529e98f1b9472d9713a9256d05ccbc", "input": "Passage: Experiments are sometimes hard or even impossible to do. For example, a scientist who is studying an extinct animal cannot experiment with the animal because it no longer exists. The scientist must rely instead on evidence in the natural world, such as fossils that the extinct animal left behind. Answer: experiments", "output": [ "What can be hard or even impossible to perform in a scientific sense?" ] }, { "id": "task594-95d1c4773b0040d08130047c82e30e9a", "input": "Passage: Meteorologists don’t study meteors — they study the atmosphere! The word “meteor” refers to things in the air. Meteorology includes the study of weather patterns, clouds, hurricanes, and tornadoes. Meteorology is very important. Using radars and satellites, meteorologists work to predict, or forecast, the weather ( Figure below ). Answer: meteorologists", "output": [ "Despite their name, what scientists study the atmosphere rather than colliding space rocks?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7d542d782c124996a9abee329f0a7069", "input": "Passage: Feldspar and quartz are the two most common silicates. In beryl, the silicate pyramids join together as rings. Biotite is mica. The silicate pyramids come together to create thin, flexible sheets. Compare the beryl and the biotite pictured below ( Figure below ). Answer: feldspar and quartz", "output": [ "What are the two most common silicates?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6cabf67efbfd4e4687348276544dcffe", "input": "Passage: By losing an electron, the sodium atom becomes a sodium ion. It now has one less electron than protons, giving it a charge of +1. Positive ions such as sodium are given the same name as the element. The chemical symbol has a plus sign to distinguish the ion from an atom of the element. The symbol for a sodium ion is Na + . Answer: becomes sodium ion", "output": [ "What happens when a sodium atom loses an electron?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7e600a4e57f44ea28869a28dfdb6c8da", "input": "Passage: The level of biodiversity found in the fossil record suggests that the last few million years include the period of greatest biodiversity in the Earth's history. However, not all scientists support this view, since there is a lot of uncertainty as to how strongly the fossil record is biased by the greater availability and preservation of more recent fossil-containing rock layers. Some researchers argue that modern biodiversity is not much different from biodiversity 300 million years ago. Estimates of the present global species diversity vary from 5 million to 30 million species, with a best estimate of somewhere near 10 million species. All living organisms are classified into one of the six kingdoms: Archaebacteria (Archaea), Eubacteria (Bacteria), Protista (Protists), Fungi, Plantae (Plants), and Animalia (Animals). Answer: kingdoms", "output": [ "All living organisms are classified into one of six broad categories called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-be3ce173ab4247b88ef917342b1c9431", "input": "Passage: Radioactive strontium is dangerous because it can chemically replace calcium in the human body. The bones are particularly susceptible to radiation damage. Write the nuclear equation for the beta emission of strontium-90. Answer: calcium", "output": [ "What can radioactive strontium replace in the human body making it dangerous?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0815761df7d4475a91e67d159eccf50c", "input": "Passage: Biomass is the material that comes from plants and animals that were recently living. Biomass can be burned directly. This happens when you burn a log in your fireplace. For as long as humans have had fire, people have used biomass for heating and cooking. Answer: biomass", "output": [ "What is the organic material that comes from plants and animals that were recently living called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-327918d9aae2477e9c85bf74b156e3bb", "input": "Passage: In prophase II, once again the nucleolus disappears and the nucleus breaks down. The chromatin condenses into chromosomes. The spindle begins to reform as the centrioles move to opposite sides of the cell. Answer: prophase ii", "output": [ "In which stage does the chromatin condense into chromosomes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-48a6dd59c08e4e0c9c5783b8430d5e26", "input": "Passage: An island arc is a line of volcanoes on an oceanic plate. A continental arc is a line of volcanoes on a continental plate. Answer: oceanic", "output": [ "What type of plate is an island arc found on?" ] }, { "id": "task594-793102fea8744eee8d34da74ad708db3", "input": "Passage: Behind each release of gas is an army of gut bacteria undergoing some crazy biochemistry. These bacteria break down the remains of digested food through fermentation, creating gas in the process. Learn what these bacteria have in common with beer brewing at http://youtu. be/R1kxajH629A?list=PLzMhsCgGKd1hoofiKuifwy6qRXZs7NG6a . Answer: fermentation", "output": [ "Bacteria break down the remains of digested food through a processed called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9bccb9edfeb54ae5b7737794ebc52bbe", "input": "Passage: Disaccharides A disaccharide is a pair of monosaccharides. Disaccharides are formed via dehydration synthesis, and the bond linking them is referred to as a glycosidic bond (glyco- = “sugar”). Three disaccharides (shown in Figure 2.19) are important to humans. These are sucrose, commonly referred to as table sugar; lactose, or milk sugar; and maltose, or malt sugar. As you can tell from their common names, you consume these in your diet; however, your body cannot use them directly. Instead, in the digestive tract, they are split into their component monosaccharides via hydrolysis. Answer: malt sugar", "output": [ "A disaccharide is a pair of monosaccharides. disaccharides are formed via dehydration synthesis, and the bond linking them is referred to as a glycosidic bond (glyco- = “sugar”). three disaccharides (shown in figure 2.19) are important to humans. these are sucrose, commonly referred to as table sugar; lactose, or milk sugar; and maltose, or this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e9b6e178d15b44adb6f421fba8cddf4c", "input": "Passage: Acids change the color of certain acid-base indicators. Two common indicators are litmus and phenolphthalein. Blue litmus turns red in the presence of an acid, while phenolphthalein turns colorless. Answer: acid", "output": [ "What causes blue litmus to turn red?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b97363cf57b64284a3762affeee668e4", "input": "Passage: The sun’s energy is converted to chemical energy by a plant. An animal gets energy when it eats the plant. The student gets energy when it eats the animal. The boy’s energy is used to pedal the bike. Answer: plant", "output": [ "The sun’s energy is converted to chemical energy by a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f8b0d2598aa14418bc7026d880a72186", "input": "Passage: Saturn is the second largest planet in the solar system ( Figure below ). Saturn’s mass is about 95 times Earth's mass. The gas giant is 755 times Earth’s volume. Despite its large size, Saturn is the least dense planet in our solar system. Saturn is actually less dense than water. This means that if there were a bathtub big enough, Saturn would float! In Roman mythology, Saturn was the father of Jupiter. Saturn orbits the Sun once about every 30 Earth years. Answer: saturn", "output": [ "What is the second largest planet in the solar system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-76baacb517714454ba0d25ff612a752c", "input": "Passage: Bacteria called cyanobacteria are very important. They are bluish green in color (see Figure below ) because they contain chlorophyll. They make food through photosynthesis and release oxygen into the air. These bacteria were probably responsible for adding oxygen to the air on early Earth. This changed the planet’s atmosphere. It also changed the direction of evolution. Ancient cyanobacteria also may have evolved into the chloroplasts of plant cells. Answer: chlorophyll", "output": [ "Cyanobacteria are bluish green in color because they contain what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7a947c00f62a47bab866b504240388b5", "input": "Passage: Asthma is a chronic illness in which the bronchioles, the tiny branches into which the bronchi are divided, become inflamed and narrow ( Figure below ). The muscles around the bronchioles contract, which narrows the airways. Large amounts of mucus are also made by the cells in the lungs. People with asthma have difficulty breathing. Their chests feel tight, and they wheeze. Asthma can be caused by different things, such as allergies. Asthma can also be caused by cold air, warm air, moist air, exercise, or stress. The most common asthma triggers are illnesses, like the common cold. Asthma is not contagious and cannot be passed on to other people. Children and adolescents who have asthma can still lead active lives if they control their asthma. Asthma can be controlled by taking medication and by avoiding contact with environmental triggers for asthma, like smoking. Answer: bronchioles", "output": [ "Asthma affects what tiny branches into which the bronchi are divided?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e6b8a5fbd9c546c7b4071a763dbe5049", "input": "Passage: The burner on a gas stove burns with a pretty blue flame like the one pictured in the opening image. The fuel burned by most gas stoves is natural gas, which consists mainly of methane. Methane is a compound that contains only carbon and hydrogen. Like many other compounds that consist of just these two elements, methane is used for fuel because it burns very easily. Methane is an example of a covalent compound. Answer: methane", "output": [ "Natural gas, such as those burned by gas stoves, is composed mostly of this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fef2a4bf3f404c68a902495545e5e03c", "input": "Passage: If no unbalanced force acts on an object the object remains at constant velocity or at rest. Answer: at rest", "output": [ "If no unbalanced force acts on an object the object remains at constant velocity or what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b561f070e49d4a589557b6f1f9c79f43", "input": "Passage: Chemical weathering is different than mechanical weathering. The minerals in the rock change their chemical makeup. They become a different type of mineral or even a different type of rock. Chemical weathering works through chemical reactions that change the rock. Answer: chemical weathering", "output": [ "What works through chemical reactions that change the rock?" ] }, { "id": "task594-15ad689572f64ed096e1a9cd17d36f10", "input": "Passage: Platyhelminthes are flatworms such as tapeworms and flukes. Answer: platyhelminthes", "output": [ "What is another name for flatworms such as tapeworms and flukes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-befd38066b034d079be99412c852619a", "input": "Passage: 32.2 Pollination and Fertilization For fertilization to occur in angiosperms, pollen has to be transferred to the stigma of a flower: a process known as pollination. Gymnosperm pollination involves the transfer of pollen from a male cone to a female cone. When the pollen of the flower is transferred to the stigma of the same flower, it is called self-pollination. Cross-pollination occurs when pollen is transferred from one flower to another flower on the same plant, or another plant. Cross-pollination requires pollinating agents such as water, wind, or animals, and increases genetic diversity. After the pollen lands on the stigma, the tube cell gives rise to the pollen tube, through which the generative nucleus migrates. The pollen tube gains entry through the micropyle on the ovule sac. The generative cell divides to form two sperm cells: one fuses with the egg to form the diploid zygote, and the other fuses with the polar nuclei to form the endosperm, which is triploid in nature. This is known as double fertilization. After fertilization, the zygote divides to form the embryo and the fertilized ovule forms the seed. The walls of the ovary form the fruit in which the seeds develop. The seed, when mature, will germinate under favorable conditions and give rise to the diploid sporophyte. Answer: flower", "output": [ "For fertilization to occur in angiosperms, pollen has to be transferred to the stigma of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0298d42c3a704e18bdd390174d280feb", "input": "Passage: The pineal gland is a tiny gland located at the base of the brain. It secretes the hormone melatonin. This hormone controls sleep-wake cycles and several other processes. Answer: pineal", "output": [ "What gland is located at the base of the brain and secretes the hormone melatonin?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1b501393918c4cc6ada9d450dee0ad2d", "input": "Passage: The strength of acids is measured on the pH scale. A pH value less than 7 indicates an acid, and the lower the number is, the stronger the acid. Answer: ph", "output": [ "The strength of acids is measured on what scale?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9ebbece1ea8a4c1e8b36f57799890dfc", "input": "Passage: When chemists synthesize a new compound, they may not yet know its molecular or structural formula. In such cases, they usually begin by determining itsempirical formula, the relative numbers of atoms of the elements in a compound, reduced to the smallest whole numbers. Because the empirical formula is based on experimental measurements of the numbers of atoms in a sample of the compound, it shows only the ratios of the numbers of the elements present. The difference betweenempirical and molecular formulas can be illustrated with butane, a covalent compound used as the fuel in disposable lighters. The molecular formula for butane is C4H10. The ratio of carbon atoms to hydrogen atoms in butane is 4:10, which can be reduced to 2:5. The empirical formula for butane is therefore C2H5. The formula unit is the absolutegrouping of atoms or ions represented by the empirical formula of a compound, either ionic or covalent. Butane, for example, has the empirical formula C2H5, but it contains two C2H5 formula units, giving a molecular formula of C4H10. Because ionic compounds do not contain discrete molecules, empirical formulas are used to indicate their compositions. All compounds, whether ionic or covalent, must be electrically neutral. Consequently, the positive and negative charges in a formula unit must exactly cancel each other. If the cation and the anion have charges of equal. Answer: electrically neutral", "output": [ "All compounds, whether ionic or covalent, must be what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2e4a5bb144044cf4b8f977c53c514474", "input": "Passage: Energy also constantly changes back and forth between kinetic and potential energy. Kinetic energy is the energy of movement. For example, a ball falling through the air has kinetic energy because it is moving ( Figure below ). The random motion of molecules is due to kinetic energy, and the driving force behind diffusion. Answer: potential", "output": [ "Energy constantly changes back and forth between kinetic and what type of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3512494740714920897cf5a359c1071d", "input": "Passage: The Golgi apparatus is a large organelle that sends proteins and lipids where they need to go. It’s like a post office. It receives molecules from the endoplasmic reticulum. It packages and labels the molecules. Then it sends them where they are needed. Some molecules are sent to different parts of the cell. Others are sent to the cell membrane for transport out of the cell. Small bits of membrane pinch off the Golgi apparatus to enclose and transport the proteins and lipids. You can see a Golgi apparatus at work in this animation:. Answer: the golgi apparatus", "output": [ "Which organelle is often compared to a post office, moving proteins and lipids to where they need to go?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a8efb8a42ccb415a8bfbeeab116e30c1", "input": "Passage: Precipitation is water that falls from clouds. It may fall as liquid or frozen water. Types of frozen precipitation include snow, sleet, freezing rain, and hail. Answer: precipitation", "output": [ "What is the term for water that falls from clouds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4c138a5dedc44239ac3f690b71e52bc8", "input": "Passage: Materials that have high resistance to electric current are called electric insulators . Examples include most nonmetallic solids, such as wood, rubber, and plastic. Their atoms hold onto their electrons tightly, so electric current cannot flow freely through them. Dry air is also an electric insulator. You can learn more about electric insulators—as well as how to test whether a material is an insulator—by doing the activity at this URL:. Answer: electric insulators", "output": [ "What do you call materials that have high resistance to electric current?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a54ffa62f6ff4909b90882c61cdd8a9e", "input": "Passage: 1.5 Homeostasis Homeostasis is the activity of cells throughout the body to maintain the physiological state within a narrow range that is compatible with life. Homeostasis is regulated by negative feedback loops and, much less frequently, by positive feedback loops. Both have the same components of a stimulus, sensor, control center, and effector; however, negative feedback loops work to prevent an excessive response to the stimulus, whereas positive feedback loops intensify the response until an end point is reached. Answer: positive feedback loops", "output": [ "What intensifies the response during homeostasis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3f79dbab7bcc43e19a69db10a5e73d54", "input": "Passage: Many soil scientists work both in an office and in the field. According to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA): “a soil scientist needs good observation skills to analyze and determine the characteristics of different types of soils. Soil types are complex and the geographical areas a soil scientist may survey are varied. Aerial photos or various satellite images are often used to research the areas. Computer skills and geographic information systems (GIS) help the scientist to analyze the multiple facets [1] of geomorphology, topography, vegetation, and climate to discover the patterns left on the landscape. ” Soil scientists play a key role in understanding the soil’s past, analyzing present conditions, and making recommendations for future soil-related practices. Answer: soil scientist", "output": [ "What kind of scientist is concerned with facets of geomorphology, topography, vegetation, and climate?" ] }, { "id": "task594-549cc0b9c8844965b3421d247d7d5f68", "input": "Passage: The stratosphere is the layer above the troposphere. The layer rises to about 50 kilometers (31 miles) above the surface. Answer: stratosphere", "output": [ "What is the layer above the troposphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-35c39394c4e7437ca3f1d023dd81e9ae", "input": "Passage: Hotspots may also be active at plate boundaries. This is especially common at mid-ocean ridges. Iceland is formed by a hotspot along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Answer: iceland", "output": [ "Which country is formed by a hotspot along the mid-atlantic ridge?" ] }, { "id": "task594-190f870cc904446581dc6690427e7bc3", "input": "Passage: Acceleration is a measure of the change in velocity of a moving object. It measures the rate at which the change is occurring. It may reflect a change in speed, a change in direction, or both. Like velocity, acceleration is a vector. Answer: acceleration", "output": [ "What is the measure of the change in velocity of a moving object called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-26695c1fe73846f0a7adcd7ae6d7a384", "input": "Passage: Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy between particles of matter that are touching. Thermal conduction occurs when particles of warmer matter bump into particles of cooler matter and transfer some of their thermal energy to the cooler particles. Conduction is usually faster in certain solids and liquids than in gases. Materials that are good conductors of thermal energy are called thermal conductors . Metals are especially good thermal conductors because they have freely moving electrons that can transfer thermal energy quickly and easily. Answer: conduction", "output": [ "What is the name for the transfer of thermal energy between particles of matter that are touching?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bb844cafa48b4119be48a2274fa7b6b4", "input": "Passage: Many genetic disorders are caused by mutations in one or a few genes. Answer: genes", "output": [ "Many genetic disorders are caused by mutations in one or a few of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-665a910ac39a43cab7aa046dc1f6eb55", "input": "Passage: The oxidation state of hydrogen can also be predicted based on the atoms to which it is bonded. As with other pure elements, hydrogen has an oxidation state of zero in H 2 . Answer: oxidation", "output": [ "What state of hydrogen can be predicted based on the atoms to which it is bonded?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bd50b90a24bf4c96895bba895eeb44ae", "input": "Passage: arthropod in Class Insecta that has three body segments, six jointed legs, and multiple head appendages. Answer: arthropod", "output": [ "Which species in class insecta has three body segments, six jointed legs, and multiple head appendages?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e4e5abcc0afc47d39733c5b994094872", "input": "Passage: Biochemical reactions are chemical reactions that take place inside the cells of organisms. Answer: inside the organisms' cells", "output": [ "Where do biochemical reactions take place?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8006272b7eed42468d6a0c9f2435f1c7", "input": "Passage: Lithosphere and asthenosphere are layers based on physical properties. The outermost layer is the lithosphere . The lithosphere is the crust and the uppermost mantle. In terms of physical properties, this layer is rigid, solid, and brittle. It is easily cracked or broken. Answer: outermost layer", "output": [ "Which layer is the lithosphere located?" ] }, { "id": "task594-295c4c91068349ed847209fea672ada5", "input": "Passage: Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system. It has bands of different colored clouds, and a long-lasting storm called the Great Red Spot. Answer: jupiter", "output": [ "What is the largest planet in the solar system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-59949d35c7904689ad37b47a13db597c", "input": "Passage: Most animal behaviors are controlled by both genes and experiences in a given environment. To the extent that behaviors are controlled by genes, they may evolve. Behaviors that improve fitness increase through natural selection. Answer: natural selection", "output": [ "Through which process do behaviors that improve fitness increase?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c5ceb260f56c4d12a189f2ef5a59d388", "input": "Passage: Chemistry is the study of the structure, properties, and interactions of matter. Important concepts in chemistry include physical changes, such as water freezing, and chemical reactions, such as fireworks exploding. Chemistry concepts can answer all the questions on the left page of the notebook in Figure below . Do you know the answers?. Answer: chemistry", "output": [ "What is the study of structure, properties, and interactions of matter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-50237d760af14c29ae1ebeef9aea2f61", "input": "Passage: The prostate gland secretes a fluid that mixes with sperm to help form semen. Semen is a whitish liquid that contains sperm. It passes through the urethra and out of the body. Answer: prostate gland", "output": [ "What gland secretes a fluid that mixes with sperm to help form semen?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eb73d48a11554b68ad44ea474b7ca6a9", "input": "Passage: From the kidneys, urine enters the ureters. These are two muscular tubes that carry urine to the urinary bladder. Contractions of the muscles of the ureters move the urine along by peristalsis. The urinary bladder is a sac-like organ that stores urine. When the bladder is about half full, a sphincter relaxes to let urine flow out of the bladder and into the urethra. The urethra is a muscular tube that carries urine out of the body through another sphincter. The process of urine leaving the body is called urination. The second sphincter and the process of urination are normally under conscious control. Answer: the urinary bladder", "output": [ "What is a sac-like organ that stores urine?" ] }, { "id": "task594-22e778c2f9ea4b9394edc2988f75ebf3", "input": "Passage: Zinc reacting with hydrochloric acid produces bubbles of hydrogen gas. Answer: hydrogen", "output": [ "Zinc reacting with hydrochloric acid produces bubbles of which gas?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5b4ce3d3b72548a7bfd56ffb861af208", "input": "Passage: The majority of mollusks and annelids live in the water or inside hosts. Arthropods are invertebrates that include insects. The majority of arthropods live on land. Answer: on land", "output": [ "Where do the majority of arthropods live?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5eea8746aa0e468182f8d58972434742", "input": "Passage: 4. Electricity is made when some type of energy turns a turbine. Explain how this happens and give two examples. Answer: electricity", "output": [ "What is created when energy turns a turbine?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6e15083b4a664f679e4714d0a699ba3d", "input": "Passage: Although lots of symbiotic relationships help both organisms, sometimes one of the organisms is harmed. When that happens, the organism that benefits, and is not harmed, is called a parasite . This type of relationship is known as parasitism. Answer: parasite", "output": [ "Although lots of symbiotic relationships help both organisms, sometimes one of the organisms is harmed. when that happens, the organism that benefits, and is not harmed, is called a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-29171d26a8264ff28732c6f3c353f246", "input": "Passage: Weather stations collect data on land and sea. Weather balloons, satellites, and radar collect data in the atmosphere. Answer: weather stations", "output": [ "What collect data on the land and sea in regards to the weather?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6bd20e673c6b468fb890e0db439748a1", "input": "Passage: Bones are made up of different types of tissues. Answer: tissues", "output": [ "What are bones made up of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c4f4e65551714106a7b8dcee7280ab69", "input": "Passage: In this lesson, you learned about chemical bonds in a water molecule. The bonds form between atoms of hydrogen and oxygen when they share electrons. This type of bond is an example of a covalent bond. Answer: add the protons and neutrons together", "output": [ "How do you calculate the atomic mass of an element?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d085f6d28f73483786ad5f9fe6f3ca95", "input": "Passage: A uniform electric field makes it easier to measure the difference in electric potential energy. This energy, also called the electric potential difference is commonly referred to as the voltage , based on the unit, volt (V). To measure the voltage across some distance, it is necessary to pick a position to be the relative zero, because voltage is the change in potential difference. Any point in a system can be given the value of zero volts, but it is typically the point of a point charge or one plate in a uniform electric field as shown above. The voltage is measured using a voltmeter, which measures the electric potential difference across two points. Answer: potential difference", "output": [ "The voltage is measured using a voltmeter, which measures which difference across two points?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1134b9a5bd804aa18d1edfe1055059dc", "input": "Passage: type of protozoa, such as Giardia, that moves with flagella. Answer: movement", "output": [ "Giardia is an example of a protozoa that uses flagella for what purpose?" ] }, { "id": "task594-98f84b2eb6534423b9d8653f837b3dab", "input": "Passage: Why do charges flow in an electric current? The answer has to do with electric potential energy. Potential energy is stored energy that an object has due to its position or shape. An electric charge has potential energy because of its position in an electric field. For example, when two negative charges are close together, they have potential energy because they repel each other and have the potential to push apart. If the charges move apart, their potential energy decreases. Electric charges always move spontaneously from a position where they have higher potential energy to a position where their potential energy is lower. This is similar to water falling over a dam from an area of higher to lower potential energy due to gravity. Answer: potential energy", "output": [ "What is the scientific term for stored energy an object has due to its position or shape?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0e079beabf674ffa9012ee85a65d6287", "input": "Passage: Like salt water in the ocean, many solutions are normally in the liquid state. However, matter in any state can form a solution. An alloy, which is a mixture of a metal with one or more other substances, is a solid solution at room temperature. For example, the alloy bronze is a solution of copper and tin. Matter in the gaseous state can also form solutions. Answer: metal", "output": [ "An alloy is a mixture of what with one or more other substances?" ] }, { "id": "task594-85aa3ca7bef6416596fd5d7254dc0e78", "input": "Passage: Amphibians reproduce sexually with either external or internal fertilization. They may attract mates with calls or scents. They do not produce amniotic eggs, so they must reproduce in water. Their larvae go through metamorphosis to change into the adult form. Answer: external or internal", "output": [ "Through what method or methods of fertilization do amphibians sexually reproduce?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cb013669e410431e9fc0d25f59233bba", "input": "Passage: The earliest vertebrates were jawless fish. They evolved about 550 million years ago. They were probably similar to modern hagfish (see Table above ). The tree diagram in Figure below summarizes how vertebrates evolved from that time forward. Answer: fish", "output": [ "The earliest vertebrates were jawless what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c818b4fd7e4848caaad9b288ae42fe9a", "input": "Passage: An antigen that causes an allergy is called an allergen. Answer: an allergen", "output": [ "What is defined as an antigen that causes an allergy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-221a22322f864338b21abc75149260a1", "input": "Passage: Heat is the energy that flows as a result of a difference in temperature. We use the symbol for heat. Heat, like all forms of energy, is measured in joules. Answer: heat", "output": [ "What is the energy that flows as a result of a difference in temperature?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ac68aa44bfeb4805952b92fa97272eec", "input": "Passage: The amount of material left over after a certain number of half-lives can be easily calculated. Answer: pheromone", "output": [ "What term is used to describe a chemical released by an animal that affects the behavior or physiology of animals of the same species?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c2f55513ae694143ab88625fa8eef789", "input": "Passage: Mutation creates new genetic variation in a gene pool. Answer: gene pool", "output": [ "Mutation creates new genetic variation in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7ac54b24423e4e79b8cc878628e1d99b", "input": "Passage: Solutions can also be comprised of a solid solute and a liquid solvent. These interactions are governed by the same three interactions we discussed earlier: polar-polar, nonpolar-polar, and nonpolar-nonpolar. The Table below describes these interactions. Answer: solvent", "output": [ "What is the name of the liquid component of a solution?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ab897c816a8b4c5e8b87458665f90021", "input": "Passage: The smallest particle of an element that still has the element’s properties is an atom . All the atoms of an element are alike, and they are different from the atoms of all other elements. For example, atoms of gold are the same whether they are found in a gold nugget or a gold ring (see Figure below ). All gold atoms have the same structure and properties. Answer: an atom", "output": [ "What is the smallest particle of an element that still has the element’s properties?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fbed8fe2eddb4410b300e1b264004c65", "input": "Passage: 9.2 | DNA Replication By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Explain the process of DNA replication • Explain the importance of telomerase to DNA replication • Describe mechanisms of DNA repair When a cell divides, it is important that each daughter cell receives an identical copy of the DNA. This is accomplished by the process of DNA replication. The replication of DNA occurs during the synthesis phase, or S phase, of the cell cycle, before the cell enters mitosis or meiosis. The elucidation of the structure of the double helix provided a hint as to how DNA is copied. Recall that adenine nucleotides pair with thymine nucleotides, and cytosine with guanine. This means that the two strands are complementary to each other. For example, a strand of DNA with a nucleotide sequence of AGTCATGA will have a complementary strand with the sequence TCAGTACT (Figure 9.8). Answer: synthesis", "output": [ "During which phase does dna replication occur in the cell cycle?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fe190358eedb4db8a579cd392d6bb62f", "input": "Passage: Pesticides were designed to kill bothersome insects. However, sometimes these pesticides will stop working. A pesticide that has worked in the past may no longer kill a particular type of insect. This is due to the development of resistance in the population of insects. The development of resistance to pesticides is one example of microevolution, a small change in a population. Answer: microevolution", "output": [ "Resistance to pesticides in a population of insects is an example of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4dc32f47a43f405bacd1f5bee8bebe53", "input": "Passage: Grazers, such as sea urchins, are organisms that feed on available plants. Sea urchins are omnivorous, eating both plant and animals. The sea urchin mainly feeds on algae on the coral and rocks, along with decomposing matter such as dead fish, mussels, sponges, and barnacles. Answer: grazers", "output": [ "What are organisms that feed on available plants called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-36eb102bd3f34f92ad138c262abf46e2", "input": "Passage: Acids are molecular compounds that dissolve in water to produce hydronium ions and an anion. Answer: an anion", "output": [ "Acids are molecular compounds that dissolve in water to produce hydronium ions and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d5fe27a21bcf48bc9d30b933039a1a17", "input": "Passage: Figure 8.11 Fractures of the Humerus and Radius Falls or direct blows can result in fractures of the surgical neck or shaft of the humerus. Falls onto the elbow can fracture the distal humerus. A Colles fracture of the distal radius is the most common forearm fracture. Answer: elbow", "output": [ "Falling onto what joint can fracture the distal humerus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-64a20bd5bb6745c2bb38e352f0a897bc", "input": "Passage: Think of a continent, like North America. Surrounding the continent are continental margins . Continental crust grades into oceanic crust at continental margins. Continental margins are under water. Almost all of North America sits on the North American Plate ( Figure below ). Both sides of the continent have continental margins, but each is very different. One continental margin of North America is an active margin. The other is a passive margin. Can you guess which is which?. Answer: oceanic crust", "output": [ "What does continental crust grade into at continental margins?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0821e335f2d245a7a9fe5ccdfb2b7ee3", "input": "Passage: Flatworms reproduce sexually. In most species, the same individuals produce both eggs and sperm. After fertilization occurs, the fertilized eggs pass out of the adult’s body and hatch into larvae. There may be several different larval stages. The final larval stage develops into the adult form, and the life cycle repeats. Answer: eggs and sperm", "output": [ "Flatworms reproduce sexually. in most species, the same individuals produce both what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cffdaf6ade7f4f44929cab0de2d9e556", "input": "Passage: Since the early 1990s, astronomers have discovered other solar systems. A solar system has one or more planets orbiting one or more stars. We call these planets “extrasolar planets,” or exoplanets . They are called exoplanets because they orbit a star other than the Sun. As of April 2014, more than 4,600 exoplanets have been found, with 1706 confirmed. The rate of discovery is increasing rapidly! You can check out how many we have found at http://planetquest. jpl. nasa. gov/ . Answer: solar system", "output": [ "What do you call a system that has one or more planets orbiting one or more stars?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7af8776e23d1499593919bca4985d425", "input": "Passage: The prostate gland secretes a fluid that mixes with sperm to help form semen. The prostate gland is located beneath the bladder. Semen is a \"milky\" liquid that carries sperm through the urethra and out of the body. In addition to sperm cells, semen contains sugars (fructose) which provide energy to the sperm cells, and enzymes and other substances which help the sperm survive. Answer: semen", "output": [ "The prostate gland secretes a fluid that mixes with sperm to help form what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8551bc8757d44c69933eab3b384d5426", "input": "Passage: There are a variety of types of movable joints, which are illustrated in Figure below . The joints are classified by how they move. For example, a ball-and-socket joint , such as the shoulder, has the greatest range of motion, allowing movement in several directions. Other movable joints, including hinge joints such as the knee, allow less movement. Answer: shoulder", "output": [ "Give an example of a ball-and-socket joint, which has the greatest range of motion, allowing movement in several directions." ] }, { "id": "task594-8f1ce689b60b440396a3c39de5df9dd6", "input": "Passage: Diabetes is a non-infectious disease in which the body is unable to control the amount of sugar in the blood. People with diabetes have high blood sugar, either because their bodies do not produce enough insulin, or because their cells do not respond to insulin. Insulin is a hormone that helps cells take up sugar from the blood. Without enough insulin, the blood contains too much sugar. This can damage blood vessels and other cells throughout the body. The kidneys work hard to filter out and remove some of the extra sugar. This leads to frequent urination and excessive thirst. Answer: sugar", "output": [ "Diabetes is a non-infectious disease in which the body is unable to control the amount of what in the blood?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6e9fed3d352a4b30bc97abae9d45b697", "input": "Passage: After each mass extinction, new species evolve to fill the habitats where old species lived. This is well documented in the fossil record. Answer: mass extinction", "output": [ "The fossil record shows that this type of event is followed by the evolution of new species to fill the habitats where old species lived?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b5cbd914cb724fc4a30544b66d6b1711", "input": "Passage: Electric current is a continuous flow of electric charges. Current is measured as the amount of charge that flows past a given point in a certain amount of time. The SI unit for electric current is the ampere (A), or amp. Electric current may flow in just one direction, or it may keep reversing direction. Answer: electric current", "output": [ "What is a continuous flow of electric charges called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-89f16d025a2842b086d6aa812adf5e82", "input": "Passage: If particles do not have enough kinetic energy to overcome the force of attraction between them, matter exists as a solid. The particles are packed closely together and held rigidly in place. All they can do is vibrate. This explains why solids have a fixed volume and a fixed shape. Answer: solid", "output": [ "What state of matter exists if particles do not have enough kinetic energy to overcome the force of attraction between them?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b7d6d746d7aa438f94bfe3f5cd55c886", "input": "Passage: Cerebral Cortex Compared to other vertebrates, mammals have exceptionally large brains for their body size. An entire alligator’s brain, for example, would fill about one and a half teaspoons. This increase in brain to body size ratio is especially pronounced in apes, whales, and dolphins. While this increase in overall brain size doubtlessly played a role in the evolution of complex behaviors unique to mammals, it does not tell the whole story. Scientists have found a relationship between the relatively high surface area of the cortex and the intelligence and complex social behaviors exhibited by some mammals. This increased surface area is due, in part, to increased folding of the cortical sheet (more sulci and gyri). For example, a rat cortex is very smooth with very few sulci and gyri. Cat and sheep cortices have more sulci and gyri. Chimps, humans, and dolphins have even more. Answer: brain", "output": [ "What organ do mammals have that is exceptionally large for their body size?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3fae72c06c994e7f89f27291e6b8daaf", "input": "Passage: Mollusks are invertebrates such as snails, scallops, and squids. Answer: mollusks", "output": [ "Snails, scallops, and squids are examples of invertebrates called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ad3a252f6c8642799485f061ed5c73fc", "input": "Passage: Figure 27.13 Animals that molt their exoskeletons, such as these (a) Madagascar hissing cockroaches, are in the clade Ecdysozoa. (b) Phoronids are in the clade Lophotrochozoa. The tentacles are part of a feeding structure called a lophophore. (credit a: modification of work by Whitney Cranshaw, Colorado State University, Bugwood. org; credit b: modification of work by NOAA). Answer: ecdysozoa", "output": [ "Animals that molt their exoskeletons belong to which clade?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0960f0f17b7e44a88ccf8c8432be80a0", "input": "Passage: Static friction acts on objects when they are resting on a surface. For example, if you are hiking in the woods, there is static friction between your shoes and the trail each time you put down your foot (see Figure below ). Without this static friction, your feet would slip out from under you, making it difficult to walk. In fact, that’s exactly what happens if you try to walk on ice. That’s because ice is very slippery and offers very little friction. Answer: a surface", "output": [ "Static friction acts on objects when they are resting on what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bf98baa576c541948c0f95d9a666097b", "input": "Passage: Amphibians are vertebrates that exist in two worlds. They divide their time between freshwater and terrestrial habitats. They share a number of features with air-breathing lungfish, but they also differ from lungfish in many ways. One way they differ is their appendages. Amphibians are the first true tetrapods, or vertebrates with four limbs. Modern amphibians include frogs, salamanders, and caecilians, as shown Figure below . Answer: tetrapods", "output": [ "Vertebrates with four limbs are also called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f2960131b17141b78841dd17574f9840", "input": "Passage: Lipids are a class of biochemical compounds that living things use to store energy. Types of lipids include fats and oils. Answer: lipids", "output": [ "What are a class of biochemical compounds that living things use to store energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-30acab4f6f94403a808dd8b7065a7ee0", "input": "Passage: Dura Mater Like a thick cap covering the brain, the dura mater is a tough outer covering. The name comes from the Latin for “tough mother” to represent its physically protective role. It encloses the entire CNS and the major blood vessels that enter the cranium and vertebral cavity. It is directly attached to the inner surface of the bones of the cranium and to the very end of the vertebral cavity. There are infoldings of the dura that fit into large crevasses of the brain. Two infoldings go through the midline separations of the cerebrum and cerebellum; one forms a shelf-like tent between the occipital lobes of the cerebrum and the cerebellum, and the other surrounds the pituitary gland. The dura also surrounds and supports the venous sinuses. Answer: tough mother", "output": [ "Like a thick cap covering the brain, the dura mater is a tough outer covering. the name comes from the latin for?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eea2d67131be4de7a00d89153415da8d", "input": "Passage: Solar energy is used to heat homes and water, and to make electricity. Scientists and engineers have many ways to get energy from the Sun ( Figure above ). One is by using solar cells. Solar cells are devices that turn sunlight directly into electricity. Lots of solar cells make up an individual solar panel. You may have seen solar panels on roof tops. The Sun’s heat can also be trapped in your home by using south facing windows and good insulation. Answer: insulation", "output": [ "The sun’s heat can also be trapped in your home by using south facing windows and good what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-72259eefd1bd43438c99278402ac43a8", "input": "Passage: The proportionality between the rate and becomes an equal sign by the insertion of a constant . A rate law is an expression showing the relationship of the reaction rate to the concentrations of each reactant. The specific rate constant is the proportionality constant relating the rate of the reaction to the concentrations of reactants. The rate law and the specific rate constant for any chemical reaction must be determined experimentally. The value of the rate constant is temperature dependent. A large value of the rate constant means that the reaction is relatively fast, while a small value of the rate constant means that the reaction is relatively slow. Answer: rate law", "output": [ "What is the term for an expression showing the relationship of the reaction rate to the concentrations of each reactant?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5168830027b24517a17a11942f28aeab", "input": "Passage: 32.3 Asexual Reproduction Many plants reproduce asexually as well as sexually. In asexual reproduction, part of the parent plant is used to generate a new plant. Grafting, layering, and micropropagation are some methods used for artificial asexual reproduction. The new plant is genetically identical to the parent plant from which the stock has been taken. Asexually reproducing plants thrive well in stable environments. Plants have different life spans, dependent on species, genotype, and environmental conditions. Parts of the plant, such as regions containing meristematic tissue, continue to grow, while other parts experience programmed cell death. Leaves that are no longer photosynthetically active are shed from the plant as part of senescence, and the nutrients from these leaves are recycled by the plant. Other factors, including the presence of hormones, are known to play a role in delaying senescence. Answer: asexual reproduction", "output": [ "What is the type of reproduction where part of the parent plant is used to generate a new plant?" ] }, { "id": "task594-318d482fdcdd46fabfbfd1d71ea29fe1", "input": "Passage: 6.2 Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that compartmentalize their functions. Answer: internal membranes", "output": [ "What do eukaryotic cells have that compartmentalize their functions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2968b8dd9d674713a5ca795dcc64e316", "input": "Passage: Globular clusters are spherical groups of old stars held tightly together by gravity. Answer: globular clusters", "output": [ "What is the name for spherical groups of old stars held tightly together by gravity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-78729b55dc874bb28b0c9810c4f1d19f", "input": "Passage: Segmentation evolved next. Segmentation is the division of the body into multiple parts, or segments. Both the earthworm (Phylum Annelida) in Figure below and ant (Phylum Arthropoda) in Figure below have segmented bodies. The earthworm has many small segments. The ant has three larger segments. Segmentation increases an animal’s flexibility. It allows a wider range of motion. Different segments can also be specialized for different functions. All modern annelids and arthropods are segmented. Answer: segmented", "output": [ "Earthworms and ants possess what type of bodies, which means division into multiple parts?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5ff40d618c2047af84c3e1f45336745f", "input": "Passage: Seismograms contain a lot of information about an earthquake: its strength, length and distance. Wave height used to determine the magnitude of the earthquake. The seismogram shows the different arrival times of the seismic waves ( Figure below ). The first waves are P-waves since they are the fastest. S-waves come in next and are usually larger than P-waves. The surface waves arrive just after the S-waves. If the earthquake has a shallow focus, the surface waves are the largest ones recorded. Answer: strength, length and distance", "output": [ "What three parameters do seismographs measure?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2385b5ae07fd4720960734e1b64c0cce", "input": "Passage: Microorganisms such as bacteria are important living resources in all ecosystems. They recycle nutrients and other matter. Answer: bacteria", "output": [ "What is the name of a microorganism that is considered important for living resources in all ecosystem?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7b533a6dd1be4f3fb2b5e93fded5fb87", "input": "Passage: 19.5 Development of the Heart The heart is the first organ to form and become functional, emphasizing the importance of transport of material to and from the developing infant. It originates about day 18 or 19 from the mesoderm and begins beating and pumping blood about day 21 or 22. It forms from the cardiogenic region near the head and is visible as a prominent heart bulge on the surface of the embryo. Originally, it consists of a pair of strands called cardiogenic cords that quickly form a hollow lumen and are referred to as endocardial tubes. These then fuse into a single heart tube and differentiate into the truncus arteriosus, bulbus cordis, primitive ventricle, primitive atrium, and sinus venosus, starting about day 22. The primitive heart begins to form an S shape within the pericardium between days 23 and 28. The internal septa begin to form about day 28, separating the heart into the atria and ventricles, although the foramen ovale persists until shortly after birth. Between weeks five and eight, the atrioventricular valves form. The semilunar valves form between weeks five and nine. Answer: heart", "output": [ "In humans, what is the first organ to form and become functional?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cce49d5882ef461eb874c2808cffb1a0", "input": "Passage: The two atoms that are held together in a covalent bond may be atoms of the same element or different elements. When atoms of different elements bond together, it forms a covalent compound. Answer: covalent compound", "output": [ "What is formed when atoms of different elements bond together?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b8ac61cf47164817ba4c41116c5502d7", "input": "Passage: The majority of solids are crystalline in nature. A crystal is a substance in which the particles are arranged in an orderly, repeating, three-dimensional pattern. Particles of a solid crystal may be ions, atoms, or molecules, depending on the type of substance. The three-dimensional arrangement of a solid crystal is referred to as the crystal lattice . Different arrangements of the particles within a crystal cause them to adopt several different shapes. Answer: crystalline", "output": [ "The majority of solids are what in nature?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c7ab83d1062346f1ad7762506416a4b4", "input": "Passage: In some places, the oceanic crust comes up to a continent. The moving crust pushes that continent away from the ridge axis as well. If the moving oceanic crust reaches a deep sea trench, the crust sinks into the mantle. The creation and destruction of oceanic crust is the reason that continents move. Seafloor spreading is the mechanism that Wegener was looking for!. Answer: sinks into mantle", "output": [ "What happens to the crust if the moving oceanic crust reaches a deep sea trench?" ] }, { "id": "task594-16148e4bc2f542e58bac13c745abb740", "input": "Passage: The process of cellular respiration can be thought of as a highly controlled version of a combustion reaction. We do not literally burn hydrocarbons in our body, but the overall reactants and products are the same. Hydrocarbons, such as sucrose (C 12 H 22 O 11 ), are combined with oxygen in a series of enzymatic steps to product water, carbon dioxide, and energy, which is stored in the form of reactive molecules. The unbalanced chemical equation for this overall process is shown below:. Answer: reactive molecules", "output": [ "Hydrocarbons are combined with oxygen in a series of enzymatic steps to product water, carbon dioxide, and energy, which is stored in the form of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b8e3aed822474b2093b5ff430b3937c0", "input": "Passage: Most ecosystems are disturbed too often to attain a final, stable climax community. Answer: climax community", "output": [ "Most ecosystems are disturbed too often to attain what final, stable status?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a1e085aa3763488aa9e0ad19377fddea", "input": "Passage: Eggs are female gametes that form in the ovaries and are released into the fallopian tubes. Answer: eggs", "output": [ "What are the female gametes that form in the ovaries?" ] }, { "id": "task594-45c54feea85a45c89d9635c7a773c46c", "input": "Passage: Collision of a relatively slow-moving neutron with a fissile nucleus can split it into two smaller nuclei with the same or different masses. Neutrons are also released in the process, along with a great deal of energy. Any isotope that can undergo a nuclear fission reaction when bombarded with neutrons is called a fissile isotope. During nuclear fission, the nucleus usually divides asymmetrically rather than into two equal parts, as shown in Figure 20.7 \"Neutron-Induced Nuclear Fission\". Moreover, every fission event of a given nuclide does not give the same products; more than 50 different fission modes have been identified for uranium235, for example. Consequently, nuclear fission of a fissile nuclide can never be described by a single equation. Instead, as shown in Figure 20.8 \"Mass Distribution of Nuclear Fission Products of \", a distribution of many pairs of fission products with different yields is obtained, but the mass ratio of each pair of fission products produced by a single fission event is always roughly 3:2. Figure 20.8 Mass Distribution of Nuclear Fission Products of 235U. Answer: asymmetrically", "output": [ "How does the nucleus divide during nuclear fission?" ] }, { "id": "task594-60b127e508104b5a9f3cc9ef6ba091ff", "input": "Passage: The cell starting meiosis is called a primary oocyte, as shown in Figure 43.13. This cell will start the first meiotic division and be arrested in its progress in the first prophase stage. At the time of birth, all future eggs are in the prophase stage. At adolescence, anterior pituitary hormones cause the development of a number of follicles in an ovary. This results in the primary oocyte finishing the first meiotic division. The cell divides unequally, with most of the cellular material and organelles going to one cell, called a secondary oocyte, and only one set of chromosomes and a small amount of cytoplasm. Answer: primary oocyte", "output": [ "The cell starting meiosis is called a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3dea9d9795594bcc8efc4b4273ac4667", "input": "Passage: In combination or synthesis reactions, two chemical species combine to produce a new compound. The general expression for a combination reaction is:. Answer: new compound", "output": [ "In combination or synthesis reactions, two chemical species combine to produce a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d2ba4f519edc4dadbdb50f41d8005790", "input": "Passage: Arteries carry blood away from the heart, while veins return blood to the heart. Answer: arteries", "output": [ "What carries blood away from the heart?" ] }, { "id": "task594-176b93f51f9346e3946480f4e4c612e6", "input": "Passage: Like transverse waves, longitudinal waves are mechanical waves, which means they transfer energy through a medium. Unlike transverse waves, longitudinal waves cause the particles of medium to move parallel to the direction of the wave. They are most common in springs, where they are caused by the pushing an pulling of the spring. Although the surface waves on water are transverse waves, fluids (liquids, gases, and plasmas) usually transmit longitudinal waves. Answer: transverse", "output": [ "Two important types of waves include longitudinal waves and what other kind?" ] }, { "id": "task594-43fc30285aeb48b5a87cdf13438e3537", "input": "Passage: molecular masses. Primary amines tend to have boiling points intermediate between those of the corresponding alcohol and alkane. Moreover, secondary and tertiary amines have lower boiling points than primary amines of comparable molecular mass. Tertiary amines form cations analogous to the ammonium ion (NH 4+), in which all four H atoms are replaced by alkyl groups. Such substances, calledquaternary ammonium salts, can be chiral if all four substituents are different. (Amines with three different substituents are also chiral because the lone pair of electrons represents a fourth substituent. ) Alkylamines can be prepared by nucleophilic substitution reactions of alkyl halides with ammonia or other amines: Equation 24.12. Answer: nucleophilic substitution reactions", "output": [ "Which reaction between alkyl halides and ammonia makes alkylamines?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e1437822054e4eeba7d7cfca19f8ff5b", "input": "Passage: A living cell is a system that is not in equilibrium with its surroundings; it requires a constant input of energy to maintain its nonequilibrium state. Cells maintain a low-entropy state by increasing the entropy of their surroundings. Aerobic organisms cannot survive in the absence of O2, whereas anaerobic organisms can live only in the absence of O2. Green plants and algae are phototrophs, which extract energy from the environment through a process called photosynthesis, the photochemical reduction of CO2 to a reduced carbon compound. Other species, called chemotrophs, extract energy from chemical compounds. One of the main processes chemotrophs use to obtain energy is respiration, which is the reverse of photosynthesis. Alternatively, some chemotrophs obtain energy byfermentation, in which an organic compound is both the oxidant and the reductant. Intermediates used by organisms to shuttle electrons between the reductant and the oxidant include NAD+ and NADH. Energy from the oxidation of nutrients is made available to cells through the synthesis of ATP, the energy currency of the cell. Its energy is used by cells to synthesize substances through coupled reactions and to perform work. The body stores energy as sugars, protein, or fats before using it to produce ATP. Answer: chemical compounds", "output": [ "What do chemotrophs extract energy from?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ba3688889de64c4e9045f9604f92b536", "input": "Passage: Figure 7.5 In eukaryotes, oxidative phosphorylation takes place in mitochondria. In prokaryotes, this process takes place in the plasma membrane. (Credit: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villareal). Answer: mitochondria", "output": [ "In eukaryotes, oxidative phosphorylation takes place in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-558c425e744845a389ca9dc35dcc33f0", "input": "Passage: During a nuclear decay process that occurs by positron emission, a proton is converted into a neutron and a positron. The neutron remains in the nucleus, and the positron is expelled. Overall, the atomic number of the parent nucleus increases by one, and the mass number is unchanged. For example, carbon-11 emits a positron to become boron-11:. Answer: remains unchanged", "output": [ "What happens to the mass number during a nuclear decay process by positron emission?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2b028d4de2194e459b2160b768d8939d", "input": "Passage: Rust is a combination of several different oxides of iron. The equations below show the steps involved in one of the many processes of rust formation. Answer: iron", "output": [ "Rust consists of oxides of what element?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a2983a5057d747d3ad1283da05eedb74", "input": "Passage: When an element gains one or more electrons, an anion is formed. Nonmetals typically become anions when they interact with other chemical species. Answer: anion", "output": [ "What is formed when an element gains one or more electrons?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6334df9163f3481aab9d999ff1f90b1a", "input": "Passage: The area of a rectangular surface is calculated as its length multiplied by its width. Answer: area", "output": [ "The length of a rectangular surface multiplied by its width is equal to what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b1b32961fedf48848a6eab383e9c37d1", "input": "Passage: For many decades, scientists have known that atoms consist of electrons and other particles called protons and neutrons. Recently they found that there are even smaller particles in atoms. Scientists call these extremely tiny particles by the funny name of quarks. As you can see in this diagram, there are several different kinds of quarks, called up quarks, down quarks, top quarks, bottom quarks, charm quarks, and strange quarks. In this chapter you’ll learn about these unusual particles and also other particles inside the atom. Answer: neutrons", "output": [ "For many decades, scientists have known that atoms consist of electrons and other particles called protons and?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e4351a9131174ab3a5954ed7b2985d28", "input": "Passage: Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Answer: chemistry", "output": [ "What science is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6ca4881835da45fdbcadca47021271dc", "input": "Passage: Members of the genus Trypanosoma are flagellate protozoa that cause sleeping sickness , which is common in Africa. They also cause Chagas disease , which is common in South America. The parasites are spread by insect vectors. The vector for Chagas disease is shown in Figure below . Trypanosoma parasites enter a person’s blood when the vector bites. Then they spread to other tissues and organs. The diseases may be fatal without medical treatment. Answer: sleeping sickness", "output": [ "Members of the genus trypanosoma are flagellate protozoa that cause what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6a8b7c9ff33144d2b1a30240aea4978e", "input": "Passage: Penguins do not use their wings, known as flippers, to fly in the air. However, they do use them to move in the water. The theory of evolution suggests that penguins evolved to use their wings for a different purpose. A whale’s pelvic bones, which were once attached to legs, are also vestigial structures. Whales are descended from land-dwelling ancestors that had legs. Answer: vestigial", "output": [ "What do you call structures like a whale's pelvic bones, which were once attached to legs, or wings that cannot be used for flight?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3963cbcde0c74b0683abfe8ddc17e323", "input": "Passage: The two smallest carboxylic acids are formic acid (found in the stingers of ants) and acetic acid (found in vinegar). Many organic compounds are considerably more complex than the examples described here. Many compounds, such as cholesterol discussed in the chapter-opening essay, contain more than one functional group. The formal names can also be quite complex. In http://catalog. flatworldknowledge. com/bookhub/reader/2547 - gobch12through http://catalog. flatworldknowledge. com/bookhub/reader/2547 - gob-ch15, we will examine the characteristics and chemistry of other important organic compounds and functional groups. Answer: acetic acid", "output": [ "The two smallest carboxylic acids are formic acid and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5cf77d61008c474c87df9008c2dbe419", "input": "Passage: Water is recycled through the water cycle. The water cycle is the movement of water through the oceans, atmosphere, land, and living things. The water cycle is powered by energy from the Sun. Figure below diagrams the water cycle. Answer: sun", "output": [ "The water cycle is powered by energy from where?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0897dbb63172407891230de3173f71dd", "input": "Passage: Glutathione is a low-molecular-weight compound found in living cells that is produced naturally by the liver. Healthcare providers give glutathione intravenously to prevent side effects of chemotherapy and to prevent kidney problems. Answer: liver", "output": [ "Glutathione is a low-molecular-weight compound found in living cells that is produced naturally by what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e992c4fdefa64750b053f6c380035abe", "input": "Passage: Some fireplaces use propane gas rather than wood as fuel. Answer: propane", "output": [ "Instead of wood, what do some fireplaces use?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b0927431273248d09abd187596de44e7", "input": "Passage: Amphibians were the first animals to have true lungs and limbs for life on land. However, they still had to return to water to reproduce. That’s because their eggs lacked a waterproof covering and would dry out on land. The first fully terrestrial vertebrates were amniotes. Amniotes are animals that produce eggs with internal membranes. The membranes let gases but not water pass through. Therefore, in an amniotic egg, an embryo can breathe without drying out. Amniotic eggs were the first eggs that could be laid on land. Answer: amphibians", "output": [ "What were the first animals to have true lungs and limbs for life on land?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4ac1d4197cdb49c2955e9af2ad08e382", "input": "Passage: Strong gravitational fields can alter the rate of time passing. True. Answer: strong gravitational fields", "output": [ "What is capable of altering the rate of time passing?" ] }, { "id": "task594-452de4737f154c75b1af9117f14dde85", "input": "Passage: Melting, sublimation, and evaporation absorb heat from their surroundings. Freezing, deposition, and condensation release heat. Answer: heat", "output": [ "Melting, sublimation, and evaporation absorb what from their surroundings?" ] }, { "id": "task594-904aeb75e01544b7aff409399cc4a703", "input": "Passage: Jupiter is the largest planet in our solar system. Answer: jupiter", "output": [ "Which is the largest planet in our solar system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b35e9bfb7f0a45549ec06e30428adf2f", "input": "Passage: At higher latitudes, the Sun’s rays are less direct. The farther an area is from the Equator, the lower its temperature. Answer: it gets lower", "output": [ "The farther an area is from the equator, what happens to the temperature?" ] }, { "id": "task594-64eb1c91e8c14585b3fd3595f6c98b04", "input": "Passage: Sulfuric acid is the industrial chemical produced in greatest quantity worldwide. About 90 billion pounds are produced each year in the United States alone. Write the Lewis structure for sulfuric acid, H2SO4, which has two oxygen atoms and two OH groups bonded to the sulfur. 7.5 Strengths of Ionic and Covalent Bonds 64. Which bond in each of the following pairs of bonds is the strongest? (a) C–C or C = C (b) C–N or C ≡ N (c) C ≡ O or C = O (d) H–F or H–Cl (e) C–H or O–H (f) C–N or C–O 65. Using the bond energies in Table 7.2, determine the approximate enthalpy change for each of the following reactions: (a) H 2(g) + Br 2(g) ⟶ 2HBr(g) (b) CH 4(g) + I 2(g) ⟶ CH 3 I(g) + HI(g) (c) C 2 H 4(g) + 3O 2(g) ⟶ 2CO 2(g) + 2H 2 O(g) 66. Using the bond energies in Table 7.2, determine the approximate enthalpy change for each of the following reactions: (a) Cl 2(g) + 3F 2(g) ⟶ 2ClF 3(g) (b) H 2 C = CH 2(g) + H 2(g) ⟶ H 3 CCH 3(g) (c) 2C 2 H 6(g) + 7O 2(g) ⟶ 4CO 2(g) + 6H 2 O(g) 67. When a molecule can form two different structures, the structure with the stronger bonds is usually the more stable form. Use bond energies to predict the correct structure of the hydroxylamine molecule:. Answer: sulfuric acid", "output": [ "What is the industrial chemical produced in greatest quantity worldwide?" ] }, { "id": "task594-522a72ac09834424aa9f15f43157cf7f", "input": "Passage: Exothermic reactions in organisms are called catabolic reactions . These reactions break down molecules into smaller units and release energy. An example of a catabolic reaction is the breakdown of glucose, which releases energy that cells need to carry out life processes. Endothermic reactions in organisms are called anabolic reactions . These reactions build up bigger molecules from smaller ones. An example of an anabolic reaction is the joining of amino acids to form a protein. Which type of reactions—catabolic or anabolic—do you think occur when your body digests food?. Answer: catabolic reactions", "output": [ "Exothermic reactions in organisms are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6d79e8e7e24b4232bdb3acbf2bb7aa1a", "input": "Passage: Mid-latitude cyclones form at the polar front. Two very different air masses blow past each other in opposite directions. The Coriolis effect causes winds to strike the polar front at an angle. Warm and cold fronts form next to each other. Answer: coriolis effect", "output": [ "Which effect causes winds to strike the polar front at an angle?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f8b98081422845549c31dacaf8c1660e", "input": "Passage: Interspecific competition often leads to extinction. The species that is less well adapted may get fewer of the resources that both species need. As a result, members of that species are less likely to survive, and the species may go extinct. Answer: interspecific competition", "output": [ "What kind of competition often leads to extinction because the species that is less well adapted gets fewer of the resources that both species need?" ] }, { "id": "task594-53531d31fafc462e97dd8aac0c37de58", "input": "Passage: Flickr:xiquinhosilva. Oceans are made of a solution of salt and water . CC BY 2.0. Answer: salt and water", "output": [ "Oceans are made of a solution of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1d5642b5be564d0e92a8c677e75ed4f1", "input": "Passage: A neutron is one of three main particles that make up the atom. It is found in the nucleus and is neutral in electric charge. It has about the same mass and diameter as a proton. Neutrons are found in all atoms except for most atoms of hydrogen. Answer: the nucleus", "output": [ "Where in the atom is a neutron found?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0ccb38a11d804200bd598f128d96ed97", "input": "Passage: Radio telescopes collect radio waves and are sometimes used in large arrays. Answer: radio waves", "output": [ "What does an array of radio telescopes collect?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4d7f6b11916e45e1903071eee19f2c77", "input": "Passage: Weight measures the force of gravity pulling on an object. The SI unit for weight is the Newton (N). Answer: weight", "output": [ "What measures the force of gravity pulling on an object?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fe7bc3a4fe394c5296ef65ec5d141080", "input": "Passage: Today, fungi are no longer classified as plants. We now know that they have unique physical, chemical, and genetic traits that set them apart from plants and other eukaryotes. For example, the cell walls of fungi are made of chitin , not cellulose. Also, fungi absorb nutrients from other organisms, whereas plants make their own food. These are just a few of the reasons fungi are now placed in their own kingdom. Answer: plants", "output": [ "Fungi are no longer classified as what, possessing cell walls made of chitin rather than cellulose?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ab112f36dbb84450bd265e1855449945", "input": "Passage: When acellular slime molds swarm, they fuse together to form a single cell with many nuclei. Answer: nuclei", "output": [ "When acellular slime molds swarm, they fuse together to form a single cell with many what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dc2f92445e41454582d96ea904ca8ca3", "input": "Passage: The movement of water molecules is not itself regulated by cells, so it is important that cells are exposed to an environment in which the concentration of solutes outside of the cells (in the extracellular fluid) is equal to the concentration of solutes inside the cells (in the cytoplasm). Two solutions that have the same concentration of solutes are said to be isotonic (equal tension). When cells and their extracellular environments are isotonic, the concentration of water molecules is the same outside and inside the cells, and the cells maintain their normal shape (and function). Osmosis occurs when there is an imbalance of solutes outside of a cell versus inside the cell. A solution that has a higher concentration of solutes than another solution is said to be hypertonic, and water molecules tend to diffuse into a hypertonic solution (Figure 3.8). Cells in a hypertonic solution will shrivel as water leaves the cell via osmosis. In contrast, a solution that has a lower concentration of solutes than another solution is said to be hypotonic, and water molecules tend to diffuse out of a hypotonic solution. Cells in a hypotonic solution will take on too much water and swell, with the risk of eventually bursting. A critical aspect of homeostasis in living things is to create an internal environment in which all of the body’s cells are in an isotonic solution. Various organ systems, particularly the kidneys, work to maintain this homeostasis. Answer: shrinkage", "output": [ "What happens to cells in a hypertonic solution as water leaves the cell via osmosis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d0f4901e2a4c4a56814a30b76a119ca9", "input": "Passage: Most reptiles reproduce sexually and have internal fertilization. Answer: internal", "output": [ "Most reptiles reproduce sexually and have what type of fertilization?" ] }, { "id": "task594-088c26146ec1404697863488ae06fc2f", "input": "Passage: 5.3 Active Transport The combined gradient that affects an ion includes its concentration gradient and its electrical gradient. A positive ion, for example, might tend to diffuse into a new area, down its concentration gradient, but if it is diffusing into an area of net positive charge, its diffusion will be hampered by its electrical gradient. When dealing with ions in aqueous solutions, a combination of the electrochemical and concentration gradients, rather than just the concentration gradient alone, must be considered. Living cells need certain substances that exist inside the cell in concentrations greater than they exist in the extracellular space. Moving substances up their electrochemical gradients requires energy from the cell. Active transport uses energy stored in ATP to fuel this transport. Active transport of small molecular-sized materials uses integral proteins in the cell membrane to move the materials: These proteins are analogous to pumps. Some pumps, which carry out primary active transport, couple directly with ATP to drive their action. In co-transport (or secondary active transport), energy from primary transport can be used to move another substance into the cell and up its concentration gradient. Answer: electrical gradient", "output": [ "The combined gradient that affects an ion includes its concentration gradient and its what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e4bf04a15439413689f9336f425a64dc", "input": "Passage: The pH scale is used to succinctly communicate the acidity or basicity of a solution. Answer: ph", "output": [ "What scale is used to succinctly communicate the acidity or basicity of a solution?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8fd94da3e7a741cba7e76be9502b9555", "input": "Passage: Observational learning is learning by watching and copying the behavior of someone else. Human children learn many behaviors this way. When you were a young child, you may have learned how to tie your shoes by watching your dad tie his shoes. More recently, you may have learned how to dance by watching a pop star dancing on TV. Most likely, you have learned how to do math problems by watching your teachers do problems on the board at school. Can you think of other behaviors you have learned by watching and copying other people?. Answer: observational learning", "output": [ "What is the term for learning by watching and copying the behavior of someone else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-948e642f211b4ec3abecce1ad1e852b5", "input": "Passage: A nonrenewable resource is one that cannot be replaced as easily as it is consumed. Fossil fuels are an example of nonrenewable resources. They take millions of years to form naturally, and so they cannot be replaced as fast as they are consumed. To take the place of fossil fuel use, alternative energy resources are being developed. These alternative energy sources often utilize renewable resources. The following are examples of sustainable alternative energy resources:. Answer: nonrenewable", "output": [ "What type of resource cannot be replaced as easily as it is consumed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3ef619852c8a4232b343366e7720bb33", "input": "Passage: The atomic number of sulfur is 16. Therefore, in a neutral atom of sulfur, there are 16 electrons. Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: sulfur", "output": [ "Which element has an atomic number of 16?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d0c1336014804690bbdd845d7cc36d4c", "input": "Passage: Almost all fish have sexual reproduction, generally with separate sexes. Most fish are oviparous. Many species reproduce by spawning. Eggs hatch to form larvae, which undergo metamorphosis to become adults. Answer: fish eggs hatch to form larvae", "output": [ "What do fish eggs hatch to form?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4f3fa7c3cc4c413ba8feb81494ab148c", "input": "Passage: The theory of evolution by natural selection means that the inherited traits of a population change over time. Inherited traits are features that are passed from one generation to the next. For example, your eye color is an inherited trait. You inherited your eye color from your parents. Inherited traits are different from acquired traits , or traits that organisms develop over a lifetime, such as strong muscles from working out ( Figure below ). Answer: inherited traits", "output": [ "What type of traits are features that are passed from one generation to the next called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f35f2c83c40945a892e7dbdc5b3e189a", "input": "Passage: A stroke occurs when a blood clot blocks blood flow to part of the brain. Brain cells die quickly when their oxygen supply is cut off. Therefore, a stroke may cause permanent loss of normal mental functions. Many stroke patients suffer some degree of paralysis, or loss of the ability to feel or move certain parts of the body. If medical treatment is given very soon after a stroke occurs, some of the damage may be reversed. Strokes occur mainly in older adults. Answer: stroke", "output": [ "What medical emergency occurs when a blood clot blocks blood flow to part of the brain, causing death of brain cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-06962f7f03a2403a92d43a2b9cfbcdd4", "input": "Passage: Gastropods include snails and slugs. They use their foot to crawl. They have a well-developed head. There are many thousands of species of sea snails and sea slugs, as well as freshwater snails, freshwater limpets, land snails and land slugs. Gastropods live in many diverse habitats, from gardens to deserts and mountains. They also live in rivers, lakes and the ocean. Most shelled gastropods have a one-piece shell that is typically coiled or spiraled, but not all gastropods have shells. Gastropods have no sense of hearing, but they can see and have a keen sense of smell. In land-based gastropods, the olfactory organs (for smell) are the most important. These are located on the tentacles. Answer: their tentacles", "output": [ "Where are the olfactory organs of snails located?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dcb91c9e551a47129739229165b5a5ba", "input": "Passage: Competition is a relationship between organisms that strive for the same resources in the same place. The resources might be food, water, or space. There are two different types of competition:. Answer: competition", "output": [ "What is a relationship between organisms that strive for the same resources in the same place?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8b21f03c65724dd297288f7e21c7ae44", "input": "Passage: 3. The third step is the division of the rest of the cell. This is called cytokinesis, as it is in a prokaryotic cell. During this step, the cytoplasm divides, and two daughter cells form. Answer: cytokinesis", "output": [ "The cytoplasm divides during what stage of the cell cycle?" ] }, { "id": "task594-27f59153d7414d7984d987c25237dcdc", "input": "Passage: Recall that our DNA is wound into chromosomes . Each of our chromosomes contains a long chain of DNA that encodes hundreds, if not thousands, of genes. Each of these genes can have slightly different versions from individual to individual. These variants of genes are called alleles . Each parent only donates one allele for each gene to an offspring. Answer: alleles", "output": [ "What are variants of genes called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6e532391c5e040f5928c8f99766d8bd6", "input": "Passage: Prophase I: Chromosomes form, and the nuclear membrane breaks down. Centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell. Spindle fibers form between the centrioles. Here’s what’s special about meiosis : Homologous chromosomes pair up! You can see this in Figure below . Answer: meiosis", "output": [ "Spindle fibers form between the centrioles during prophase i of what process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ed9b77740ba5459697c1c44a402608a1", "input": "Passage: Microscopes were first developed in the early 1600s by eyeglass makers in The Netherlands and Denmark. The simplest compound microscope is constructed from two convex lenses as shown schematically in Figure 26.16. The first lens is called the objective lens, and has typical magnification values from 5× to 100× . In standard microscopes, the objectives are mounted such that when you switch between objectives, the sample remains in focus. Objectives arranged in this way are described as parfocal. The second, the eyepiece, also referred to as the ocular, has several lenses which slide inside a cylindrical barrel. The focusing ability is provided by the movement of both the objective lens and the eyepiece. The purpose of a microscope is to magnify small objects, and both lenses contribute to the final magnification. Additionally, the final enlarged image is produced in a location far enough from the observer to be easily viewed, since the eye cannot focus on objects or images that are too close. Answer: eyeglass makers", "output": [ "Microscopes were first developed in the early 1600s by this trade?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2a2804eba1874b2a87a461a2fa105e6b", "input": "Passage: Even if Laura didn’t try to stop the skateboard, it would stop sooner or later. That’s because there’s also friction between the wheels and the pavement. Friction is a force that counters all kinds of motion. It occurs whenever two surfaces come into contact. Answer: friction", "output": [ "What force occurs whenever two surfaces come into contact?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3a295d887870473c8b6880b51ef2c535", "input": "Passage: Erosion and deposition are responsible for many landforms. Erosion is the transport of sediments. Agents of erosion include flowing water, waves, wind, ice, or gravity. Eroded material is eventually dropped somewhere else. This is called deposition . Answer: deposition", "output": [ "The process where eroded material is dropped somewhere is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8ddfb3ea3a4346a89f2afcf432e1db08", "input": "Passage: Monosaccharides can be linked together to form disaccharides or polysaccharides. Answer: monosaccharides", "output": [ "What can be linked together to form disaccharides or polysaccharides?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6cf9928f9fdf4a50938349be5ac4c8e2", "input": "Passage: Note Acetylene is used in oxyacetylene torches for cutting and welding metals. The flame from such a torch can be very hot. Most acetylene, however, is converted to chemical intermediates that are used to make vinyl and acrylic plastics, fibers, resins, and a variety of other products. Answer: acetylene", "output": [ "Which material used in oxyacetylene torches helps cut and weld metals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-72417da47754439d86d589b03f928c83", "input": "Passage: Not really. Like all mammals, polar bears maintain a stable internal temperature. They do not need to stay warm by lying in the sun. This allows them to live in cold climates. Answer: mammals", "output": [ "The ability to maintain a stable internal temperature, despite the climate, is exhibited by members of what animal group?" ] }, { "id": "task594-88a31acd28d14fe99a7252a3c99aa895", "input": "Passage: Earth's internal heat does not depend on the Sun for energy. This heat comes from remnant heat when the planet formed. It also comes from the decay of radioactive elements. Radioactivity is an important source of energy. Answer: radioactive elements", "output": [ "Decay of what provides some of earth's internal heat?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4997841fefd448078c2820d7caf64caa", "input": "Passage: The existence of quarks was first proposed in the 1960s. Since then, scientists have done experiments to show that quarks really do exist. In fact, they have identified six different types of quarks. However, much remains to be learned about these tiny, fundamental particles of matter. They are very difficult and expensive to study. If you want to learn more about them, including how they are studied, the URL below is a good place to start. Answer: quarks", "output": [ "The existence of what tiny, fundamental particles of matter was first proposed in the 1960s?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d3edc498af9348d1b1dc1df3bb408ae1", "input": "Passage: The small surface zone that has light is the photic zone. The entire rest of the ocean does not have light and is the aphotic zone. Answer: aphotic zone", "output": [ "What do you call the lightless part of the ocean?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f6482ca8cdac41c2b7bc4362f3da796c", "input": "Passage: Metallic character refers to the level of reactivity of a metal. Metals tend to lose electrons in chemical reactions, as indicated by their low ionization energies. Within a compound, metal atoms have relatively low attraction for electrons, as indicated by their low electronegativities. By following the trend summary in the figure below, you can see that the most reactive metals would reside in the lower left portion of the periodic table. The most reactive metal is cesium, which is not found in nature as a free element. It reacts explosively with water and will ignite spontaneously in air. Francium is below cesium in the alkali metal group, but is so rare that most of its properties have never been observed. Answer: lose electrons", "output": [ "Do metals tend to gain electrons or lose electrons in chemical reactions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-53be21e8dc124b9d8fe1e3dffd7f017d", "input": "Passage: We all enjoy a cool dip in a swimming pool on a hot day, but we may not realize the work needed to keep that water safe and healthy. The ideal pH for a swimming pool is around 7.2. The pH will change as a result of many factors. Adjustment can be accomplished with different chemicals depending on the tested pH. High pH can be lowered with liquid HCl (unsafe material) or sodium bisulfate. The bisulfate anion is a weak acid and can dissociate partially in solution. To increase pH, use sodium carbonate. The carbonate anion forms an equilibrium with protons that results in some formation of carbon dioxide. Answer: lower it", "output": [ "Liquid hcl can be used to do what to the ph of a swimming pool?" ] }, { "id": "task594-278bb4dfe70044608c05b4c9853ae576", "input": "Passage: Electromagnetic waves may also be absorbed by matter and converted to other forms of energy. Microwaves are a familiar example. When microwaves strike food in a microwave oven, they are absorbed and converted to thermal energy, which heats the food. Answer: thermal energy", "output": [ "Microwaves are converted into what kind of energy in a microwave oven?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0cf43f649425443d95f18a7bfff54fe7", "input": "Passage: Amniotic Egg. The amniotic egg is an important adaptation in fully terrestrial vertebrates. It first evolved in reptiles. The shells of reptile eggs are either hard or leathery. Answer: reptiles", "output": [ "The amniotic egg first evolved in what species?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9073d159114f426f9e75fdfcc8623328", "input": "Passage: All living things depend on their environment to supply them with what they need, including food, water, and shelter. Their environment consists of physical factors—such as soil, air, and temperature—and also of other organisms. An organism is an individual living thing. Many living things interact with other organisms in their environment. In fact, they may need other organisms in order to survive. This is known as interdependence . For example, living things that cannot make their own food must eat other organisms for food. Other interactions between living things include symbiosis and competition. Answer: interdependence", "output": [ "What is the term for when organisms need other organisms to survive?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6e60434fc91c4a4db88286860537d8bf", "input": "Passage: Richter scale magnitudes jump from one level to the next. The height of the largest wave increases 10 times with each level. So the height of the largest seismic wave of a magnitude 5 quake is 10 times that of a magnitude 4 quake. A magnitude 5 is 100 times that of a magnitude 3 quake. With each level, thirty times more energy is released. A difference of two levels on the Richter scale equals 900 times more released energy. Answer: 10 times", "output": [ "How many times does the height of the largest wave increase with each level?" ] }, { "id": "task594-25778f57d9fa4ff9863715c595bfde06", "input": "Passage: The parasympathetic division controls involuntary activities that are not emergencies. For example, it controls the organs of your digestive system so they can break down the food you eat. Answer: parasympathetic division", "output": [ "What division of the nervous system controls involuntary activities that are not emergencies, such as the digestive organs breaking down food?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a9a3687ee2b44f26a4d41acadd8db7ac", "input": "Passage: Renewable resources are natural resources that are remade by natural processes as quickly as people use them. Examples of renewable resources include sunlight and wind. They are in no danger of being used up. Metals and some other minerals are considered renewable as well because they are not destroyed when they are used. Instead, they can be recycled and used over and over again. Answer: renewable", "output": [ "What do we call natural resources that are remade by natural processes as quickly as people use them?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5e0f97508df441b299b151aa4e2db6a5", "input": "Passage: end is also anchored to the first rib by the costoclavicular ligament. The acromial end of the clavicle articulates with the acromion of the scapula at the acromioclavicular joint. This end is also anchored to the coracoid process of the scapula by the coracoclavicular ligament, which provides indirect support for the acromioclavicular joint. The clavicle supports the scapula, transmits the weight and forces from the upper limb to the body trunk, and protects the underlying nerves and blood vessels. The scapula lies on the posterior aspect of the pectoral girdle. It mediates the attachment of the upper limb to the clavicle, and contributes to the formation of the glenohumeral (shoulder) joint. This triangular bone has three sides called the medial, lateral, and superior borders. The suprascapular notch is located on the superior border. The scapula also has three corners, two of which are the superior and inferior angles. The third corner is occupied by the glenoid cavity. Posteriorly, the spine separates the supraspinous and infraspinous fossae, and then extends laterally as the acromion. The subscapular fossa is located on the anterior surface of the scapula. The coracoid process projects anteriorly, passing inferior to the lateral end of the clavicle. Answer: clavicle", "output": [ "What supports the scapula, transmits the weight and forces from the upper limb to the body trunk, and protects the underlying nerves and blood vessels?" ] }, { "id": "task594-84d62a37e26949ae83eb2a637cba411e", "input": "Passage: Mollusks, annelids, and arthropods are protostomes. Echinoderms and chordates are deuterostomes. This distinction is important. Why does it matter? It shows that echinoderms are more closely related to chordates than are the other invertebrate phyla. This is not apparent based on other, more obvious traits. Answer: protostomes", "output": [ "Mollusks, annelids, and arthropods are considered what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-34d08927666641918abcd3dad2166b2b", "input": "Passage: Flowering vascular plants also have diverse leaves. However, the leaves of all flowering plants have two basic parts in common: the blade and petiole. The blade of the leaf is the relatively wide, flat part of the leaf that gathers sunlight and undergoes photosynthesis. The petiole is the part that attaches the leaf to a stem of the plant. This occurs at a node. Answer: blade and petiole", "output": [ "What are the two basic parts that all flowering plants have in common?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cec3a6c04b4947f488c70285e71070cf", "input": "Passage: In polar covalent bonds, electrons are not shared equally between the two atoms, so one atom is slightly negative in charge and one is slightly positive in charge. In nonpolar covalent bonds, electrons are shared equally so the atoms remain neutral in charge. Answer: polar", "output": [ "Electrons are not shared equally between the two atoms in which type of covalent bonds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ad3cf87b2ce44ed9b5a5d0b30f7e9a76", "input": "Passage: The Krebs cycle is the second stage of cellular respiration. Answer: krebs cycle", "output": [ "What cycle is the second stage of cellular respiration?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8bd003c9ec9b4a54ab1a0ca0ba30494c", "input": "Passage: When you use a machine, you apply force to the machine. This force is called the input force. The machine, in turn, applies force to an object. This force is called the output force. The output force may or may not be the same as the input force. The force you apply to the machine is applied over a given distance, called the input distance. The force applied by the machine to the object is also applied over a distance, called the output distance. The output distance may or may not be the same as the input distance. Answer: output force", "output": [ "What do you call the force a machine applies to an object?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0997a72c998149a28096a9e423bfce8d", "input": "Passage: Spermatogenesis As just noted, spermatogenesis occurs in the seminiferous tubules that form the bulk of each testis (see Figure 27.4). The process begins at puberty, after which time sperm are produced constantly throughout a man’s life. One production cycle, from spermatogonia through formed sperm, takes approximately 64 days. A new cycle starts approximately every 16 days, although this timing is not synchronous across the seminiferous tubules. Sperm counts—the total number of sperm a man produces—slowly decline after age 35, and some studies suggest that smoking can lower sperm counts irrespective of age. The process of spermatogenesis begins with mitosis of the diploid spermatogonia (Figure 27.5). Because these cells are diploid (2n), they each have a complete copy of the father’s genetic material, or 46 chromosomes. However, mature gametes are haploid (1n), containing 23 chromosomes—meaning that daughter cells of spermatogonia must undergo a second cellular division through the process of meiosis. Answer: 23", "output": [ "How many chromosomes do mature gametes contain?" ] }, { "id": "task594-61bfe937973f4c1d957c62f5d95e4396", "input": "Passage: Fight-or-Flight Response Interactions of the endocrine hormones have evolved to ensure the body’s internal environment remains stable. Stressors are stimuli that disrupt homeostasis. The sympathetic division of the vertebrate autonomic nervous system has evolved the fight-or-flight response to counter stress-induced disruptions of homeostasis. In the initial alarm phase, the sympathetic nervous system stimulates an increase in energy levels through increased blood glucose levels. This prepares the body for physical activity that may be required to respond to stress: to either fight for survival or to flee from danger. However, some stresses, such as illness or injury, can last for a long time. Glycogen reserves, which provide energy in the short-term response to stress, are exhausted after several hours and cannot meet long-term energy needs. If glycogen reserves were the only energy source available, neural functioning could not be maintained once the reserves became depleted due to the nervous system’s high requirement for glucose. In this situation, the body has evolved a response to counter long-term stress through the actions of the glucocorticoids, which ensure that long-term energy requirements can be met. The glucocorticoids mobilize lipid and protein reserves, stimulate gluconeogenesis, conserve glucose for use by neural tissue, and stimulate the conservation of salts and water. The mechanisms to maintain homeostasis that are described here are those observed in the human body. However, the fight-or-flight response exists in some form in all vertebrates. The sympathetic nervous system regulates the stress response via the hypothalamus. Stressful stimuli cause the hypothalamus to signal the adrenal medulla (which mediates short-term stress responses) via nerve impulses, and the adrenal cortex, which mediates long-term stress responses, via the hormone adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which is produced by the anterior pituitary. Answer: homeostasis", "output": [ "The sympathetic division of the vertebrate autonomic nervous system has evolved the fight-or-flight response to counter stress-induced disruptions of this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3abec6de496046fc9f3ab8c6a34df11e", "input": "Passage: Alkali metals are all solids at room temperature. They are relatively soft and low in density. Answer: solid", "output": [ "What property are alkali metals at room temperature?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4ed977def5284a288c6008a028f88295", "input": "Passage: Enzymes are extremely efficient in speeding up reactions. They can catalyze up to several million reactions per second. As a result, the difference in rates of biochemical reactions with and without enzymes may be enormous. A typical biochemical reaction might take hours or even days to occur under normal cellular conditions without an enzyme, but less than a second with an enzyme. Answer: speed it up", "output": [ "Enzymes in cellular reactions work to do what to the reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3095569b72c44849a5d6498ef62f5cea", "input": "Passage: An obstacle or opening that is shorter than the wavelength causes greater diffraction of waves. Answer: waves", "output": [ "An obstacle or opening that is shorter than the wavelength causes greater diffraction of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b50449b1e8fc4c08841a03f63028e9fc", "input": "Passage: There are other forms of radioactive dating. Rocks, for example, can sometimes be dated based on the decay of 238 U . The decay series for 238 U ends with 206 Pb , so that the ratio of these nuclides in a rock is an indication of how long it has been since the rock solidified. The original composition of the rock, such as the absence of lead, must be known with some confidence. However, as with carbon-14 dating, the technique can be verified by a consistent body of knowledge. Since 238 U has a half-life of solidified about. Answer: radioactive dating", "output": [ "What is the term for dating a rock based on composition decay?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2b4b7cebcfcd4f5090b7d6b1e5027e62", "input": "Passage: Water can be a solid, liquid, or a gas. Answer: gas", "output": [ "Water can be a solid, liquid, and what other form?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f933c4e8622647b8855ab7c85a1ddabd", "input": "Passage: The deeper water of a lake makes up the profundal zone. There isn’t enough light for photosynthesis in this zone, so most organisms here eat dead organisms that drift down from the water above. Organisms in the profundal zone may include clams, snails, and some species of fish. Answer: dead organisms", "output": [ "What do most organisms eat in the profundal zone of a lake?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4ae48c86426547758c5279912e1e08c2", "input": "Passage: Proteins can differ from one another in the number and sequence (order) of amino acids. It is because of the side chains of the amino acids that proteins with different amino acid sequences have different shapes and different chemical properties. Small proteins can contain just a few hundred amino acids. Yeast proteins average 466 amino acids. The largest known proteins are the titins, found in muscle, which are composed from over 27,000 amino acids. Answer: titins", "output": [ "What are the largest known proteins?" ] }, { "id": "task594-15fb8abdad684c3f84659a23a9506109", "input": "Passage: Introduction Animal reproduction is necessary for the survival of a species. In the animal kingdom, there are innumerable ways that species reproduce. Asexual reproduction produces genetically identical organisms (clones), whereas in sexual reproduction, the genetic material of two individuals combines to produce offspring that are genetically different from their parents. During sexual reproduction the male gamete (sperm) may be placed inside the female’s body for internal fertilization, or the sperm and eggs may be released into the environment for external fertilization. Seahorses, like the one shown in Figure. Answer: asexual", "output": [ "What kind of reproduction produces genetically identical organisms or clones?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d7731e709c7f4808855553d9836d7c58", "input": "Passage: Figure 11.31 Bronchial tubes in the lungs branch into ever-smaller structures, finally ending in alveoli. The alveoli act like tiny bubbles. The surface tension of their mucous lining aids in exhalation and can prevent inhalation if too great. Answer: tiny bubbles", "output": [ "Bronchial tubes in the lungs branch into ever-smaller structures, finally ending in alveoli. the alveoli act like what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6549993f9d7448c4b7dfc4cd2fcac64f", "input": "Passage: It might only take one sperm to fertilize an egg, but that sperm is not alone. Hundreds of millions of sperm can be released during sexual intercourse. Answer: 1", "output": [ "How many sperm does it take to fertilize an egg?" ] }, { "id": "task594-167283903ffb44898aa81f90b47a84cf", "input": "Passage: The trillions of red blood cells in blood plasma carry oxygen. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin , a protein with iron that binds with oxygen. Red blood cells are made in the marrow of long bones, rib bones, the skull, and the vertebrae. These cells survive for about 120 days, and then they are destroyed. Mature red blood cells lack a nucleus and other organelles, allowing for more hemoglobin, and therefore more oxygen to be carried by each cell. Answer: hemoglobin", "output": [ "What is the protein that carries iron that binds with oxygen in red blood cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a6acdf40980d4ab48d3570307c850b39", "input": "Passage: The challenge of techniques used for proteomic analyses is the difficulty in detecting small quantities of proteins. Although mass spectrometry is good for detecting small amounts of proteins, variations in protein expression in diseased states can be difficult to discern. Proteins are naturally unstable molecules, which makes proteomic analysis much more difficult than genomic analysis. Answer: proteins", "output": [ "The challenge of techniques used for proteomic analyses is the difficulty in detecting small quantities of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9bb432cd973044569d50a1f1046b85d4", "input": "Passage: A neon light produces visible light by electroluminescence. In this process, neon or some other gas gives off light when an electric current passes through it. Other halogen gases besides neon—including krypton and argon—also produce light in this way. The word “OPEN” in the sign below is a neon light. It is a long glass tube that contains neon gas. When electricity passes through the gas, it excites electrons of neon atoms, and the electrons jump to a higher energy level. As the excited electrons return to their original energy level, they give off visible light. Neon produces red light. Other gases produce light of different colors. For example, krypton produces violet light, and argon produces blue light. Answer: halogen gases", "output": [ "Neon, krypton and argon are examples of what kind of gases, which produce light by electroluminescence?" ] }, { "id": "task594-08a8b71af3d64c0795d434d802c2aaf2", "input": "Passage: Primates have slower rates of development than other mammals their size. They reach maturity later and have longer lifespans. Being dependent on adults for a long maturation period gives young primates plenty of time to learn from their elders. Answer: learning", "output": [ "Being dependent on adults for a long maturation period allows young primates ample time for what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1fafcd4100a9443d9c2a992d1ed982ff", "input": "Passage: After passing into the eye through the pupil, light passes through the lens. The lens of the eye is a clear, curved structure. Along with the cornea, the lens helps focus light at the back of the eye. This is pictured below ( Figure below ). Answer: lens", "output": [ "What is the clear, curved structure that works with the cornea to help focus light at the back of the eye?" ] }, { "id": "task594-79f8234149c8444a9c13b9efd30ac9eb", "input": "Passage: Carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids are large molecules (macromolecules) built from smaller molecules (monomers) through dehydration reactions. In a dehydration reaction, water is removed as two monomers are joined together. Answer: water", "output": [ "In a dehydration reaction, what is removed as two monomers are joined together?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ed834c7d89f14dd199425bb56a6c8472", "input": "Passage: Visit this website (http://openstaxcollege. org/l/sex_selection) for informative videos on sexual selection. In monogamous systems, one male and one female are paired for at least one breeding season. In some animals, such as the gray wolf, these associations can last much longer, even a lifetime. Several explanations have been proposed for this type of. Answer: female", "output": [ "In a monogamous pairing, a male individual is generally paired with what other type of individual in a sexual relationship?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eed2a8fcfd52464bba42cfe7ef856863", "input": "Passage: If water is so simple, why is it special? Water is one of the few substances that exists on Earth in all three states of matter. Water occurs as a gas, a liquid and a solid. You drink liquid water and use it to shower. You breathe gaseous water vapor in the air. You may go ice skating on a pond covered with solid water — ice — in the winter. Answer: three matter states", "output": [ "In how many states does water exist on earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8be04ba1ea2a4413ac0a49c7ac1b1c06", "input": "Passage: Electromagnets find use in many practical applications. Electromagnets are used to lift large masses of magnetic materials such as scrap iron, rolls of steel, and auto parts. Answer: electromagnets", "output": [ "What are used to lift large masses of magnetic materials such as scrap iron, rolls of steel, and auto parts?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0399e6770aed499c8526b9a862769171", "input": "Passage: Dietary proteins are broken down during digestion to provide the amino acids needed for protein synthesis. Any extra proteins in the diet not needed for this purpose are used for energy or stored as fat. One gram of proteins provides 4 Calories of energy. Eating protein provides the amino acids for your cells to produce your own antibodies, muscle fibers and enzymes (as well as many other types of proteins). Answer: dietary proteins", "output": [ "What are broken down during digestion to provide the amino acids needed for protein synthesis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c9e82db2d0604820b044ba609c4c4a19", "input": "Passage: Insects and birds pollinate flowering plants, including crop plants. Answer: pollination", "output": [ "Birds and insects perform what function for flowering plants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4e3cc55a35514630ad5015153d6b3337", "input": "Passage: 22.11.4 Chryosophytes Chryosophytes are the most abundant unicellular algae in the oceans. They are also one of the biggest components of plankton, a free-floating collection of microorganisms, eggs, and larvae. As photosynthetic organisms, they produce a significant amount of atmospheric oxygen. The reproduction cycle of chryosophytes is particularly interesting. Note that diatoms reproduce both asexually and sexually. Since diatoms have a rigid cell wall with an outer layer of silica (found in sand and glass), the daughter cells produced by mitosis must fit inside the original cell wall. Therefore, each generation of diatoms is smaller than the one before. The reduction in size continues until the diatoms produce sexually, producing a zygote which eventually grows to the original size as it matures. Answer: chryosophytes", "output": [ "What are the most abundant unicellular algae in the oceans?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c5a4fb3b49da461381dbe69cabd83ce1", "input": "Passage: Destructive interference occurs when the crests of one wave overlap the troughs, or lowest points, of another wave. The Figure below shows what happens. As the waves pass through each other, the crests and troughs cancel each other out to produce a wave with zero amplitude. You can see an animation of destructive interference at this URL: http://phys23p. sl. psu. edu/phys_anim/waves/embederQ1.20200. html. Answer: destructive interference", "output": [ "What occurs when the crests of one wave overlap the troughs, or lowest points, of another wave?" ] }, { "id": "task594-678ec31d65544b95a21e6bb4d06f7c62", "input": "Passage: Look at this rusty bike. It has been left outside in damp weather too many times, so the iron in the metal parts has rusted. Iron rusts when it combines with oxygen in the air. Iron rusting is an example of a chemical reaction. In a chemical reaction, substances change into entirely different substances. For example, the iron in the bike and the oxygen in the air have changed into rust. Answer: rusted", "output": [ "A rusty bike has been left outside in damp weather too many times, so the iron in the metal parts have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1d6a203227824f33a26d88e21b28321b", "input": "Passage: Development of the Embryo In the vast majority of ectopic pregnancies, the embryo does not complete its journey to the uterus and implants in the uterine tube, referred to as a tubal pregnancy. However, there are also ovarian ectopic pregnancies (in which the egg never left the ovary) and abdominal ectopic pregnancies (in which an egg was “lost” to the abdominal cavity during the transfer from ovary to uterine tube, or in which an embryo from a tubal pregnancy re-implanted in the abdomen). Once in the abdominal cavity, an embryo can implant into any well-vascularized structure—the rectouterine cavity (Douglas’ pouch), the mesentery of the intestines, and the greater omentum are some common sites. Tubal pregnancies can be caused by scar tissue within the tube following a sexually transmitted bacterial infection. The scar tissue impedes the progress of the embryo into the uterus—in some cases “snagging” the embryo and, in other cases, blocking the tube completely. Approximately one half of tubal pregnancies resolve spontaneously. Implantation in a uterine tube causes bleeding, which appears to stimulate smooth muscle contractions and expulsion of the embryo. In the remaining cases, medical or surgical intervention is necessary. If an ectopic pregnancy is detected early, the embryo’s development can be arrested by the administration of the cytotoxic drug methotrexate, which inhibits the metabolism of folic acid. If diagnosis is late and the uterine tube is already ruptured, surgical repair is essential. Even if the embryo has successfully found its way to the uterus, it does not always implant in an optimal location (the fundus or the posterior wall of the uterus). Placenta previa can result if an embryo implants close to the internal os of the uterus (the internal opening of the cervix). As the fetus grows, the placenta can partially or completely cover the opening of the cervix (Figure 28.7). Although it occurs in only 0.5 percent of pregnancies, placenta previa is the leading cause of antepartum hemorrhage (profuse vaginal bleeding after week 24 of pregnancy but prior to childbirth). Answer: uterus", "output": [ "In the vast majority of ectopic pregnancies, the embryo does not complete its journey to what organ, and instead implants in the uterine tube?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ca60403e610746308d1053bf7432e78d", "input": "Passage: Acidity is measured by pH, which is the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution. Answer: ph", "output": [ "What is described by the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c2645048e0b641b6a71e21a4e85f3c8c", "input": "Passage: Pressure is defined as the amount of force acting on a given area. It measures how concentrated a force is. Answer: pressure", "output": [ "What is defined as the amount of force acting on a given area?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b0619960c61c42178328a2538b63f193", "input": "Passage: The sympathetic division controls internal organs and glands during emergencies. It prepares the body for fight or flight ( Figure below ). For example, it increases the heart rate and the flow of blood to the legs, so you can run away from danger. Answer: sympathetic division", "output": [ "What prepares the body for fight or flight during emergencies?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f4439a916c2f422cab28f734309a564f", "input": "Passage: The parts of the ears involved in balance are the semicircular canals . Above, the semicircular canals are colored purple ( Figure above ). The canals contain liquid and are like the bottle of water pictured below ( Figure below ). When the bottle tips, the water surface moves up and down the sides of the bottle. When the body tips, the liquid in the semicircular canals moves up and down the sides of the canals. Tiny hair cells line the semicircular canals. Movement of the liquid inside the canals causes the hair cells to send nerve impulses. The nerve impulses travel to the cerebellum in the brain along the vestibular nerve. In response, the cerebellum sends commands to muscles to contract or relax so that the body stays balanced. Answer: semicircular canals", "output": [ "The parts of the ears involved in balance are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8e12d09296a7479aadd9dfcd7c5609d6", "input": "Passage: times faster than air. For this reason, high-quality helium-filled balloons are usually made of Mylar, a dense, strong, opaque material with a high molecular mass that forms films that have many fewer pores than rubber. Mylar balloons can retain their helium for days. Answer: mylar", "output": [ "What material used for helium-filled balloons is dense, strong and opaque, with a high molecular mass that forms films that have many fewer pores than rubber?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ecd1cddc7a2145688acd10afc64d32f1", "input": "Passage: Life science may be basic or applied science. The aim of basic science is to gain new knowledge and a better understanding of the natural world. The aim of applied science is to find solutions to practical problems. Answer: applied science", "output": [ "What do you call a science that aims to find solutions to practical problems?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b33b8230c4c046d29ecb689e7a2188ff", "input": "Passage: Asthma is a disease in which the air passages of the lungs periodically become too narrow, often with excessive mucus production. This causes difficulty breathing, coughing, and chest tightness. An asthma attack may be triggered by allergens, strenuous exercise, stress, or other factors. Answer: lungs", "output": [ "What organ does asthma periodically cause to narrow?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e0c3d3ca94a44c109a18bc272703b4b1", "input": "Passage: Perhaps you have eaten too much pizza and felt very uncomfortable hours later. This feeling is due to excess stomach acid being produced. The discomfort can be dealt with by taking an antacid. The base in the antacid will react with the HCl in the stomach and neutralize it, taking care of that unpleasant feeling. Answer: neutralize it", "output": [ "The base in an antacid reacts to do what to excess stomach acid?" ] }, { "id": "task594-95eb0fb67fc6405d9bec5ee73f22e00e", "input": "Passage: A nonelectrolyte is a compound that does not conduct an electric current in either aqueous solution or in the molten state. Many molecular compounds, such as sugar or ethanol, are nonelectrolytes. When these compounds dissolve in water, they do not produce ions. The Figure below illustrates the difference between an electrolyte and a nonelectrolyte. Answer: nonelectrolyte", "output": [ "What term is used to describe a compound that does not conduct an electric current in either aqueous solution or in the molten state?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d6e19f2bfa164fd1b120b5cddfb90152", "input": "Passage: Both stages of photosynthesis take place in chloroplasts. The light reactions take place in the thylakoid membranes, and the Calvin cycle takes place in the stroma. Answer: the thylakoid", "output": [ "The light reactions take place in which membranes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dc165425d3a741828d7b3ec592f0e77c", "input": "Passage: Groundwater dissolves minerals and carries the ions in solution. Answer: solution", "output": [ "Groundwater dissolves minerals and carries the ions in a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-63207b183cf545e99935a2346984980e", "input": "Passage: Water is a common chemical substance on planet Earth. In fact, Earth is sometimes called the \"water planet\" because almost 75% of its surface is covered with water. If you look at Figure below , you will see where Earth’s water is found. The term water generally refers to its liquid state, and water is a liquid over a wide range of temperatures on Earth. However, water also occurs on Earth as a solid (ice) and as a gas (water vapor). Answer: water", "output": [ "What is a common chemical substance on planet earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f2cae4032556436d967c74fede8dbfff", "input": "Passage: According to the Aufbau process, sublevels and orbitals are filled with electrons in order of increasing energy. Since the s sublevel consists of just one orbital, the second electron simply pairs up with the first electron as in helium. The next element is lithium and necessitates the use of the next available sublevel, the 2 s . Answer: aufbau", "output": [ "According to which process, sublevels and orbitals are filled with electrons in order of increasing energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a8ecb0d62b084ab8b46693b250b5f194", "input": "Passage: The ABO blood group system is important if a person needs a blood transfusion. A blood transfusion is the process of putting blood or blood products from one person into the circulatory system of another person. The blood type of the recipient needs to be carefully matched to the blood type of the donor. That's because different blood types have different types of antibodies, or proteins, released by the blood cells. Antibodies attack strange substances in the body. This is a normal part of your immune response, which is your defense against disease. Answer: antibodies", "output": [ "Matching donor and recipient blood types is important because different blood types have different types of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4c457a1a42024023988f5795f75c7a6b", "input": "Passage: In species with sexual reproduction, each cell of the body has two copies of each chromosome. For example, human beings have 23 different chromosomes. Each body cell contains two of each chromosome, for a total of 46 chromosomes. You can see the 23 pairs of human chromosomes in Figure below . The number of different types of chromosomes is called the haploid number. In humans, the haploid number is 23. The number of chromosomes in normal body cells is called the diploid number. The diploid number is twice the haploid number. In humans, the diploid number is two times 23, or 46. Answer: chromosome", "output": [ "In species with sexual reproduction, each cell of the body has two copies of each what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a5e276fe59684d95856c4a5712e54d26", "input": "Passage: If you have ever been in a room when a piping hot pizza was delivered, you have been made aware of the fact that gaseous molecules can quickly spread throughout a room, as evidenced by the pleasant aroma that soon reaches your nose. Although gaseous molecules travel at tremendous speeds (hundreds of meters per second), they collide with other gaseous molecules and travel in many different directions before reaching the desired target. At room temperature, a gaseous molecule will experience billions of collisions per second. The mean free path is the average distance a molecule travels between collisions. The mean free path increases with decreasing pressure; in general, the mean free path for a gaseous molecule will be hundreds of times the diameter of the molecule In general, we know that when a sample of gas is introduced to one part of a closed container, its molecules very quickly disperse throughout the container; this process by which molecules disperse in space in response to differences in concentration is called diffusion (shown in Figure 9.27). The gaseous atoms or molecules are, of course, unaware of any concentration gradient, they simply move randomly—regions of higher concentration have more particles than regions of lower concentrations, and so a net movement of species from high to low concentration areas takes place. In a closed environment, diffusion will ultimately result in equal concentrations of gas throughout, as depicted in Figure 9.27. The gaseous atoms and molecules continue to move, but since their concentrations are the same in both bulbs, the rates of transfer between the bulbs are equal (no net transfer of molecules occurs). Answer: diameter", "output": [ "The mean free path for a gaseous molecule will be hundreds of times the what of the molecule?" ] }, { "id": "task594-71e9ea127e104e99b01b1286e723d636", "input": "Passage: Spontaneous and Nonspontaneous Processes Processes have a natural tendency to occur in one direction under a given set of conditions. Water will naturally flow downhill, but uphill flow requires outside intervention such as the use of a pump. Iron exposed to the earth’s atmosphere will corrode, but rust is not converted to iron without intentional chemical treatment. A spontaneous process is one that occurs naturally under certain conditions. A nonspontaneous process, on the other hand, will not take place unless it is “driven” by the continual input of energy from an external source. A process that is spontaneous in one direction under a particular set of conditions is nonspontaneous in the reverse direction. At room temperature and typical atmospheric pressure, for example, ice will spontaneously melt, but water will not spontaneously freeze. The spontaneity of a process is not correlated to the speed of the process. A spontaneous change may be so rapid that it is essentially instantaneous or so slow that it cannot be observed over any practical period of time. To illustrate this concept, consider the decay of radioactive isotopes, a topic more thoroughly treated in the chapter on nuclear chemistry. Radioactive decay is by definition a spontaneous process in which the nuclei of unstable isotopes emit radiation as they are converted to more stable nuclei. All the decay processes occur spontaneously, but the rates at which different isotopes decay vary widely. Technetium-99m is a popular radioisotope for medical imaging studies that undergoes relatively rapid decay and exhibits a half-life of about six hours. Uranium-238 is the most abundant isotope of uranium, and its decay occurs much more slowly, exhibiting a half-life of more than four billion years (Figure 16.2). Answer: spontaneous process", "output": [ "What kind of process occurs naturally under certain conditions, unlike its opposite, which will not take place unless it is “driven” by the continual input of energy from an external source?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a54c6bb990354bb6893582f237c9afe2", "input": "Passage: Some of Earth’s freshwater is found in wetlands. A wetland is an area that is covered with water, or at least has very soggy soil, during all or part of the year. Certain species of plants thrive in wetlands, and they are rich ecosystems. Freshwater wetlands are usually found at the edges of steams, rivers, ponds, or lakes. Wetlands can also be found at the edges of seas. Answer: a wetland", "output": [ "What is the name for an area that is covered in water, or at least has soggy soil, during all or part of the year?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6dcd69711dd94f7a820382048e402662", "input": "Passage: stretch receptors. This stimulates parasympathetic neurons to release acetylcholine, which then provokes increased secretion of gastric juice. Partially digested proteins, caffeine, and rising pH stimulate the release of gastrin from enteroendocrine G cells, which in turn induces parietal cells to increase their production of HCl, which is needed to create an acidic environment for the conversion of pepsinogen to pepsin, and protein digestion. Additionally, the release of gastrin activates vigorous smooth muscle contractions. However, it should be noted that the stomach does have a natural means of avoiding excessive acid secretion and potential heartburn. Whenever pH levels drop too low, cells in the stomach react by suspending HCl secretion and increasing mucous secretions. The intestinal phase of gastric secretion has both excitatory and inhibitory elements. The duodenum has a major role in regulating the stomach and its emptying. When partially digested food fills the duodenum, intestinal mucosal cells release a hormone called intestinal (enteric) gastrin, which further excites gastric juice secretion. This stimulatory activity is brief, however, because when the intestine distends with chyme, the enterogastric reflex inhibits secretion. One of the effects of this reflex is to close the pyloric sphincter, which blocks additional chyme from entering the duodenum. Answer: stomach", "output": [ "The duodenum has a major role in regulating what digestive organ and its emptying?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bd7763039c404da18737a550537c92bd", "input": "Passage: Hormone levels during the follicular phase, ovulation, and the luteal phase are compared. During the follicular phase, LH and FSH secreted from the pituitary stimulate several follicles to grow. The follicles produce low levels of estradiol that inhibit GnRH secretion by the hypothalamus, keeping LH and FSH levels low. Low levels of estradiol also cause the endometrial arteries to constrict, resulting in menstruation. During the time leading up to ovulation, LH and FSH stimulate maturation of one of the follicles. The growing follicle begins to produce high levels of estradiol, which stimulates GnRH secretion by the hypothalamus. As a result, LH and FSH levels rise, resulting in ovulation about a day later. Estradiol also causes the endometrium to thicken. After ovulation, the ovarian cycle enters the luteal phase. LH from the pituitary stimulates growth of the corpus luteum from the ruptured follicle. The corpus luteum secretes estradiol and progesterone that block GnRH production by the hypothalamus and LH and FSH production by the pituitary. Estradiol and progesterone also cause the endometrium to further develop. Figure 43.15 The ovarian and menstrual cycles of female reproduction are regulated by hormones produced by the hypothalamus, pituitary, and ovaries. Answer: estradiol", "output": [ "What causes the endometrium to thicken during a menstrual cycle?" ] }, { "id": "task594-52b4e625baf3432390f235ddfbfdb37f", "input": "Passage: A food chain represents a single pathway by which energy and matter flow through an ecosystem. An example is shown in Figure below . Food chains are generally simpler than what really happens in nature. Most organisms consume—and are consumed by—more than one species. Answer: food chain", "output": [ "A single, often oversimplified, path through which energy and matter flow through an ecosystem is also known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a86132078fd74df99a4ce3bd4154b6be", "input": "Passage: Dermal tissue covers the outside of a plant in a single layer of cells called the epidermis. You can think of the epidermis as the plant’s skin. It mediates most of the interactions between a plant and its environment. Epidermal cells secrete a waxy substance called cuticle , which coats, waterproofs, and protects the above-ground parts of plants. Cuticle helps prevent water loss, abrasions, infections, and damage from toxins. Answer: cuticle", "output": [ "What is the waxy substance that epidermal cells secrete?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8ddbb5788844434899030126c936b413", "input": "Passage: What is one of the most important characteristics of a referee? A referee must be neutral. He can’t favor one team over the other. In chemistry, being neutral means not being an acid or a base. Pure water is an example of a neutral substance. In some chemical reactions, an acid and a base combine to form neutral products, including water. You’ll see how this happens when you read this article. Answer: neutral", "output": [ "What do you call a substance that is not an acid or a base?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1f12af60f9494595a3d8759cc0eb0f54", "input": "Passage: Ionic bonds are formed by the attraction between oppositely charged ions. Answer: ionic bonds", "output": [ "What are formed by the attraction between oppositely charged ions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d4c3aa305fb64660bc0538355d2d38c4", "input": "Passage: Many objects have color because they contain pigments. A pigment is a substance that colors materials by reflecting light of certain wavelengths and absorbing light of other wavelengths. A very common pigment is the dark green pigment called chlorophyll, which is found in plants. Chlorophyll absorbs all but green wavelengths of visible light. Pigments are also found in many manufactured products. They are used to color paints, inks, and dyes. Just three pigments, called primary pigments, can be combined to produce all other colors. The primary colors of pigments are the same as the secondary colors of light: cyan, magenta, and yellow. Answer: pigments", "output": [ "Many objects have color because they contain what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-45bc015c08a34a9bb274c2d209f36f59", "input": "Passage: First, notice where carbon is fixed by the enzyme Rubisco. In C-3, C-4, and CAM plants, CO 2 enters the cycle by joining with 5-carbon ribulose bisphosphate to form a 6-carbon intermediate, which splits (so quickly that it isn’t even shown) into two 3-carbon 3-phosphoglycerate molecules. Now look for the points at which ATP and NADPH (made in the light reactions) add chemical energy (“Reduction” in the diagram) to the 3-carbon molecules. The resulting glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate “half-sugars” can enter several different metabolic pathways. One recreates the original 5-carbon precursor, completing the cycle. A second combines two of the 3-carbon molecules to form glucose, the universal fuel for life. The cycle begins and ends with the same 5-carbon RuBP molecule, but the process combines carbon and energy to build carbohydrates – food for life. Answer: iron and magnesium", "output": [ "What elements do mafic minerals typically include?" ] }, { "id": "task594-47626cef406c4a81aa47f85ea62f68d5", "input": "Passage: An amine consists of a nitrogen atom bonded to some combination of carbons and hydrogens. Answer: an amine", "output": [ "What consists of a nitrogen atom bonded to some combination of carbons and hydrogens?" ] }, { "id": "task594-41cb000d394c4acab69575f78f9fa56b", "input": "Passage: The stirrup in the middle ear passes the amplified sound waves to the inner ear through the oval window. When the oval window vibrates, it causes the cochlea to vibrate as well. The cochlea is a shell-like structure that is full of fluid and lined with nerve cells called hair cells. Each hair cell has many tiny “hairs,” as you can see in the magnified image below . When the cochlea vibrates, it causes waves in the fluid inside. The waves bend the “hairs” on the hair cells, and this triggers electrical impulses. The electrical impulses travel to the brain through nerves. Only after the nerve impulses reach the brain do we hear the sound. Answer: the cochlea", "output": [ "When the oval window vibrates, it causes what else to vibrate as well?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b1e80ae246204e78a60000b2fc2121fe", "input": "Passage: Unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain one or more triple bonds are called alkynes . The names of specific alkynes always end in –yne and have a prefix for the number of carbon atoms. The structural formula in the Figure below represents the smallest alkyne, named ethyne, which has two carbon atoms and two hydrogen atoms (C 2 H 2 ). Ethyne is also called acetylene. It is burned in acetylene torches, like the one pictured in the Figure below . The flame of an acetylene torch is so hot that it can melt metal. Answer: unsaturated hydrocarbons", "output": [ "Alkynes are what type of compound?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0e40d05c455041cabba6078d1dcf44c1", "input": "Passage: There are approximately 7 billion humans on the planet. How long would it take some bacteria to make 7 billion copies of themselves?. Answer: 7 billion", "output": [ "What is the approximate population on the earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1ff5f9c3f82847e69c8bace2ec6e6d46", "input": "Passage: All cells, including both plant and animal cells, need energy for processes such as active transport. How do cells obtain the energy they need?. Answer: energy", "output": [ "All cells need what for processes like active transport?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ceaeb9773d3d4701a047f4ef9cdf4caf", "input": "Passage: Mendel first worked with plants that differed in a single characteristic, such as flower color. A hybridization is a cross between two individuals that have different traits. A hybridization in which only one characteristic is examined is called a monohybrid cross . The offspring of such a cross are called monohybrids. Mendel noted that hybridizing true-breeding (P generation) plants gave rise to an F 1 generation that showed only one trait of a characteristic. For example, a true-breeding purple-flowering plant crossed with a true-breeding white-flowering plant always gave rise to purple-flowered hybrid plants. There were no white-flowered hybrids. Mendel wanted to know what happened to the white-flowers. If indeed a \"heritable factor\" for white-flower had disappeared, all future offspring of the hybrids would be purple-flowered - none would be white. To test this idea, Mendel let the F 1 generation plants self-pollinate and then planted the resulting seeds. Answer: hybridization", "output": [ "What term is used to describe a cross between two individuals that have different traits?" ] }, { "id": "task594-788d3dc4b55b4468b2ca20479b1e09f4", "input": "Passage: Possible problems of the skeletal system include osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, fractures, and sprains. Answer: skeletal system", "output": [ "Osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, fractures, and sprains are problems affecting what system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a02ed07e5da24bfa84261163d2e3b55e", "input": "Passage: neotropicum infects the ant Cephalotes atratus, leading to dramatic changes in the infected ant's morphology and behavior. The infected ant’s abdomen turns red and is held raised up, which makes it resemble a fruit and increases the likelihood of the infected ant being eaten by birds (→). The birds transport the worms, which survive in their digestive systems until they are excreted; they are then eaten by, and infect new ants to complete the worm’s life cycle.78 Perhaps the most famous example of this type of behavior occurs in wasps of the family Ichneumonidae. Female wasps deposit their fertilized eggs into the bodies of various types of caterpillars. The wasp eggs hatch out and produce larvae which then feed on the living caterpillar, consuming it from the inside out. Charles Darwin, in a letter to the American naturalist Asa Gray, remarked “There seems to me too much misery in the world. I cannot persuade myself that a beneficent & omnipotent God would have designedly created the Ichneumonidae with the express intention of their feeding within the living bodies of caterpillars, or that a cat should play with mice. ” Rather than presume that a supernatural creator was responsible for such apparently cruel behaviors, Darwin and others sought alternative, morally neutral naturalistic processes that could both generate biological diversity and explain biological behaviors. As the diversity of organisms became increasingly apparent and difficult to ignore, another broad and inescapable conclusion began to emerge from anatomical studies: many different organisms displayed remarkable structural similarities. For example, as naturalists characterized various types of animals, they found that they either had an internal skeleton (the vertebrates) or did not (the invertebrates). Comparative studies revealed that there were often many similarities between quite different types of organisms. A classic work, published in 1555, compared the skeletons of a human and a bird, both vertebrates.79 While many bones have different shape and relative sizes, what was most striking is how many bones are at least superficially similar between the two organisms (→). This type of “comparative anatomy” revealed many similarities between apparently unrelated organisms. For example, the skeleton of the dugong (a large aquatic mammal) appears quite similar to that of the European mole, a small terrestrial mammal that tunnels underground on land. In fact, there are general skeletal similarities between all vertebrates. The closer we look, the more similarities we find. These similarities run deeper than the. Answer: neotropicum", "output": [ "Which infection turns ant's abdomen red and fruit-like and an easy prey for birds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-da5e9d8a1fb2444986aa0bb890c04b10", "input": "Passage: Nutrients the body needs in relatively small amounts are called micronutrients . They include vitamins and minerals. Vitamins are organic compounds that are needed by the body to function properly. Several vitamins are described in Table below . Vitamins play many roles in good health, ranging from maintaining good vision to helping blood clot. Vitamin B12 is produced by bacteria in the large intestine. Vitamin D is synthesized by the skin when it is exposed to UV light. Most other vitamins must be obtained from foods like those listed in Table below . Answer: micronutrients", "output": [ "What is the term for nutrients the body needs in relatively small amounts, including vitamins and minerals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5237473fa48a481dbef9f5ec97e01f09", "input": "Passage: To keep their flight muscles well supplied with oxygen, birds evolved specialized respiratory and circulatory systems. Birds have special air sacs for storing extra air and pumping it into the lungs. They also have a relatively large heart and a rapid heart rate. These adaptations keep plenty of oxygenated blood circulating to the flight muscles. Answer: heart rate", "output": [ "Birds have a relatively large heart and a rapid what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-16e7c68a160447098ebf25deefb2a0bd", "input": "Passage: Prokaryotic cells grow to a certain size. Then they divide by binary fission. This is a type of asexual reproduction. Answer: binary fission", "output": [ "Prokaryotic cells grow to a certain size and then they divide by which process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4c1036b2604e461a9dbb03ab08072071", "input": "Passage: A star like our Sun will become a red giant in its next stage. When a star uses up its hydrogen, it begins to fuse helium atoms. Helium fuses into heavier atoms like carbon. At this time the star’s core starts to collapse inward. The star's outer layers spread out and cool. The result is a larger star that is cooler on the surface, and red in color. Answer: red giant", "output": [ "What is our sun's next stage called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6c7ec37c8118459ea8f85aa52f706a09", "input": "Passage: Traits are controlled by genes on chromosomes. A gene may have different versions called alleles. Answer: alleles", "output": [ "A gene may have different versions called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7172e6e5e45443f9a8624a63b8f1980e", "input": "Passage: Leaf Arrangement The arrangement of leaves on a stem is known as phyllotaxy. The number and placement of a plant’s leaves will vary depending on the species, with each species exhibiting a characteristic leaf arrangement. Leaves are classified as either alternate, spiral, or opposite. Plants that have only one leaf per node have leaves that are said to be either alternate—meaning the leaves alternate on each side of the stem in a flat plane—or spiral, meaning the leaves are arrayed in a spiral along the stem. In an opposite leaf arrangement, two leaves arise at the same point, with the leaves connecting opposite each other along the branch. If there are three or more leaves connected at a node, the leaf arrangement is classified as whorled. Answer: leaves", "output": [ "The arrangement of what plant structures can be classified as either alternate, spiral, or opposite?" ] }, { "id": "task594-79a801151170454b8793b836f9e93bd8", "input": "Passage: Figure 26.30 Spherical aberration is caused by rays focusing at different distances from the lens. Answer: spherical aberration", "output": [ "What is it called when rays focus at different distances from the lens?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0debb6462bdb4e1086ff0171425aa2ed", "input": "Passage: The hot core warms the base of the mantle, which creates convection currents in the mantle. Answer: the hot core", "output": [ "What warms the base of the mantle creating convection currents there?" ] }, { "id": "task594-df8190776323473f95476d8979ecb154", "input": "Passage: Regulation of Blood Glucose Levels by Insulin and Glucagon Glucose is required for cellular respiration and is the preferred fuel for all body cells. The body derives glucose from the breakdown of the carbohydrate-containing foods and drinks we consume. Glucose not immediately taken up by cells for fuel can be stored by the liver and muscles as glycogen, or converted to triglycerides and stored in the adipose tissue. Hormones regulate both the storage and the utilization of glucose as required. Receptors located in the pancreas sense blood glucose levels, and subsequently the pancreatic cells secrete glucagon or insulin to maintain normal levels. Answer: glucose", "output": [ "What does the body derive from the breakdown of the carbohydrate-containing foods and drinks we consume?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1d17ebcd458840ea94e33374915e6a72", "input": "Passage: An amide bond joining two amino acid units is called a peptide bond. Note that the product molecule still has a reactive amino group on the left and a reactive carboxyl. Answer: peptide bond", "output": [ "An amide bond joining two amino acid units is called a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3fc064b6c0954ac8893640041fa588bc", "input": "Passage: Cellulose is a compound found in plants. The chief component of cellulose is carbon. Cellulose is one of many carbon-based compounds that make up living things. In fact, carbon-based compounds are the most common type of compound on Earth. More than 90 percent of all known compounds contain carbon. Do you know why carbon is found in so many compounds? Read on to find out. Answer: carbon-based compounds", "output": [ "What are the most common types of compounds found on earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3ac60cf8122f43948c2a9a443d064150", "input": "Passage: The combined gas law, , is true for a particular sample of gas. If any gas is added or allowed to leak out, however, the relationship is lost. In order to get a relationship that is true for any sample of gas, it is necessary to incorporate a term for the amount of gas. From observations as simple as blowing up a balloon, it is clear that increasing the amount of gas increases the volume. Answer: the volume", "output": [ "From observations as simple as blowing up a balloon, it is clear that increasing the amount of gas increases what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5f3a97e1482b4515b492f11c02772fcf", "input": "Passage: The universe contains all the matter and energy that exists and all of space and time. We are always learning more about the universe. In the early 20th century, Edwin Hubble used powerful telescopes to show that some distant specks of light seen through telescopes are actually other galaxies. ( Figure below ) Hubble discovered that the Andromeda Nebula is over 2 million light years away. This is many times farther than the farthest distances we had measured before. He realized that galaxies were collections of millions or billions of stars. Hubble also measured the distances to hundreds of galaxies. Today, we know that the universe contains about a hundred billion galaxies. Answer: edwin hubble", "output": [ "Who discovered that the andromeda nebula is over 2 million light years away" ] }, { "id": "task594-3c86859f7ec34eb89e424d06d6822621", "input": "Passage: Rats are mammals, but this class can be divided into more specific groups. Rats are in a group known as rodents. Rodents are gnawing animals that include beavers, mice, and squirrels. Answer: rodents", "output": [ "What is the name of the group that rats are apart of called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fd648442b51a42c9bf222c9a98fbbbd7", "input": "Passage: Food Energy and ATP Animals need food to obtain energy and maintain homeostasis. Homeostasis is the ability of a system to maintain a stable internal environment even in the face of external changes to the environment. For example, the normal body temperature of humans is 37°C (98.6°F). Humans maintain this temperature even when the external temperature is hot or cold. It takes energy to maintain this body temperature, and animals obtain this energy from food. The primary source of energy for animals is carbohydrates, mainly glucose. Glucose is called the body’s fuel. The digestible carbohydrates in an animal’s diet are converted to glucose molecules through a series of catabolic chemical reactions. Adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, is the primary energy currency in cells; ATP stores energy in phosphate ester bonds. ATP releases energy when the phosphodiester bonds are broken and ATP is converted to ADP and a phosphate group. ATP is produced by the oxidative reactions in the cytoplasm and mitochondrion of the cell, where carbohydrates, proteins, and fats undergo a series of metabolic reactions collectively called cellular respiration. For example, glycolysis is a series of reactions in which glucose is converted to pyruvic acid and some of its chemical potential energy is transferred to NADH and ATP. ATP is required for all cellular functions. It is used to build the organic molecules that are required for cells and tissues; it provides energy for muscle contraction and for the transmission of electrical signals in the nervous system. When the amount of ATP is available in excess of the body’s requirements, the liver uses the excess ATP and excess glucose to produce molecules called glycogen. Glycogen is a polymeric form of glucose and is stored in the liver and skeletal muscle cells. When blood sugar drops, the liver releases glucose from stores of glycogen. Skeletal muscle converts glycogen to glucose during intense exercise. The process of converting glucose and excess ATP to glycogen and the storage of excess energy is an evolutionarily important step in helping animals deal with mobility, food shortages, and famine. Answer: homeostasis", "output": [ "What is the term for a system maintaining a stable internal environment in a changeable external environment?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b3a9787ec5454948ab978a2840660893", "input": "Passage: Positive Feedback Positive feedback intensifies a change in the body’s physiological condition rather than reversing it. A deviation from the normal range results in more change, and the system moves farther away from the normal range. Positive feedback in the body is normal only when there is a definite end point. Childbirth and the body’s response to blood loss are two examples of positive feedback loops that are normal but are activated only when needed. Childbirth at full term is an example of a situation in which the maintenance of the existing body state is not desired. Enormous changes in the mother’s body are required to expel the baby at the end of pregnancy. And the events of childbirth, once begun, must progress rapidly to a conclusion or the life of the mother and the baby are at risk. The extreme muscular work of labor and delivery are the result of a positive feedback system (Figure 1.11). Answer: positive feedback", "output": [ "What type of feedback intensifies a change in the body’s physiological condition rather than reversing it?" ] }, { "id": "task594-176c7797bba9426fa821fd905213e568", "input": "Passage: Note Today, new elements are usually named after famous scientists. The names of the elements can be cumbersome to write in full, especially when combined to form the names of compounds. Therefore, each element name is abbreviated as a one- or two-letter chemical symbol. By convention, the first letter of a chemical symbol is a capital letter, while the second letter (if there is one) is a lowercase letter. The first letter of the symbol is usually the first letter of the element’s name, while the second letter is some other letter from the name. Some elements have symbols that derive from earlier, mostly Latin names, so the symbols may not contain any letters from the English name. Table 2.3 \"Element Names and Symbols\" lists the names and symbols of some of the most familiar elements. Table 2.3 Element Names and Symbols. Answer: symbol", "output": [ "Today, new elements are usually named after famous scientists. the names of the elements can be cumbersome to write in full, especially when combined to form the names of compounds. therefore, each element name is abbreviated as a one- or two-letter chemical this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ec869467cc064576ad2a79bec87fb34c", "input": "Passage: An analog signal consists of continuously changing voltage in a circuit. For example, microphones encode sounds as analog signals. Answer: voltage", "output": [ "What is continuously changing within a circuit in an analog signal?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7c9c617d54e84da58f55760be8b4568d", "input": "Passage: The second line of defense attacks pathogens that manage to enter the body. It includes the inflammatory response and phagocytosis by nonspecific leukocytes. Answer: second line of defense", "output": [ "This bodily defense function attacks pathogens and includes inflammatory response and phagocytosis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6cdb06be6f524506a0aca88595458fb1", "input": "Passage: Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed. Answer: destroyed", "output": [ "Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d96636b32d784e56b7ab9adc524f8b73", "input": "Passage: Long-term or high-dose exposure to radiation can harm both living and nonliving things. Radiation knocks electrons out of atoms and changes them to ions. It also breaks bonds in DNA and other compounds in living things. One source of radiation that is especially dangerous to people is radon. Radon is a radioactive gas that forms in rocks underground. It can seep into basements and get trapped inside buildings. Then it may build up and become harmful to people who breathe it. Long-term exposure to radon can cause lung cancer. Answer: radiation", "output": [ "This knocks electrons from atoms and turns them into ions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-205af69e58274e3e8b8b086eb83d54f1", "input": "Passage: Mesophiles grow best in moderate temperature, typically between 25°C and 40°C (77°F and 104°F). Mesophiles are often found living in or on the bodies of humans or other animals. The optimal growth temperature of many pathogenic mesophiles is 37°C (98°F), the normal human body temperature. Mesophilic organisms have important uses in food preparation, including cheese, yogurt, beer and wine. Answer: mesophilic organisms", "output": [ "What type of organism is commonly used in preparation of foods such as cheese and yogurt?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4a2f6939020a4943b8e50ddf207bd6c9", "input": "Passage: Oxygen is needed to make ozone. Ozone is a molecule made of three oxygen ions. Ozone in the upper atmosphere blocks harmful solar radiation from reaching the surface. Without oxygen, life on Earth would have been very simple. Answer: three", "output": [ "How many oxygen ions make up an ozone molecule?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2266d0b7b9a441c789f2f23f86badfd8", "input": "Passage: There are two types of fermentation: lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation. Both types of fermentation are described below. You can also watch animations of both types at this link: http://www. cst. cmich. edu/users/schul1te/animations/fermentation. swf . Answer: lactic acid and alcoholic", "output": [ "What are the two types of fermentation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c357bd32157246c5bd18113d4f6c7663", "input": "Passage: An aquifer is a saturated layer of rock or soil. Answer: aquifer", "output": [ "What is defined as a saturated layer of rock or soil?" ] }, { "id": "task594-deeeaf6d9dff47588100096a55562d65", "input": "Passage: Watch this video (http://openstaxcollege. org/l/vertebrate_evol) of biologist Mark Kirschner discussing the “flipping” phenomenon of vertebrate evolution. The nervous system is made up of neurons, specialized cells that can receive and transmit chemical or electrical signals, and glia, cells that provide support functions for the neurons by playing an information processing role that is complementary to neurons. A neuron can be compared to an electrical wire—it transmits a signal from one place to another. Glia can be compared to the workers at the electric company who make sure wires go to the right places, maintain the wires, and take down wires that are broken. Although glia have been compared to workers, recent evidence suggests that also usurp some of the signaling functions of neurons. There is great diversity in the types of neurons and glia that are present in different parts of the nervous system. There are four major types of neurons, and they share several important cellular components. Answer: neurons", "output": [ "The nervous system is made up of these?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3769b5773bf3467da742f2ac010a4adc", "input": "Passage: This type of joint is found between the articular processes of adjacent vertebrae, at the acromioclavicular joint, or at the intercarpal joints of the hand and intertarsal joints of the foot. Ball-and-socket joints, in which the rounded head of a bone fits into a large depression or socket, are found at the shoulder and hip joints. Both plane and ball-and-sockets joints are classified functionally as multiaxial joints. However, ball-and-socket joints allow for large movements, while the motions between bones at a plane joint are small. Answer: ball and socket", "output": [ "The shoulder and hip are examples of what type of joints?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2ece1e1d64cc48e68cb2b0e33ee8ea63", "input": "Passage: Things Great and Small Nuclear Decay Helps Explain Earth’s Hot Interior A puzzle created by radioactive dating of rocks is resolved by radioactive heating of Earth’s interior. This intriguing story is another example of how small-scale physics can explain large-scale phenomena. Radioactive dating plays a role in determining the approximate age of the Earth. The oldest rocks on Earth solidified about 3.5×10 9 years ago—a number determined by uranium-238 dating. These rocks could only have solidified once the surface of the Earth had cooled sufficiently. The temperature of the Earth at formation can be estimated based on gravitational potential energy of the assemblage of pieces being converted to thermal energy. Using heat transfer concepts discussed in Thermodynamics it is then possible to calculate how long it would take for the surface to cool to rock9 9 formation temperatures. The result is about 10 years. The first rocks formed have been solid for 3.5×10 years, so that 9 the age of the Earth is approximately 4.5×10 years. There is a large body of other types of evidence (both Earth-bound and solar system characteristics are used) that supports this age. The puzzle is that, given its age and initial temperature, the center of the Earth should be much cooler than it is today (see Figure 31.26). Answer: radioactive dating", "output": [ "What method plays a role in determining the approximate age of the earth and makes use of uranium?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ff71c110c270453a8c5bc7cba625738f", "input": "Passage: Coefficients are used to balance chemical equations. A coefficient is a number placed in front of a chemical symbol or formula. It shows how many atoms or molecules of the substance are involved in the reaction. Answer: coefficient", "output": [ "What is the number placed in front of a chemical symbol or formula that shows how many atoms or molecules of the substance are involved in the reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a27c3f664f6640f9957ade18a34b0fb3", "input": "Passage: Electric charge is a physical property of particles or objects that causes them to attract or repel each other without touching. All electric charge is based on the protons and electrons in atoms. A proton has a positive electric charge, and an electron has a negative electric charge (see Figure below ). Answer: positive", "output": [ "What kind of charge does a proton have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4242ff5259104c7a888cdfd00164d0fa", "input": "Passage: Facilitated diffusion is the diffusion of solutes through transport proteins in the plasma membrane. Channel proteins, gated channel proteins, and carrier proteins are three types of transport proteins that are involved in facilitated diffusion. Answer: transport proteins", "output": [ "A channel protein is an example of what type of protein?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ca8db21edd7f4713a7b3be5e36077ee4", "input": "Passage: As the membrane depolarizes, another set of ion channels called voltage-gated sodium channels are triggered to open. Sodium ions enter the muscle fiber, and an action potential rapidly spreads (or “fires”) along the entire membrane to initiate excitation-contraction coupling. Things happen very quickly in the world of excitable membranes (just think about how quickly you can snap your fingers as soon as you decide to do it). Immediately following depolarization of the membrane, it repolarizes, re-establishing the negative membrane potential. Meanwhile, the ACh in the synaptic cleft is degraded by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) so that the ACh cannot rebind to a receptor and reopen its channel, which would cause unwanted extended muscle excitation and contraction. Propagation of an action potential along the sarcolemma is the excitation portion of excitation-contraction coupling. Recall that this excitation actually triggers the release of calcium ions (Ca++) from its storage in the cell’s SR. For the action potential to reach the membrane of the SR, there are periodic invaginations in the sarcolemma, called T-tubules (“T” stands for “transverse”). You will recall that the diameter of a muscle fiber can be up to 100 μm, so these T-tubules ensure that the membrane can get close to the SR in the sarcoplasm. The arrangement of a T-tubule with the membranes of SR on either side is called a triad (Figure 10.7). The triad surrounds the cylindrical structure called a myofibril, which contains actin and myosin. Answer: triad", "output": [ "What is the arrangement of a t-tubule with the membranes of sr on either side called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c849446eff9f4b8b9040eeb86a7695c5", "input": "Passage: There are several types of radioactive decay, including alpha, beta, and gamma decay. In all three types, nuclei emit radiation, but the nature of the radiation differs. The Table below shows the radiation emitted in each type of decay. You can watch a video about the three types at this URL: http://www. youtube. com/watch?v=3koOwozY4oc . Answer: radiation", "output": [ "What is emitted by nuclei in alpha, beta, and gamma decay?" ] }, { "id": "task594-03dc338b2ea04ecc8ddf79f9cf298efd", "input": "Passage: The pauropods are typically 0.5-2.0 mm long and live on all continents except Antarctica. They are usually found in soil, leaf litter, or other moist places. They feed on fungi and decaying organic matter, and are essentially harmless. Adult pauropods have 11 or 12 body segments and 9-11 pairs of legs. They also possess unique forked antennae and a distinctive pattern of movement characterized by rapid burst of movement and frequent abrupt changes in direction. Over 700 species have been described, and they are believed to be closely related to millipedes. Answer: antarctica", "output": [ "Pauropods, presumed relatives of millipedes usually found in soil, leaf litter and other moist places, live on all continents except what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4e3a197e84d84b149dac7104c64fe4ae", "input": "Passage: The small intestine is a narrow tube that starts at the stomach and ends at the large intestine. In adults, it’s about 7 meters (23 feet) long. Most chemical digestion and almost all nutrient absorption take place in the small intestine. Answer: small intestine", "output": [ "What is the name of the narrow tube that begins at the stomach and ends at the large intestine?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1e048b80ad154c428bbe2e7adaa6fa1a", "input": "Passage: Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its original shape after being stretched or compressed. Elastic force is the counter force that resists the stretching or compressing of an elastic material. Answer: elasticity", "output": [ "What is the ability of a material to return to its original shape after being stretched or compressed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-033bb8389e6b497fa5659649376b00c1", "input": "Passage: To grow and develop, you must form new cells. Imagine how often your cells must divide during a growth spurt. Growing just an inch requires countless cell divisions. Your body must produce new bone cells, new skin cells, new cells in your blood vessels and so on. Answer: cells", "output": [ "A growth spurt requires constant divisions of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0bc2161e77364edaaff1f8a4c72213f4", "input": "Passage: thrombosis, can be caused by excessive numbers of platelets. A thrombus is a collection of fibrin, platelets, and erythrocytes that has accumulated along the lining of a blood vessel, whereas an embolus is a thrombus that has broken free from the vessel wall and is circulating in the bloodstream. Answer: thrombus", "output": [ "What is a collection of fibrin, platelets, and erythrocytes that has accumulated along the lining of a blood vessel called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-71f5392acc3f43ff9d07301246379e90", "input": "Passage: The anion is the methanoate ion, which is commonly called the formate ion. One reaction to consider is that of a carboxylic acid and an alcohol. When combined under the proper conditions, a water molecule will be removed, and the remaining pieces will combine to form a new functional group—the ester functional group:. Answer: formate ion", "output": [ "The anion is the methanoate ion, which is commonly called the what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-04483def4c61443ca5eb00df2a5fe5ee", "input": "Passage: There are six types of simple machines. Machines that consist of two or more simple machines are called compound machines. Answer: six types", "output": [ "How many types of simple machines are there?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0e6c2c77b3e0419897df25e04c3df2ee", "input": "Passage: A: You may eat a wide variety of carbohydrates—from sugars in fruits to starches in potatoes. However, body cells use only sugars for energy. Answer: sugars", "output": [ "What do body cells use for energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4a4d6861067747b7ba63915fad7acb00", "input": "Passage: Coronary Arteries Coronary arteries supply blood to the myocardium and other components of the heart. The first portion of the aorta after it arises from the left ventricle gives rise to the coronary arteries. There are three dilations in the wall of the aorta just superior to the aortic semilunar valve. Two of these, the left posterior aortic sinus and anterior aortic sinus, give rise to the left and right coronary arteries, respectively. The third sinus, the right posterior aortic sinus, typically does not give rise to a vessel. Coronary vessel branches that remain on the surface of the artery and follow the sulci are called epicardial coronary arteries. The left coronary artery distributes blood to the left side of the heart, the left atrium and ventricle, and the interventricular septum. The circumflex artery arises from the left coronary artery and follows the coronary sulcus to the left. Eventually, it will fuse with the small branches of the right coronary artery. The larger anterior interventricular artery, also known as the left anterior descending artery (LAD), is the second major branch arising from the left coronary artery. It follows the anterior interventricular sulcus around the pulmonary trunk. Along the way it gives rise to numerous smaller branches that interconnect with the branches of the posterior interventricular artery, forming anastomoses. An anastomosis is an area where vessels unite to form interconnections that normally allow blood to circulate to a region even if there may be partial. Answer: coronary arteries", "output": [ "What vessels supply blood to the myocardium and other components of the heart?" ] }, { "id": "task594-da9803fb8bbe40b383e601007fc00ac3", "input": "Passage: Kinesis and Taxis Another activity or movement of innate behavior is kinesis, or the undirected movement in response to a stimulus. Orthokinesis is the increased or decreased speed of movement of an organism in response to a stimulus. Woodlice, for example, increase their speed of movement when exposed to high or low temperatures. This movement, although random, increases the probability that the insect spends less time in the unfavorable environment. Another example is klinokinesis, an increase in turning behaviors. It is exhibited by bacteria such as E. coli which, in association with orthokinesis, helps the organisms randomly find a more hospitable environment. A similar, but more directed version of kinesis is taxis: the directed movement towards or away from a stimulus. This movement can be in response to light (phototaxis), chemical signals (chemotaxis), or gravity (geotaxis) and can be directed toward (positive) or away (negative) from the source of the stimulus. An example of a positive chemotaxis is exhibited by the unicellular protozoan Tetrahymena thermophila. This organism swims using its cilia, at times moving in a straight line, and at other times making turns. The attracting chemotactic agent alters the frequency of turning as the organism moves directly toward the source, following the increasing concentration gradient. Fixed Action Patterns A fixed action pattern is a series of movements elicited by a stimulus such that even when the stimulus is removed, the pattern goes on to completion. An example of such a behavior occurs in the three-spined stickleback, a small freshwater fish (Figure 45.34). Males of this species develop a red belly during breeding season and show instinctual aggressiveness to other males during this time. In laboratory experiments, researchers exposed such fish to objects that in no way resemble a fish in their shape, but which were painted red on their lower halves. The male sticklebacks responded aggressively to the objects just as if they were real male sticklebacks. Answer: orthokinesis", "output": [ "What term is used to describe is the increased or decreased speed of movement of an organism in response to a stimulus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9d40d91666b044c182d0e09587cbd3f1", "input": "Passage: Human Genome, Chromosomes, and Genes. Each chromosome of the human genome contains many genes as well as noncoding intergenic (between genes) regions. Each pair of chromosomes is shown here in a different color. Notice that there are 23 pairs of chromosomes. Answer: 23 pairs", "output": [ "How many pairs of chromosomes do human have ?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dde793dc06bc454da8ed84daed584dd1", "input": "Passage: Careful farming helps to keep up soil quality each season. One way is to plant different crops each year. Another is to alternate the crops planted in each row of the field. These techniques preserve and replenish soil nutrients. Planting nutrient rich cover crops helps the soil. Planting trees as windbreaks, plowing along contours of a field, or building terraces into steeper slopes all help to hold soil in place ( Figure below ). No-till or low-till farming disturbs the ground as little as possible during planting. Answer: improve soil quality", "output": [ "What is the purpose of utilizing careful farming practices such as rotating crops or planting nutrient rich crops?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f5b00378044c430192ed065425455252", "input": "Passage: The Golgi Apparatus The Golgi apparatus is responsible for sorting, modifying, and shipping off the products that come from the rough ER, much like a post-office. The Golgi apparatus looks like stacked flattened discs, almost like stacks of oddly shaped pancakes. Like the ER, these discs are membranous. The Golgi apparatus has two distinct sides, each with a different role. One side of the apparatus receives products in vesicles. These products are sorted through the apparatus, and then they are released from the opposite side after being repackaged into new vesicles. If the product is to be exported from the cell, the vesicle migrates to the cell surface and fuses to the cell membrane, and the cargo is secreted (Figure 3.15). Answer: golgi apparatus", "output": [ "What \"apparatus\" is responsible for sorting, modifying, and shipping off the products that come from the rough endoplasmic reticulum?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fe2ffe1a112a4027b48305a84f97465c", "input": "Passage: Bottleneck effect occurs when a population suddenly gets much smaller. This might happen because of a natural disaster such as a forest fire. By chance, allele frequencies of the survivors may be different from those of the original population. Answer: bottleneck effect", "output": [ "What effect occurs when a population suddenly gets much smaller, due to natural disaster or other cause?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8044814326f84059817d99e42be6897a", "input": "Passage: Speed is an important aspect of motion. It is a measure of how fast or slow something moves. It depends on how far something travels and how long it takes to travel that far. Speed can be calculated using this general formula:. Answer: speed", "output": [ "What is the measure for how fast or slow something moves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-094e60c9b30549aa82595a506980f7a5", "input": "Passage: During mitosis, the newly duplicated chromosomes are divided into two daughter nuclei. Answer: mitosis", "output": [ "Newly duplicated chromosomes are divided into two daughter nuclei during what stage?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a95fddd92b6349c6a75c3591ec913632", "input": "Passage: Structures of the Dermis. The dermis contains most of the structures found in skin. Answer: dermis", "output": [ "What contains most of the structures found in skin?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8b4201e81a1f4f1d86202d72f47defdb", "input": "Passage: Prokaryotes were the first living things to evolve on Earth, probably around 3.8 billion years ago. They were the only living things until the first eukaryotic cells evolved about 2 billion years ago. Prokaryotes are still the most numerous organisms on Earth. Answer: prokaryotes", "output": [ "What were the first living things to evolve on earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6e68f9fc20e24cca8ba77bd95d585c14", "input": "Passage: Stars spend most of their lives on the main sequence, fusing hydrogen into helium. Answer: helium", "output": [ "Stars spend most of their lives on the main sequence, fusing hydrogen into what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-33dfa73c24ae48c3871db13ff3f68fb0", "input": "Passage: Magnetite is a magnetic mineral found in lava. The magnetite points to the magnetic north pole when it cools. Answer: magnetite", "output": [ "What is the name of the magnetic material found in lava?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9bd5dfe856ec492cbf7a21268d186f22", "input": "Passage: Benzoic acid crystals in polarized light are pictured above. Benzoic acid is widely used as a food preservative, either as the carboxylic acid or as the sodium benzoate salt. This compound is most effective when added to acidic foods such as fruit juices and soft drinks. The major industrial source of benzoic acid is the partial oxidation of toluene with oxygen. The process is inexpensive and environmentally benign. Answer: benzoic acid", "output": [ "What type of acid is often used as a preservative for acidic foods such as fruit juices?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d1c37658c99a4fc1bbc9c4e6544f4959", "input": "Passage: Other methods of surface mining include strip mining, placer mining, and dredging. Strip mining is like open pit mining but with material removed along a strip. A quarry is a type of open-pit mine that produces rocks and minerals that are used to make buildings and roads. Answer: strip mining", "output": [ "What is the type of mining called when materials are removed along a strip?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0b1e7e935ab84df1a4e64794514e5101", "input": "Passage: Some species of animals are territorial . This means that they defend their area. The area they defend usually contains their nest and enough food for themselves and their offspring. A species is more likely to be territorial if there is not very much food in their area. Animals generally do not defend their territory by fighting. Instead, they are more likely to use display behavior. The behavior tells other animals to stay away. It gets the message across without the need for fighting. Display behavior is generally safer and uses less energy than fighting. Male gorillas use display behavior to defend their territory. They pound on their chests and thump the ground with their hands to warn other male gorillas to keep away from their area. The robin displays his red breast to warn other robins to stay away ( Figure below ). Answer: territorial", "output": [ "Animals that defend their area are generally known as what kinds of animals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-86bd044caf5f4fd69948c06619dfd11b", "input": "Passage: Second, plant cells have a cell wall , while animal cells do not ( Figure below ). The cell wall surrounds the plasma membrane but does not keep substances from entering or leaving the cell. A cell wall gives the plant cell strength and protection. Answer: a cell wall", "output": [ "What gives the plant cell strength and protection?" ] }, { "id": "task594-36f272d763344c509f0cc6a1bd4d5b54", "input": "Passage: Sickle-Shaped and Normal Red Blood Cells. Sickle cell anemia is an autosomal recessive disorder. The mutation that causes the disorder affects just one amino acid in a single protein, but it has serious consequences for the affected person. This photo shows the sickle shape of red blood cells in people with sickle cell anemia. Answer: autosomal recessive disorder", "output": [ "Sickle cell anemia is what type of disorder?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1f7da13a22244a02bbe79985e313d17c", "input": "Passage: Sending humans to the seafloor is expensive and dangerous. Having to return humans safely to the surface limits what a mission can do. Remotely operated vehicles , or ROVs, allow scientists to study the deep without going to the seafloor. These small vehicles carry cameras and scientific instruments. ROVs were used to study inside the Titanic . This would have been far too dangerous for a manned sub to enter. Scientists control ROVs electronically with sophisticated operating systems. Answer: remotely operated vehicles", "output": [ "What do scientists use to study the deep without going to the seafloor?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b6bfd634775a4b1cac78dd605214533d", "input": "Passage: In the Bohr model, the atom is viewed as a densely packed nucleus comprised of neutrons and protons that is surrounded by electrons at fixed distances, which correspond to specific energy levels. However, the quantum model showed that the distances between electrons and the nucleus are not really fixed. Due to their wave-like nature, we cannot pinpoint the exact location of an electron that is in motion, but we can determine the probability that a given electron will be in a particular region in three-dimensional space. Schrӧdinger’s equations are used to determine the position of a specific electron with respect to a nearby nucleus. The region in space in which an electron is most likely to be found is referred to as an orbital . Answer: the quantum model", "output": [ "Which atomic model shows that the distances of electrons from the nucleus is not a fixed value?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f5ed3601c5c441aba246fe8ee69b9f15", "input": "Passage: Archaeans are now known to live just about everywhere on Earth. They are important decomposers. Many live in close relationships with other organisms. They are generally harmless and often beneficial. Answer: archeans", "output": [ "Which important decomposers are known to live just about anywhere on earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1e1c6867bd6e4d6e8536ba8b9d166ecf", "input": "Passage: A biofilm is a thin layer of bacteria that sticks to a surface. Cells in a biofilm are all alike, but they may play different roles, such as taking in nutrients or making the “glue” that sticks the biofilm to the surface. The sticky plaque that forms on teeth is a biofilm of bacterial cells. Answer: a biolfilm", "output": [ "What is a thin layer of bacteria that sticks to a surface?" ] }, { "id": "task594-25a9a6460b5c449f880ae5c9b3d2c41c", "input": "Passage: The molecule pictured above is thyroxine, a compound produced by the thyroid gland. This molecule regulates how the body uses energy. In a condition known as hypothyroidism, the thyroid makes less thyroxine than normal. A person with this disease feels tired all the time and often puts on weight. Treatment with thyroid hormone supplements takes care of the problem. Answer: thyroid", "output": [ "The molecule pictured above is thyroxine, a compound produced by which gland?" ] }, { "id": "task594-042b9ac493a74a5f8a918d422a8c02f0", "input": "Passage: The frontal lobe is located at the front of the brain, over the eyes. This lobe contains the olfactory bulb, which processes smells. The frontal lobe also contains the motor cortex, which is important for planning and implementing movement. Areas within the motor cortex map to different muscle groups, and there is some organization to this map, as shown in Figure 35.22. For example, the neurons that control movement of the fingers are next to the neurons that control movement of the hand. Neurons in the frontal lobe also control cognitive functions like maintaining attention, speech, and decisionmaking. Studies of humans who have damaged their frontal lobes show that parts of this area are involved in personality, socialization, and assessing risk. Answer: olfactory bulb", "output": [ "What is the bulb called in the frontal lobe that processes smells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d5aefa4b49244a53aae1f05eb2fa76a9", "input": "Passage: Figure 5.10 Vitiligo Individuals with vitiligo experience depigmentation that results in lighter colored patches of skin. The condition is especially noticeable on darker skin. (credit: Klaus D. Peter). Answer: vitiligo", "output": [ "Individuals with what condition experience depigmentation that results in lighter colored patches of skin?" ] }, { "id": "task594-905de65f22844e9aa5626214958ee4ed", "input": "Passage: Air temperature in the stratosphere layer increases with altitude. Why? The stratosphere gets most of its heat from the Sun. Therefore, it’s warmer closer to the Sun. The air at the bottom of the stratosphere is cold. The cold air is dense, so it doesn’t rise. As a result, there is little mixing of air in this layer. Answer: sun", "output": [ "Where does the stratosphere get most of its heat?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2c7e08f7eb2f462eb695fb3281071933", "input": "Passage: Understand current as it passes through a series circuit. Answer: a switch", "output": [ "What device is used to stop a current in a circuit?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7aea3d4345b4455da3ef0015256c6c6e", "input": "Passage: Electrons can occupy only certain regions of space, called orbits. Answer: orbits", "output": [ "What are the only regions of space that electrons can occupy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9c0f483bb96c4b24850f94db69d6ccf0", "input": "Passage: In the equation for pressure, force is expressed in newtons (N) and area is expressed in square meters (m 2 ). Therefore, pressure is expressed in N/m 2 , which is the SI unit for pressure. This unit is also called the pascal (Pa) . It is named for the scientist Blaise Pascal, whose discovery about pressure in fluids is described later in this lesson. Pressure may also be expressed in the kilopascal (kPa), which equals 1000 pascals. For example, the correct air pressure inside a mountain bike tire is usually about 200 kPa. Answer: newtons", "output": [ "In the equation for pressure, how is force expressed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-53cb63afd0944aacb73be7b78a279a47", "input": "Passage: down into three major groups: those caused by blood loss, those caused by faulty or decreased RBC production, and those caused by excessive destruction of RBCs. Clinicians often use two groupings in diagnosis: The kinetic approach focuses on evaluating the production, destruction, and removal of RBCs, whereas the morphological approach examines the RBCs themselves, paying particular emphasis to their size. A common test is the mean corpuscle volume (MCV), which measures size. Normal-sized cells are referred to as normocytic, smaller-than-normal cells are referred to as microcytic, and larger-than-normal cells are referred to as macrocytic. Reticulocyte counts are also important and may reveal inadequate production of RBCs. The effects of the various anemias are widespread, because reduced numbers of RBCs or hemoglobin will result in lower levels of oxygen being delivered to body tissues. Since oxygen is required for tissue functioning, anemia produces fatigue, lethargy, and an increased risk for infection. An oxygen deficit in the brain impairs the ability to think clearly, and may prompt headaches and irritability. Lack of oxygen leaves the patient short of breath, even as the heart and lungs work harder in response to the deficit. Blood loss anemias are fairly straightforward. In addition to bleeding from wounds or other lesions, these forms of anemia may be due to ulcers, hemorrhoids, inflammation of the stomach (gastritis), and some cancers of the gastrointestinal tract. The excessive use of aspirin or other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen can trigger ulceration and gastritis. Excessive menstruation and loss of blood during childbirth are also potential causes. Anemias caused by faulty or decreased RBC production include sickle cell anemia, iron deficiency anemia, vitamin deficiency anemia, and diseases of the bone marrow and stem cells. • A characteristic change in the shape of erythrocytes is seen in sickle cell disease (also referred to as sickle cell anemia). A genetic disorder, it is caused by production of an abnormal type of hemoglobin, called hemoglobin S, which delivers less oxygen to tissues and causes erythrocytes to assume a sickle (or crescent) shape, especially at low oxygen concentrations (Figure 18.9). These abnormally shaped cells can then become lodged in narrow capillaries because they are unable to fold in on themselves to squeeze through, blocking blood flow to tissues and causing a variety of serious problems from painful joints to delayed growth and even blindness and cerebrovascular accidents (strokes). Sickle cell anemia is a genetic condition particularly found in individuals of African descent. Answer: hemoglobin", "output": [ "Sickle cell disease is caused by production of an abnormal type of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-26db555ebf584c168d7216ebe4d04f24", "input": "Passage: In glycolysis, glucose is split into two molecules of pyruvate. This results in a net gain of two ATP molecules. Answer: two atp molecules", "output": [ "In glycolysis, glucose is split into two molecules of pyruvate. this results in a net gain of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-40996df08d9c4c2b9bbd81b4343f91bf", "input": "Passage: Non-polar molecules can interact by way of London dispersion forces. Answer: london dispersion", "output": [ "What type of force allows non-polar molecules to interact?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9c28adfd511e464082979aeb91e1c98b", "input": "Passage: A dipole occurs when two opposite charges are separated by some amount of distance. We have already seen dipoles in the form of polar bonds. For example, each O-H bond in water is an example of a dipole; the partial positive charge on hydrogen is separated from the partial negative charge on oxygen by the length of the bond. A molecular dipole is the geometric sum of all the individual bond dipoles in a molecule. In order for a molecule to have a dipole, it must have at least one polar bond. However, not all molecules with polar bonds have an overall molecular dipole. Sometimes the dipoles within a molecule will effectively cancel each other out, giving a zero net molecular dipole. This is often seen in symmetrical molecules. Answer: dipole", "output": [ "What occurs when two opposite charges are separated by some amount of distance?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d64c6b7011d0495bac05d889ed2faa10", "input": "Passage: Newton’s second law of motion explains the weight of objects. Weight is a measure of the force of gravity pulling on an object of a given mass. It’s the force (F) in the acceleration equation that was introduced above:. Answer: weight", "output": [ "What is a measure of the force of gravity pulling on an object of a given mass?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f307ee5ec1d4438493339d542081a401", "input": "Passage: You can tell that this sponge is saturated with water because when it is squeezed, the water pours out. When something is saturated with water, it already holds as much water as possible. Compounds called hydrocarbons, which contain only carbon and hydrogen, can also be saturated, but not with water. Answer: hydrocarbons", "output": [ "What compounds contain only carbon and hydrogen?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3e77900a49134442bd9bebd4ddfbbe2f", "input": "Passage: An electrolytic cell is the apparatus used for carrying out an electrolysis reaction. In an electrolytic cell, electric current is applied to provide a source of electrons for driving the reaction in a nonspontaneous direction. In a voltaic cell, the reaction goes in a direction that releases electrons spontaneously. In an electrolytic cell, the input of electrons from an external source forces the reaction to go in the opposite direction. Answer: an electrolytic cell", "output": [ "What is the apparatus used for carrying out an electrolysis reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-076164682bbc4719a9c0d18b3a5c6062", "input": "Passage: Living things that cause human diseases include bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. Most infectious diseases caused by these organisms can be cured with medicines. For example, medicines called antibiotics can cure most diseases caused by bacteria. Bacteria are one-celled organisms without a nucleus. Although most bacteria are harmless, some cause diseases. Answer: antibiotics", "output": [ "Most diseases caused by bacteria can be cured by which medicines?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e8ff951d21a544c39fd4cb3bcb57882f", "input": "Passage: Given the mass and speed of an object, calculate its kinetic energy. Answer: kinetic energy", "output": [ "What can be calculated given the mass and speed of an object?" ] }, { "id": "task594-aea509ddabf14f25ad8b0b94f37cc79a", "input": "Passage: Explore the sea star’s body plan (http://openstaxcollege. org/l/sea_star) up close, watch one move across the sea floor, and see it devour a mussel. Brittle stars belong to the class Ophiuroidea. Unlike sea stars, which have plump arms, brittle stars have long, thin arms that are sharply demarcated from the central disk. Brittle stars move by lashing out their arms or wrapping them around objects and pulling themselves forward. Sea urchins and sand dollars are examples of Echinoidea. These echinoderms do not have arms, but are hemispherical or flattened with five rows of tube feet that help them in slow movement; tube feet are extruded through pores of a continuous internal shell called a test. Sea lilies and feather stars are examples of Crinoidea. Both of these species are suspension feeders. Sea cucumbers of class Holothuroidea are extended in the oral-aboral axis and have five rows of tube feet. These are the only echinoderms that demonstrate “functional” bilateral symmetry as adults, because the uniquely extended oral-aboral axis compels the animal to lie horizontally rather than stand vertically. Answer: suspension feeders", "output": [ "What type of feeders are sea lilies and feather stars?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d06f74a5bc04483eacd49f4b38dffe8d", "input": "Passage: Human beings and other primates also have the ability to see in color. We have special cells inside our eyes that can distinguish different wavelengths of visible light. Visible light is light in the range of wavelengths that the human eye can sense. The exact wavelength of visible light determines its color. Answer: exact wavelength", "output": [ "What determines the color of visible light?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7c17b8f58a2e4f17ac7711288a461029", "input": "Passage: At the end of cytokinesis there are two genetically identical daughter cells. Answer: two", "output": [ "How many identical daughter cells are created at the end of cytokinesis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-33caa357858c4b858723c53c4e219a2a", "input": "Passage: Shape of Proteins Just as a fork cannot be used to eat soup and a spoon cannot be used to spear meat, a protein’s shape is essential to its function. A protein’s shape is determined, most fundamentally, by the sequence of amino acids of which it is made (Figure 2.26a). The sequence is called the primary structure of the protein. Answer: amino", "output": [ "A protein’s shape is determined, most fundamentally, by the sequence of what type of acids?" ] }, { "id": "task594-18af9d857d364a48b5a64e720beac09e", "input": "Passage: Internal Respiration Internal respiration is gas exchange that occurs at the level of body tissues (Figure 22.23). Similar to external respiration, internal respiration also occurs as simple diffusion due to a partial pressure gradient. However, the partial pressure gradients are opposite of those present at the respiratory membrane. The partial pressure of oxygen in tissues is low, about 40 mm Hg, because oxygen is continuously used for cellular respiration. In contrast, the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood is about 100 mm Hg. This creates a pressure gradient that causes oxygen to dissociate from hemoglobin, diffuse out of the blood, cross the interstitial space, and enter the tissue. Hemoglobin that has little oxygen bound to it loses much of its brightness, so that blood returning to the heart is more burgundy in color. Considering that cellular respiration continuously produces carbon dioxide, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is lower in the blood than it is in the tissue, causing carbon dioxide to diffuse out of the tissue, cross the interstitial fluid, and enter the blood. It is then carried back to the lungs either bound to hemoglobin, dissolved in plasma, or in a converted form. By the time blood returns to the heart, the partial pressure of oxygen has returned to about 40 mm Hg, and the partial pressure. Answer: respiration", "output": [ "Internal and external forms of what life process occur as simple diffusion due to a partial pressure gradient?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6c69955da10a4dfd84fc71ecccc4c49b", "input": "Passage: The sodium-potassium pump is an active transport pump that exchanges sodium ions for potassium ions. Answer: potassium ions", "output": [ "The sodium-potassium pump is an active transport pump that exchanges sodium ions for what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e1723ec9720940e29ef3e91d5b9d463b", "input": "Passage: Vertebrates reproduce sexually. Most have separate male and female sexes. Vertebrates have one of three reproductive strategies: ovipary, ovovivipary, or vivipary. Answer: sexually", "output": [ "In which way to vertebrates reproduces?" ] }, { "id": "task594-08e24979c098452d846f936785a7124b", "input": "Passage: An experiment is a controlled scientific test that often takes place in a lab. It investigates the effects of an independent variable on a dependent variable. Answer: an experiment", "output": [ "What is a controlled scientific test that often takes place in a lab?" ] }, { "id": "task594-75f3922db5d74ec4836a8995d636bad2", "input": "Passage: Vertebrates reproduce sexually, and almost all have separate male and female sexes. Aquatic species generally have external fertilization, whereas terrestrial species usually have internal fertilization. Vertebrates have one of three reproductive strategies, known as ovipary, ovovivipary, or vivipary. Answer: sexually", "output": [ "In what way do all vertebrates reproduce?" ] }, { "id": "task594-63e26dbb7dba490e8a18527d73664e61", "input": "Passage: A proton is a particle in the nucleus of an atom that has a positive electric charge. All protons are identical. It is the number of protons that gives atoms of different elements their unique properties. Atoms of each type of element have a characteristic number of protons. For example, each atom of carbon has six protons, as you can see in Figure below . No two elements have atoms with the same number of protons. Answer: proton", "output": [ "Which particle of an atom has a positive electric charge?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b8fe372f066846ed8fd981cc16434a54", "input": "Passage: The universe has many remarkable qualities, among them a rather beautiful symmetry: the total amount of motion in the universe balances out … always. This law only makes sense if we measure “motion” in a specific way: as the product of mass and velocity. This product, called momentum , can be exchanged from one object to another in a collision. The rapidity with which momentum is exchanged over time is determined by the forces involved in the collision. Conservation of momentum is one of the five fundamental conservation laws in the universe. The other four are conservation of energy, angular momentum, charge conservation and CPT conservation. Answer: momentum", "output": [ "One of the five fundamental conservation laws in the universe refers to conservation of what, which is the product of mass and velocity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2280100d93164f95b85b3389c718f067", "input": "Passage: When ancient plants underwent photosynthesis, they changed energy in sunlight to stored chemical energy in food. The plants used the food and so did the organisms that ate the plants. After the plants and other organisms died, their remains gradually changed to fossil fuels as they were covered and compressed by layers of sediments. Petroleum and natural gas formed from ocean organisms and are found together. Coal formed from giant tree ferns and other swamp plants. Answer: chloroplasts", "output": [ "During photosynthesis what organelle is used by plants to change sunlight into chemical energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4abc019ceb79457f85d79bb3f2f650e0", "input": "Passage: The way in which a reaction is written influences the value of the enthalpy change for the reaction. Many reactions are reversible, meaning that the product(s) of the reaction are capable of combining and reforming the reactant(s). If a reaction is written in the reverse direction, the sign of the changes. For example, we can write an equation for the reaction of calcium oxide with carbon dioxide to form calcium carbonate. Answer: calcium carbonate", "output": [ "The reaction of calcium oxide with carbon dioxide forms what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-08b93483f8f648629c9e8cbd2eb9c838", "input": "Passage: The types of living plants today reflect the evolutionary past of the plant kingdom. From tiny nonvascular mosses to large flowering and fruiting trees, there are modern plants that represent each of the major evolutionary changes that occurred in this important eukaryotic kingdom. Answer: evolutionary changes", "output": [ "Modern plants reflect what kind of changes that have occurred over many, many years?" ] }, { "id": "task594-84c720fe7e4048fc832a120187adee29", "input": "Passage: 22.1 | Prokaryotic Diversity By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Describe the evolutionary history of prokaryotes • Discuss the distinguishing features of extremophiles • Explain why it is difficult to culture prokaryotes Prokaryotes are ubiquitous. They cover every imaginable surface where there is sufficient moisture, and they live on and inside of other living things. In the typical human body, prokaryotic cells outnumber human body cells by about ten to one. They comprise the majority of living things in all ecosystems. Some prokaryotes thrive in environments that are inhospitable for most living things. Prokaryotes recycle nutrients—essential substances (such as carbon and nitrogen)—and they drive the evolution of new ecosystems, some of which are natural and others man-made. Prokaryotes have been on Earth since long before multicellular life appeared. Answer: prokaryotes", "output": [ "What group of simple organisms recycles nutrients and has been on earth since long before multicellular life appeared?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b35cd68614b54a12a3f680a87b96bf7f", "input": "Passage: Most amphibians live in fresh water, not salt water. Their habitats can include areas close to springs, streams, rivers, lakes, swamps and ponds. They can be found in moist areas in forests, meadows and marshes. Amphibians can be found almost anywhere there is a source of fresh water. Although there are no true saltwater amphibians, a few can live in brackish (slightly salty) water. Some species do not need any water at all, and several species have also adapted to live in drier environments. Most amphibians still need water to lay their eggs. Answer: fresh water", "output": [ "Where do most amphibians live, salt water or fresh water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-be32f5f57e8244cc8d201d30843d4e41", "input": "Passage: Fruit is the preferred food for almost all primates except humans. However, most primate species are omnivorous and consume a variety of plant and animal foods. For example, they may eat leaves, seeds, bird eggs, insects, and other small animals. Chimpanzees may band together and hunt for animals to kill and eat. They may even sharpen sticks and use them as spears when they hunt. Watch this video to see the incredible teamwork of a group of chimpanzees hunting a monkey: https://www. youtube. com/watch?v=A1WBs74W4ik . Answer: fruit", "output": [ "What is the preferred food for almost all primates except for humans?" ] }, { "id": "task594-478aafcf68324fa197f4f87d8a5aa525", "input": "Passage: The hard drive is a magnetic disc that provides long-term storage for programs and data. Answer: hard drive", "output": [ "What device is a magnetic disc that provides long-term storage for programs and data?" ] }, { "id": "task594-88fec875929c4d549e25a0d4d3a6dd88", "input": "Passage: Where an earthquake takes place is described by its focus and epicenter. Answer: the epicenter", "output": [ "What is the center of an earthquake called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-455a28f1e26d4b6f9666399f2c0d266d", "input": "Passage: Puberty lasts from about ages 12 to 18 years and is controlled by hormones. Answer: hormones", "output": [ "What chemical affects the onset of puberty and duration?" ] }, { "id": "task594-62df34df8cff413fa17cf605276ab66e", "input": "Passage: The saguaro cactus pictured in Figure below has adapted in all three ways. When it was still a very small plant, just a few inches high, its shallow roots already reached out as much as 2 meters (7 feet) from the base of the stem. By now, its root system is much more widespread. It allows the cactus to gather as much moisture as possible from rare rainfalls. The saguaro doesn't have any leaves to lose water by transpiration. It also has a large, barrel-shaped stem that can store a lot of water. Thorns protect the stem from thirsty animals that might try to get at the water inside. Answer: transpiration", "output": [ "The saguaro doesn't have any leaves to lose water by which process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5bf4554ecb8a4819ba99c0c964a0e943", "input": "Passage: For example, your body has an internal thermostat. During a winter day, in your house a thermostat senses the temperature in a room and responds by turning on or off the heater. Your body acts in much the same way. When body temperature rises, receptors in the skin and the brain sense the temperature change. The temperature change triggers a command from the brain. This command can cause several responses. If you are too hot, the skin makes sweat and blood vessels near the skin surface dilate. This response helps decrease body temperature. Answer: internal thermostat", "output": [ "Like a house, your body has what kind of mechanism that responds to changes in temperature?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c821a4a8cb0240bc80da07be404727a6", "input": "Passage: In the picture above, a thermal pack is applied to the back. Small packs can be used either for heating or cooling, depending on the material used. A heat pack contains a supersaturated solution of material such as sodium acetate. The solution is clear until a small metal trigger is activated. The sodium acetate then crystallizes out of solution and generates heat in the process. Answer: a heat pack", "output": [ "Where can you find sodium acetate?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ea6d0405333b4f1c9dc1ab11b10a389d", "input": "Passage: The rectum (Figure 16.6) stores feces until defecation. The feces are propelled using peristaltic movements during elimination. The anus is an opening at the far-end of the digestive tract and is the exit point for the waste material. Two sphincters regulate the exit of feces, the inner sphincter is involuntary and the outer sphincter is voluntary. Accessory Organs The organs discussed above are the organs of the digestive tract through which food passes. Accessory organs add secretions and enzymes that break down food into nutrients. Accessory organs include the salivary glands, the liver, the pancreas, and the gall bladder. The secretions of the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder are regulated by hormones in response to food consumption. The liver is the largest internal organ in humans and it plays an important role in digestion of fats and detoxifying blood. The liver produces bile, a digestive juice that is required for the breakdown of fats in the duodenum. The liver also processes the absorbed vitamins and fatty acids and synthesizes many plasma proteins. The gallbladder is a small organ that aids the liver by storing bile and concentrating bile salts. The pancreas secretes bicarbonate that neutralizes the acidic chyme and a variety of enzymes for the digestion of protein and carbohydrates. Answer: peristaltic", "output": [ "What adjective describes the movements that propel the feces during elimination?" ] }, { "id": "task594-09ff3a1d627549b1ae514850ed5972ea", "input": "Passage: Recall that the four different sublevels (s, p, d, and f) each consist of a different number of orbitals. The s sublevel has one orbital, the p sublevel has three orbitals, the d sublevel has five orbitals, and the f sublevel has seven orbitals. In the first period, only the 1s sublevel is being filled. Since all orbitals can hold two electrons, the entire first period consists of just two elements. In the second period, the 2s sublevel, with two electrons, and the 2p sublevel, with six electrons, are being filled. Consequently, the second period contains eight elements. The third period is similar to the second, except the 3s and 3p sublevels are being filled. Because the 3d sublevel does not fill until after the 4s sublevel, the fourth period contains 18 elements, due to the 10 additional electrons that can be accommodated by the 3d orbitals. The fifth period is similar to the fourth. After the 6s sublevel fills, the 4f sublevel is populated with up to 14 electrons. This is followed by the 5d and the 6p sublevels. The total number of elements in the sixth period is 32. The seventh period also contains 32 elements, most of which are too unstable to be found in nature. All 32 have been detected or synthesized, although for some of the later elements in this period, only a handful of atoms have ever been made. Answer: population", "output": [ "All members of a species living together form a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-caf89a25bf58405a9f470a1d4fc1c15c", "input": "Passage: Most scientists agree that the Earth itself is not a living thing. However, the Earth does have some aspects of life. Some scientists argue that the Earth maintains homeostasis, a stable state, just like a living organisms. Answer: homeostasis", "output": [ "The earth is like organisms in that it maintains a stable state, which is also known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f4d0f7a8ae6647b489094a5baa8b1303", "input": "Passage: Excretion is the process of removing wastes from the body. Answer: excretion", "output": [ "Name the process of removing wastes from the body." ] }, { "id": "task594-1deda862487b43b7af530f10e9696bd8", "input": "Passage: The process that produces haploid gametes is meiosis. Meiosis is a type of cell division in which the number of chromosomes is reduced by half. It occurs only in certain special cells of the organisms. During meiosis, homologous chromosomes separate, and haploid cells form that have only one chromosome from each pair. Two cell divisions occur during meiosis, and a total of four haploid cells are produced. The two cell divisions are called meiosis I and meiosis II. The overall process of meiosis is summarized in Figure below . You can watch an animation of meiosis at this link: http://www. youtube. com/watch?v=D1_-mQS_FZ0 . Answer: meiosis", "output": [ "What is the type of cell division where the number of chromosomes is reduced in half?" ] }, { "id": "task594-20953f5bdae84465915755cac206de03", "input": "Passage: Sex hormones are chemical messengers that control sexual development and reproduction. The male reproductive system consists of structures that produce male gametes called sperm and secrete the male sex hormone testosterone. Answer: sex hormones", "output": [ "What are chemical messengers that control sexual development and reproduction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-10688876a46647d69cf6c90e2f679771", "input": "Passage: Communications satellites carry solar panels to provide energy for their missions. Answer: solar panels", "output": [ "What do communication satellites carry and use to provide energy during their missions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2e4e55f2fbc34201ba8fc3d8aa1f9d61", "input": "Passage: Members of class Scaphopoda (“boat feet”) are known colloquially as “tusk shells” or “tooth shells,” as evident when examining Dentalium, one of the few remaining scaphopod genera (Figure 28.27). Scaphopods are usually buried in sand with the anterior opening exposed to water. These animals bear a single conical shell, which has both ends open. The head is rudimentary and protrudes out of the posterior end of the shell. These animals do not possess eyes, but they have a radula, as well as a foot modified into tentacles with a bulbous end, known as captaculae. Captaculae serve to catch and manipulate prey. Ctenidia are absent in these animals. Answer: radula", "output": [ "What type of light sensing organs do scaophopoda have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-90059878da414c00b2c81d86f5a6ae92", "input": "Passage: Movement of Water and Minerals in the Xylem Solutes, pressure, gravity, and matric potential are all important for the transport of water in plants. Water moves from an area of higher total water potential (higher Gibbs free energy) to an area of lower total water potential. Gibbs free energy is the energy associated with a chemical reaction that can be used to do work. This is expressed as ΔΨ. Transpiration is the loss of water from the plant through evaporation at the leaf surface. It is the main driver of water movement in the xylem. Transpiration is caused by the evaporation of water at the leaf–atmosphere interface; it creates negative pressure (tension) equivalent to –2 MPa at the leaf surface. This value varies greatly depending on the vapor pressure deficit, which can be negligible at high relative humidity (RH) and substantial at low RH. Water from the roots is pulled up by this tension. At night, when stomata shut and transpiration stops, the water is held in the stem and leaf by the adhesion of water to the cell walls of the xylem vessels and tracheids, and the cohesion of water molecules to each other. This is called the cohesion–tension theory of sap ascent. Inside the leaf at the cellular level, water on the surface of mesophyll cells saturates the cellulose microfibrils of the primary cell wall. The leaf contains many large intercellular air spaces for the exchange of oxygen for carbon dioxide, which is required for photosynthesis. The wet cell wall is exposed to this leaf internal air space, and the water on the surface of the cells evaporates into the air spaces, decreasing the thin film on the surface of the mesophyll cells. This decrease creates a greater tension on the water in the mesophyll cells (Figure 30.34), thereby increasing the pull on the water in the xylem vessels. The xylem vessels and tracheids are structurally adapted to cope with large changes in pressure. Rings in the vessels maintain their tubular shape, much like the rings on a vacuum cleaner hose keep the hose open while it is under pressure. Small perforations between vessel elements reduce the number and size of gas bubbles that can form via a process called cavitation. The formation of gas bubbles in xylem interrupts the continuous stream of water from the base to the top of the. Answer: plant water transport", "output": [ "Movement of water and minerals in the xylem solutes, pressure, gravity, and matric potential are all important for what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fa7d7f9cda6d43779a56e2f79fda0bd8", "input": "Passage: Breathing certainly is a major contribution to your health! Without breathing, we could not survive. Curiously, the act of breathing itself is little more than an application of Boyle’s law. The lungs are a series of ever-narrowing tubes that end in a myriad of tiny sacs called alveoli. It is in the alveoli that oxygen from the air transfers to the bloodstream and carbon dioxide from the bloodstream transfers to the lungs for exhalation. For air to move in and out of the lungs, the pressure inside the lungs must change, forcing the lungs to change volume—just as predicted by Boyle’s law. The pressure change is caused by the diaphragm, a muscle that covers the bottom of the lungs. When the diaphragm moves down, it expands the size of our lungs. When this happens, the air pressure inside our lungs decreases slightly. This causes new air to rush in, and we inhale. The pressure decrease is slight—only 3 torr, or about 0.4% of an atmosphere. We inhale only 0.5–1.0 L of air per normal breath. Exhaling air requires that we relax the diaphragm, which pushes against the lungs and slightly decreases the volume of the lungs. This slightly increases the pressure of the air in the lungs, and air is forced out; we exhale. Only 1–2 torr of extra pressure is needed to exhale. So with every breath, our own bodies are performing an experimental test of Boyle’s law. Answer: alveoli", "output": [ "The lungs are a series of ever-narrowing tubes that end in a myriad of tiny sacs called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cecaf218271e4d75b709442c1b73529a", "input": "Passage: The amplitude , , is the distance from the equilibrium (or center) point of motion to either its lowest or highest point ( end points ). The amplitude, therefore, is half of the total distance covered by the oscillating object. The amplitude can vary in harmonic motion but is constant in SHM. The amplitude of a wave often determines its strength or intensity; the exact meaning of \"strength\" depends on the type of wave. For example, a sound wave with a large amplitude is a loud sound and a light wave with a large amplitude is very bright. Answer: amplitude", "output": [ "Often determining the strength or intensity of a wave, this term is the distance from the equilibrium point of motion to either its lowest or highest point?" ] }, { "id": "task594-aaaac5071fed40f18ed3a31bd35c52e5", "input": "Passage: Besides their strength, another pro of electromagnets is the ability to control them by controlling the electric current. Turning the current on or off turns the magnetic field on or off. The amount of current flowing through the coil can also be changed to control the strength of the electromagnet. Answer: electric", "output": [ "Electromagnets can be controlled by controlling what type of current?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a7d2e6067bac4a0cb525362d2469bfe2", "input": "Passage: The axe head and the doorstop are both examples of a wedge, a type of simple machine. Answer: wedge", "output": [ "An axe head and a doorstop are types of what simple machine?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6aa6a2b6ad0f47458c1e9cb42dc52913", "input": "Passage: Vertebrates are animals that have a backbone. All of them are placed in the Phylum Chordata. Modern vertebrates include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Only about 5 percent of animal species are vertebrates. Answer: vertebrates", "output": [ "What do we call animals that have a backbone and belong to the phylum chordata?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c8cec13f54be4a1cba27f86cdc4ad2dc", "input": "Passage: Most biochemical molecules are macromolecules, meaning that they are very large. Some contain thousands of monomer molecules. Answer: very large", "output": [ "Most biochemical molecules are macromolecules, meaning that they are what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2eebfcbd57684014a0dd9f4ef7b17dbf", "input": "Passage: Some animal-like protists use their \"tails\" to eat. These protists are called filter-feeders . They acquire nutrients by constantly whipping their tails, called flagellum , back and forth. The whipping of the flagellum creates a current that brings food into the protist. Answer: filter-feeders", "output": [ "Protists which use their tails to eat are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-16f2e4e288a045dbb7687326eb214b87", "input": "Passage: Particles from the Sun energize ions in the thermosphere. This creates the northern and southern lights. Answer: northern lights", "output": [ "What colorful phenomenon occurs in the northern sky when particles from the sun energize ions in the thermosphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-da04843be75044529119b89d67e128ad", "input": "Passage: Simple diffusion occurs when a substance diffuses through a cell membrane without any help from other molecules. The substance simply passes through tiny spaces in the membrane. It moves from the side of the membrane where it is more concentrated to the side where it is less concentrated. You can see how this happens in Figure below . Answer: simple diffusion", "output": [ "What occurs when a substance diffuses through a cell membrane without any help from other molecules?" ] }, { "id": "task594-90c06a328b734715b46eaf258df838c2", "input": "Passage: Exergonic c. Decomposition d. Catabolic, exergonic, and decomposition 18. Which of the following combinations of atoms is most likely to result in a chemical reaction? a. hydrogen and hydrogen b. hydrogen and helium c. helium and helium d. neon and helium 19. Chewing a bite of bread mixes it with saliva and facilitates its chemical breakdown. This is most likely due to the fact that ________. the inside of the mouth maintains a very high temperature b. chewing stores potential energy c. chewing facilitates synthesis reactions d. saliva contains enzymes 20. CH4 is methane. This compound is ________. Answer: saliva", "output": [ "Chewing a bite of bread mixes it with what and facilitates its chemical breakdown?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a51d35cf8c2246ee80f79fc3904516d3", "input": "Passage: Problem-Solving Strategies for the Effects of Heat Transfer 1. Examine the situation to determine that there is a change in the temperature or phase. Is there heat transfer into or out of the system? When the presence or absence of a phase change is not obvious, you may wish to first solve the problem as if there were no phase changes, and examine the temperature change obtained. If it is sufficient to take you past a boiling or melting point, you should then go back and do the problem in steps—temperature change, phase change, subsequent temperature change, and so on. Identify and list all objects that change temperature and phase. Identify exactly what needs to be determined in the problem (identify the unknowns). A written list is useful. Make a list of what is given or what can be inferred from the problem as stated (identify the knowns). Solve the appropriate equation for the quantity to be determined (the unknown). If there is a temperature change, the transferred heat depends on the specific heat (see Table 14.1) whereas, for a phase change, the transferred heat depends on the latent heat. See Table 14.2. Substitute the knowns along with their units into the appropriate equation and obtain numerical solutions complete with units. You will need to do this in steps if there is more than one stage to the process (such as a temperature change followed by a phase change). Check the answer to see if it is reasonable: Does it make sense? As an example, be certain that the temperature change does not also cause a phase change that you have not taken into account. Answer: melting", "output": [ "What is the term of a phase change if solid water has it's average kinetic energy increased to change it to liquid water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-20d46be3907a42159559ca6f50544a22", "input": "Passage: Test wells are drilled to monitor groundwater pollution. Answer: test wells", "output": [ "What are drilled to monitor groundwater pollution?" ] }, { "id": "task594-51ec2b61e3924d6b93ad86abda87e373", "input": "Passage: Since we can observe wind forming sand dunes with these patterns now, we have a good explanation for how the Navajo sandstone formed. The Navajo sandstone is a rock formed from ancient sand dunes. The rock shows that the ancient wind direction changed from time to time. Answer: wind", "output": [ "What forms the changing shapes of sand dunes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c0d299f4fea045bebdc0dad26bd5f296", "input": "Passage: During meiosis, homologous chromosomes separate and go to different gametes. Thus, the two alleles for each gene also go to different gametes. At the same time, different chromosomes assort independently. As a result, alleles for different genes assort independently as well. In these ways, alleles are shuffled and recombined in each parent’s gametes. Answer: during meiosis", "output": [ "When do homologous chromosomes separate and go to different gametes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e924c5a2a87b42bc82704118f8b96292", "input": "Passage: Monotremes, marsupials, and placental mammals are subclasses of mammals. Almost all living mammals are placental mammals, which are divided into many orders. Answer: mammals", "output": [ "Monotremes, marsupials, and placental mammals are subclasses of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a42cf8eb99bd43eca1d7c886bbf0bdfe", "input": "Passage: After the blood in the pulmonary capillaries becomes saturated with oxygen, it leaves the lungs and travels to the heart. The heart pumps the oxygen-rich blood into arteries, which carry it throughout the body. Eventually, the blood travels into capillaries that supply body tissues. These capillaries are called peripheral capillaries . Answer: to the heart", "output": [ "After the blood in the pulmonary capillaries becomes saturated with oxygen, it leaves the lungs and travels where?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3cbb635fdf41473d821b03176733187a", "input": "Passage: Mitosis and meiosis are two types of cell division, with dramatically different products. Mitosis begins with a diploid somatic cell and ends with two genetically identical diploid cells. Meiosis begins with a diploid cell and produces four haploid genetically unique cells that form gametes. Answer: cell division", "output": [ "Mitosis and meiosis are two types of what process, with dramatically different products?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cb201c59bde9417e89a83110076de995", "input": "Passage: At 1600 °C, quartz melts to yield a viscous liquid. When the liquid cools, it does not crystallize readily but usually supercools and forms a glass, also called silica. The SiO4 tetrahedra in glassy silica have a random arrangement characteristic of supercooled liquids, and the glass has some very useful properties. Silica is highly transparent to both visible and ultraviolet light. For this reason, it is important in the manufacture of lamps that give radiation rich in ultraviolet light and in certain optical instruments that operate with ultraviolet light. The coefficient of expansion of silica glass is very low; therefore, rapid temperature changes do not cause it to fracture. CorningWare and other ceramic cookware contain amorphous silica. Silicates are salts containing anions composed of silicon and oxygen. In nearly all silicates, sp3-hybridized silicon atoms occur at the centers of tetrahedra with oxygen at the corners. There is a variation in the silicon-to-oxygen ratio that occurs because silicon-oxygen tetrahedra may exist as discrete, independent units or may share oxygen atoms at corners in a variety of ways. In addition, the presence of a variety of cations gives rise to the large number of silicate minerals. Many ceramics are composed of silicates. By including small amounts of other compounds, it is possible to modify the physical properties of the silicate materials to produce ceramics with useful characteristics. Answer: silicates", "output": [ "Many ceramics are composed of what, which are salts containing anions composed of silicon and oxygen?" ] }, { "id": "task594-39d1b47a41cb418ca877b46ec410f730", "input": "Passage: To allow the plant to retain water and exchange gases, small pores (holes) in the leaves called stomata also evolved ( Figure below ). The stomata can open and close depending on weather conditions. When it's hot and dry, the stomata close to keep water inside of the plant. When the weather cools down, the stomata can open again to let carbon dioxide in and oxygen out. Answer: stomata", "output": [ "What is the name for the pores in leaves that allow a plant to retain water or exchange gases?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7fd199247d2e4b37928e6667e2eee2e3", "input": "Passage: Gases are also capable of dissolving in liquids. There are many examples of this in our everyday lives. For example, carbonated beverages contain dissolved carbon dioxide. We notice this when bubbles come out of solution when the beverage is opened. Another example is when oxygen from the air we breathe dissolves in our blood, where it is transported throughout the body. Fish and other aquatic organisms use gills to capture dissolved oxygen from their environments. Answer: oxygen", "output": [ "Fish and other aquatic organisms use gills to capture dissolved what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a82cefade5104c058a58ab41b9b04475", "input": "Passage: Telescopes make distant objects appear both nearer and larger. You can see many more stars through a telescope than with the unaided eye. Answer: telescopes", "output": [ "What make distant objects appear both nearer and larger?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e5f235f70dd54420a47dbc54c7a3439c", "input": "Passage: Gymnosperms are vascular plants that produce seeds in cones. Examples include conifers such as pine and spruce trees. The gymnosperm life cycle has a very dominant sporophyte generation. Both gametophytes and the next generation’s new sporophytes develop on the sporophyte parent plant. Figure below is a diagram of a gymnosperm life cycle. Answer: gymnosperms", "output": [ "What are vascular plants that produce seeds in cones called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-77cc27365c3c4fb5919a9cbdd6c8ce71", "input": "Passage: The last major ice age took place in the Pleistocene. This epoch lasted from 2 million to 14,000 years ago. Earth’s temperature was only 5° C (9° F) cooler than it is today. But glaciers covered much of the Northern Hemisphere. In Figure below , you can see how far south they went. Clearly, a small change in temperature can have a big impact on the planet. Humans lived during this ice age. Answer: pleistocene", "output": [ "The last major ice age took place in which era?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d9633c3160fa4c7e80c83adf6fc88c96", "input": "Passage: An experiment is a controlled scientific study of specific variables. A variable is a factor that can take on different values. Answer: experiment", "output": [ "What is a controlled scientific study of specific variables called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f776a2b1ce1148f7841c174602a2e52a", "input": "Passage: Staying balanced when riding a scooter requires control over the body’s muscles. The nervous system controls the muscles and maintains balance. Answer: nervous system", "output": [ "What helps control the muscles and maintain balance?" ] }, { "id": "task594-86f1254f46dd49409bc82c77d160cd2e", "input": "Passage: Many important biological processes involve redox reactions, which frequently store and release energy. For example, photosynthesis involves the reduction of carbon dioxide into glucose and the oxidation of water into oxygen. This process stores the energy of sunlight in the bonds of sugars. The reverse reaction, cellular respiration, converts the energy in glucose into ATP. Cellular respiration involves the oxidation of glucose to carbon dioxide and the reduction of oxygen gas to water. This process depends on the reduction of NAD + to the electron carrier NADH, and the reverse oxidation of NADH to NAD + . The reduction of NAD + leads to the formation of a proton (H + ) gradient, which drives the synthesis of ATP. NADH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and NADPH (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) are electron carriers in biological systems. The term redox state is often used to describe the balance between NAD + /NADH and NADP + /NADPH (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate). Answer: cellular respiration", "output": [ "What reaction is considered the reverse of photosynthesis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-038944a8ed4c450e8056962310e7edad", "input": "Passage: A front forms at the boundary between two air masses. Types of fronts include cold, warm, occluded, and stationary fronts. Clouds, precipitation, and storms commonly occur along fronts. Answer: a front", "output": [ "What forms at the boundary between two air masses?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5b98f059a01a474fb98e09d6d760e48f", "input": "Passage: The layers of the atmosphere are divided by their temperature gradients. The lowest layer is the troposphere. All weather takes place in this layer. The next layer is the stratosphere. The stratosphere contains the protective ozone layer. More sunlight strikes at the Equator than at the poles. This is what drives the global winds. Warm air rises, moves poleward, and then sinks when it meets with air moving toward the Equator. The result is six atmospheric circulation cells around the world. There are three cells in each hemisphere. Pollutants enter the atmosphere from a few sources. The most important is fossil fuel burning. Air pollution has bad effects on the environment and on human health. By reducing fossil fuel use we can make the environment cleaner. When ozone depletion was found to be a problem, the world acted. As a result, the ozone hole has stabilized. The hole will be getting smaller over the next decades. Answer: temperature gradients", "output": [ "How are layers of the atmosphere divided?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d00c80b03f074a8dbacd805019c3e864", "input": "Passage: Echinoderms are marine organisms that make up the phylum Echinodermata. They can be found in the ocean from the equator to the poles. There are roughly 6000 living species of echinoderms. They are among the most distinctive organisms within the animal kingdom. Members of the phylum include sea stars (starfish), sand dollars, and feather stars, shown in Figure below . See “Different But Equal” at http://www. pbs. org/kcet/shapeoflife/episodes/ultimate. html for an introduction to echinoderms. Answer: radial symmetry", "output": [ "Echinoderms have what type of body symmetry?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2266092490fe4d8e9e5f8d9460a6e97c", "input": "Passage: Distance Although displacement is described in terms of direction, distance is not. Distance is defined to be the magnitude or size of displacement between two positions. Note that the distance between two positions is not the same as the distance traveled between them. Distance traveled is the total length of the path traveled between two positions. Distance has no direction and, thus, no sign. For example, the distance the professor walks is 2.0 m. The distance the airplane passenger walks is 4.0 m. Misconception Alert: Distance Traveled vs. Magnitude of Displacement It is important to note that the distance traveled, however, can be greater than the magnitude of the displacement (by magnitude, we mean just the size of the displacement without regard to its direction; that is, just a number with a unit). For example, the professor could pace back and forth many times, perhaps walking a distance of 150 m during a lecture, yet still end up only 2.0 m to the right of her starting point. In this case her displacement would be +2.0 m, the magnitude of her displacement would be 2.0 m, but the distance she traveled would be 150 m. In kinematics we nearly always deal with displacement and magnitude of displacement, and almost never with distance traveled. One way to think about this is to assume you marked the start of the motion and the end of the motion. The displacement is simply the difference in the position of the two marks and is independent of the path taken in traveling between the two marks. The distance traveled, however, is the total length of the path taken between the two marks. Answer: distance", "output": [ "What property is defined as the magnitude or size of displacement between two positions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-03380fbe3b4b476997a0bec93715a4c1", "input": "Passage: Cholesterol has been implicated in heart disease for decades. Atherosclerosis is a disorder of the arteries in which cholesterol and other materials are deposited on the interior of the arterial wall. These deposits lead to the formation of plaques that can restrict or even block the flow of blood through these blood vessels (see Figure below ). A decrease in the flow of blood can lead to high blood pressure and a lowered oxygen supply to the heart muscle. A complete blockage of blood flow to parts of the heart (a heart attack) can cause significant damage due to oxygen deprivation, in some cases leading to death. Answer: atherosclerosis", "output": [ "What is the name of the disorder of the arteries in which cholesterol and other materials are deposited on the interior of the arterial wall?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3e2b6aa2ed0541c88fdc0af04eff9bda", "input": "Passage: Connective Tissue Fibers and Ground Substance Three main types of fibers are secreted by fibroblasts: collagen fibers, elastic fibers, and reticular fibers. Collagen fiber is made from fibrous protein subunits linked together to form a long and straight fiber. Collagen fibers, while flexible, have great tensile strength, resist stretching, and give ligaments and tendons their characteristic resilience and strength. These fibers hold connective tissues together, even during the movement of the body. Elastic fiber contains the protein elastin along with lesser amounts of other proteins and glycoproteins. The main property of elastin is that after being stretched or compressed, it will return to its original shape. Elastic fibers are prominent in elastic tissues found in skin and the elastic ligaments of the vertebral column. Reticular fiber is also formed from the same protein subunits as collagen fibers; however, these fibers remain narrow and are arrayed in a branching network. They are found throughout the body, but are most abundant in the reticular tissue of soft organs, such as liver and spleen, where they anchor and provide structural support to the parenchyma (the functional cells, blood vessels, and nerves of the organ). All of these fiber types are embedded in ground substance. Secreted by fibroblasts, ground substance is made of polysaccharides, specifically hyaluronic acid, and proteins. These combine to form a proteoglycan with a protein core and. Answer: connective tissue", "output": [ "Collagen fibers, elastic fibers, and reticular fibers comprise what type of tissue?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6c351e28c08a427ca546db395bb8f2c8", "input": "Passage: Symbiosis is a close relationship between two species in which at least one species benefits. For the other species, the relationship may be beneficial, harmful, or neutral. There are three types of symbiosis: mutualism, parasitism, and commensalism. Answer: mutualism, parasitism, commensalism", "output": [ "What are the three types of symbiosis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dcbcfcee6f624496a4d0d7ae1d04be64", "input": "Passage: Why are algae considered plant-like? The main reason is that they contain chloroplasts and produce food through photosynthesis. However, they lack many other structures of true plants. For example, algae do not have roots, stems, or leaves. Some algae also differ from plants in being motile. They may move with pseudopods or flagella. Although not plants themselves, algae were probably the ancestors of plants. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "Algae are similar to plants in that they both produce their food through what process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4b42b468cc4d4de3a2404aa2e19a8d5b", "input": "Passage: carbon atoms and the properties that result from that bonding. Hydrocarbons with only carbon-to-carbon single bonds (C–C) and existing as a continuous chain of carbon atoms also bonded to hydrogen atoms are called alkanes (or saturated hydrocarbons). Saturated, in this case, means that each carbon atom is bonded to four other atoms (hydrogen or carbon)—the most possible; there are no double or triple bonds in the molecules. Answer: swallowing", "output": [ "The muscles of the anterior neck assist in deglutition also known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-33a9ca6ef7124bbfa29b8718a30657a3", "input": "Passage: Accuracy describes how close an estimate is to a known standard. Answer: accuracy", "output": [ "What describes how close an estimate is to a known standard?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cb9bb3dcbf7446388bb17a8694e8577c", "input": "Passage: Just about all human behaviors are learned. Learned behavior is behavior that occurs only after experience or practice. Learned behavior has an advantage over innate behavior : it is more flexible. Learned behavior can be changed if conditions change. For example, you probably know the route from your house to your school. Assume that you moved to a new house in a different place, so you had to take a different route to school. What if following the old route was an innate behavior? You would not be able to adapt. Fortunately, it is a learned behavior. You can learn the new route just as you learned the old one. Answer: learned behavior", "output": [ "What type of behavior is most flexible?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fee6c42b64464dbd9fe96762c516e229", "input": "Passage: Although air can transfer heat rapidly by convection, it is a poor conductor and thus a good insulator. The amount of available space for airflow determines whether air acts as an insulator or conductor. The space between the inside and outside walls of a house, for example, is about 9 cm (3.5 in) —large enough for convection to work effectively. The addition of wall insulation prevents airflow, so heat loss (or gain) is decreased. Similarly, the gap between the two panes of a double-paned window is about 1 cm, which prevents convection and takes advantage of air’s low conductivity to prevent greater loss. Fur, fiber, and fiberglass also take advantage of the low conductivity of air by trapping it in spaces too small to support convection, as shown in the figure. Fur and feathers are lightweight and thus ideal for the protection of animals. Answer: insulator", "output": [ "Although air can transfer heat rapidly by convection, it is a poor conductor and thus a good what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6ca521c1ffda40bc926daed8bcd79476", "input": "Passage: At the poles, the Sun’s rays are least direct. Much of the area is covered with ice and snow, which reflect a lot of sunlight. Temperatures are lowest here. Answer: at the poles", "output": [ "Where are temperatures the lowest?" ] }, { "id": "task594-075634ff6909460ab7c699324fb084fb", "input": "Passage: Electron Microscopes In contrast to light microscopes, electron microscopes use a beam of electrons instead of a beam of light. Not only does this allow for higher magnification and, thus, more detail (Figure 3.3), it also provides higher resolving power. Preparation of a specimen for viewing under an electron microscope will kill it; therefore, live cells cannot be viewed using this type of microscopy. In addition, the electron beam moves best in a vacuum, making it impossible to view living materials. In a scanning electron microscope, a beam of electrons moves back and forth across a cell’s surface, rendering the details of cell surface characteristics by reflection. Cells and other structures are usually coated with a metal like gold. In a transmission electron microscope, the electron beam is transmitted through the cell and provides details of a cell’s internal structures. As you might imagine, electron microscopes are significantly more bulky and expensive than are light microscopes. Answer: electron microscopes", "output": [ "What powerful microscopes use a beam of subatomic particles instead of a beam of light?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5cdc45bed3c7428396ecd58953fc87e0", "input": "Passage: Humidity is the amount of water in the air. Air with a high concentration of water will be called humid. Moving away from the most humid climate, biomes will be called semi-humid, semi-arid, or arid (the driest). Answer: humidity", "output": [ "What measures the amount of water in the air?" ] }, { "id": "task594-23e8a35a77d04a51a15d52bd0062e2b5", "input": "Passage: The reverse reaction (amide hydrolysis) is very useful in the study of protein structure. Proteins are long chains of amino acids (each amino acid contains an amine group and a carboxyl group, both attached to a central carbon atom). The amino acids are linked together by amide bonds to form the long protein chain. One of the techniques for looking at protein structure is to break those amide linkages so we can learn the identity of the amino acids in the chain. We do this through a hydrolysis reaction:. Answer: proteins", "output": [ "What are long chains of amino acids?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e5dd6ce4c32547d6ad8fb4e00c2e4bbb", "input": "Passage: Examples of amorphous solids include glass, rubber, and plastics. Answer: amorphous", "output": [ "Glass, rubber, and plastics are examples of which type of solids?" ] }, { "id": "task594-743c733485b6429f94b8bf6a610aa030", "input": "Passage: Magnetism is the ability to be attracted by a magnet and to act as a magnet. Only ferromagnetic materials have this property. They include iron, cobalt, and nickel. When these materials are magnetized, they become temporary or permanent magnets. Magnetite is a natural permanent magnet. Answer: magnetism", "output": [ "What is the ability to be attracted by a magnet and to act as a magnet?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8a29d6c337a744b3b8a73a74d73e8819", "input": "Passage: When geologic and climatic conditions are stable, evolution may occur gradually. This is how Darwin thought evolution occurred. This model of the timing of evolution is called gradualism . Answer: gradualism", "output": [ "What term is used for darwin's idea that in stable geologic and climatic conditions evolution occurred gradually?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f59379511b4347f295d72e6a74176cb4", "input": "Passage: Discussion Quite a trip (if it survives)! Note that this distance is the total distance traveled by the fly. Displacement is actually zero for complete revolutions because they bring the fly back to its original position. The distinction between total distance traveled and displacement was first noted in One-Dimensional Kinematics. Answer: one-dimensional kinematics", "output": [ "Where was the distinction between total distance traveled and displacement first noted?" ] }, { "id": "task594-85e5a208b9c24c0baaba3738331f3b93", "input": "Passage: Aldehydes and ketones can work weak hydrogen bonds with water through the carbonyl oxygen atom. The lower members of both series (3 carbons or fewer) are soluble in water in all proportions. As the length of the carbon chain increases, water solubility decreases. Similar to ethers, neither aldehydes nor ketones can hydrogen bond with themselves. As a result, their boiling points are generally lower than those of alcohols. Unlike alkanes however, aldehydes and ketones are polar molecules due to the more electronegative oxygen atom. The dipole-dipole interactions are stronger than the dispersion forces present in alkanes. The boiling points of aldehydes and ketones are intermediate between those of alkanes and alcohols. For example, the boiling point of ethane is -89°C, ethanal is 20°C, and ethanol is 78°C. Answer: carbonyl oxygen atom", "output": [ "Aldehydes and ketones can work weak hydrogen bonds with water through what atom?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e644ebcbf10446aa96a1f7a67e4f61ee", "input": "Passage: No matter what the cell, all cells come from preexisting cells through the process of cell division. This is one of the core concepts of the Cell Theory. The cell may be the simplest bacterium or a complex muscle, bone, or blood cell. The cell may comprise the whole organism, or be just one cell of trillions. But whatever type of cell it is, it comes from a preexisting cell. And the new cell is genetically identical to its parent cell - that is, it has exactly the same DNA. Answer: preexisting cells", "output": [ "Where do cells come from?" ] }, { "id": "task594-af2ea528279c488fa6c521c37131c411", "input": "Passage: series of stages a sexually reproducing organism goes through from one generation to the next. Answer: it contracts", "output": [ "What happens to the core of a star when it begins to run low on hydrogen?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7c7d6337fa0641208c9a610e67e496e4", "input": "Passage: A transverse wave can be characterized by the high and low points reached by particles of the medium as the wave passes through. This is illustrated in Figure below . The high points are called crests, and the low points are called troughs. Answer: crests", "output": [ "What are the high points of a transverse wave called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9c940f750a5c41f988f2ded7047c9805", "input": "Passage: Lipids A lipid is one of a highly diverse group of compounds made up mostly of hydrocarbons. The few oxygen atoms they contain are often at the periphery of the molecule. Their nonpolar hydrocarbons make all lipids hydrophobic. In water, lipids do not form a true solution, but they may form an emulsion, which is the term for a mixture of solutions that do not mix well. Answer: hydrocarbons", "output": [ "A lipid is one of a highly diverse group of compounds made up mostly of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-899cd2f5ad134436b881cb26f141058d", "input": "Passage: Distillation is an effective method to separate mixtures comprised of two or more pure liquids. Distillation is a purification process where the components of a liquid mixture are vaporized and then condensed and isolated. In simple distillation, a mixture is heated and the most volatile component vaporizes at the lowest temperature. The vapor passes through a cooled tube (a condenser), where it condenses back into its liquid state. The condensate that is collected is called distillate. Answer: distillation", "output": [ "What is a purification process where the components of a liquid mixture are vaporized and then condensed and isolated?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b11909b84a6d40838965da0b3c796d15", "input": "Passage: Physical science, in turn, can be divided into chemistry and physics. Chemistry is the study of matter and energy at the scale of atoms and molecules. For example, the synthetic fibers in the swimmer’s suit were created in labs by chemists. Physics is the study of matter and energy at all scales—from the tiniest particles of matter to the entire universe. Knowledge of several important physics concepts—such as motion and forces—contributed to the design of the swimmer’s suit. Answer: chemistry", "output": [ "The physical sciences can be divided into physics and what other science?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d43295b2d1fd4917a8da428e738143c3", "input": "Passage: There are 6 elements in this reaction. All of the monatomic ions have oxidation numbers equal to their charges. Additionally, we can assign an oxidation state of -2 to each oxygen atom and +1 to each hydrogen atom. Now, we just need to assign the oxidation states of manganese in MnO 4 - , nitrogen in the nitrite and nitrate ions, and sulfur in the sulfate ion. These can be determined by choosing a value for which all of the oxidation states in the ion add up to its overall charge. For example, in the nitrite ion:. Answer: charges", "output": [ "All of the monatomic ions have oxidation numbers equal to their?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b1eeaf18c2434060947a27af547786e2", "input": "Passage: Coefficients are used to balance chemical equations. A coefficient is a number placed in front of a chemical symbol or formula. It shows how many atoms or molecules of the substance are involved in the reaction. For example, two molecules of hydrogen would be written as 2H 2 . A coefficient of 1 usually isn’t written. Answer: coefficients", "output": [ "What are used to balance chemical equations?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8488c86ad9ed4396a8739c0f5f8045b5", "input": "Passage: Microevolution occurs in a population when its allele frequencies change over time. There are four major forces of evolution that cause allele frequencies to change: mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, and natural selection. Answer: allele", "output": [ "Microevolution occurs in a population when what frequencies change over time?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3fd92bb9bc074419b4324fb11dc5d20b", "input": "Passage: Archaea that live in extremely hot environments are called thermophiles. Answer: thermophiles", "output": [ "What are archaea that live in extremely hot environments called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5c0f64fed47042f4a3975e8e2616050e", "input": "Passage: Electromagnetic waves are waves that carry energy through matter or space as vibrating electric and magnetic fields. Electromagnetic waves have a wide range of wavelengths and frequencies. Sunlight contains the complete range of wavelengths of electromagnetic waves, which is called the electromagnetic spectrum. The Figure below shows all the waves in the spectrum. Answer: electromagnetic waves", "output": [ "What type of waves carry energy through matter or space as vibrating electric and magnetic fields?" ] }, { "id": "task594-af201e9e48524ac49f99f7ee80971d6d", "input": "Passage: Electrochemistry is the study of chemical processes that occur at the interface between an electron conductor, such as a wire, and a solution of electrolytes, which is often simply an ionic substance dissolved in water. Electrochemical processes involve a transfer of electrons between the wire and the solution. These reactions can be used to create electrical power, to purify metals, and to carry out a number of useful chemical transformations. Answer: electrochemical", "output": [ "What processes involve a transfer of electrons between the wire and the solution?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ecd2250673ec496a9d4b1957eff7132d", "input": "Passage: Allergies occur when the immune system makes an inflammatory response to a harmless antigen. An antigen that causes an allergy is called an allergen. Answer: allergies", "output": [ "What occurs when the immune system makes an inflammatory response to a harmless antigen?" ] }, { "id": "task594-807b5f40b4894ee08d116060c7ec1ff0", "input": "Passage: Bacterial infections of the urinary tract, especially the bladder, are very common. Bladder infections can be treated with antibiotics prescribed by a doctor. If untreated, they may lead to kidney damage. Answer: kidney", "output": [ "Which organ will bladder infections commonly damage if untreated?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4fc8d41c151447baa58696053c8b75a7", "input": "Passage: In order to explain the observed phenomenon, scientists develop a number of possible explanations, or hypotheses. A hypothesis is a suggested explanation for a phenomenon or a suggested explanation for a relationship between many phenomena. Hypotheses are always based on evidence that can be tested by observation or experimentation. Scientific investigations are required to test hypotheses. Scientists mostly base hypotheses on prior observations or on extensions of existing scientific explanations. Answer: hypothesis", "output": [ "What is a suggested explanation for a phenomenon or a suggested explanation for a relationship between many phenomena called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6365b7a4f7104b4e917358263b0f2a5b", "input": "Passage: Earth’s climate has changed many times. Long warm periods were broken up by ice ages. Over the past 150 years, climate has warmed quickly. Answer: ice ages", "output": [ "What occurs between long warm climate periods?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8557cd139d434d039b65ce0ece61dbc3", "input": "Passage: Some enzymes require the presence of a non-protein molecule called a cofactor in order to function properly. Cofactors can be inorganic metal ions or small organic molecules. Many vitamins, such as B vitamins, act as cofactors. Some metal ions which function as cofactors for various enzymes include zinc, magnesium, potassium, and iron. Answer: cofactor", "output": [ "Some enzymes require the presence of a non-protein molecule to function properly. what is that molecule called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fd6cbefa9e1b4852b40339313f1bbfb2", "input": "Passage: An enveloped virus. Varicella zoster virus causes chicken pox and shingles. Answer: chicken pox and shingles", "output": [ "Varicella zoster virus causes what two illnesses?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5faf2db4dbcb48d8a4984269f9383747", "input": "Passage: Fungus-like protists are molds . They are absorptive feeders on decaying organic matter. They resemble fungi, and they reproduce with spores as fungi do. However, in other ways, they are quite different from fungi and more like other protists. For example, they have cell walls made of cellulose , whereas fungi have cell walls made of chitin. Like other protists, they have complicated life cycles with both asexual and sexual reproduction. They are motile during some stages of their life cycle. Two major types of fungus-like protists are slime molds and water molds. Answer: molds", "output": [ "What are fungus-like protists?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d27b019022a0499385d403d18c2ff87c", "input": "Passage: Deciduous trees are common in humid continental climates. Conifer forests grow in the subarctic. Answer: humid continental", "output": [ "In what type of climate might one find deciduous trees?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0cde73a4446b4a889df1061674643628", "input": "Passage: The surface seismic waves do the most damage because they only travel along the surface of the ground. Answer: surface", "output": [ "What type of seismic waves do the most damage?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6069ca0afec948a183c114644b4b4772", "input": "Passage: Genomic DNA Before discussing the steps a cell must undertake to replicate, a deeper understanding of the structure and function of a cell’s genetic information is necessary. A cell’s DNA, packaged as a double-stranded DNA molecule, is called its genome. In prokaryotes, the genome is composed of a single, double-stranded DNA molecule in the form of a loop or circle (Figure 10.2). The region in the cell containing this genetic material is called a nucleoid. Some prokaryotes also have smaller loops of DNA called plasmids that are not essential for normal growth. Bacteria can exchange these plasmids with other bacteria, sometimes receiving beneficial new genes that the recipient can add to their chromosomal DNA. Antibiotic resistance is one trait that often spreads through a bacterial colony through plasmid exchange. Answer: genome", "output": [ "In prokaryotes, what is composed of a single, double-stranded dna molecule in the form of a loop or circle?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3c53662992c646a897df16f72edbbf11", "input": "Passage: GFCI stands for ground-fault circuit interrupter. GFCI outlets are typically found in bathrooms and kitchens where the use of water poses a risk of shock (because water is a good electric conductor). A GFCI outlet contains a device that monitors the amounts of current leaving and returning to the outlet. If less current is returning than leaving, this means that current is escaping. When this occurs, a tiny circuit breaker in the outlet opens the circuit. The breaker can be reset by pushing a button on the outlet cover. Answer: interrupter", "output": [ "Gfci stands for ground-fault circuit what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6a97cea3608c43cd885dc2c0c67065ed", "input": "Passage: Steroid hormones are made of lipids, such as phospholipids and cholesterol. They are fat soluble, so they can diffuse across the plasma membrane of target cells and bind with receptors in the cytoplasm of the cell (see Figure below ). The steroid hormone and receptor form a complex that moves into the nucleus and influences the expression of genes, essentially acting as a transcription factor. Examples of steroid hormones include cortisol and sex hormones. Answer: lipids", "output": [ "What are steroid hormones made of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4067f7308fc740b48b1917dd7eeb1002", "input": "Passage: Ionic and covalent compounds are held together by electrostatic attractions between oppositely charged particles. Describe the differences in the nature of the attractions in ionic and covalent compounds. Which class of compounds contains pairs of electrons shared between bonded atoms?. Answer: electrostatic attractions", "output": [ "What holds ionic and covalent compounds together?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e5aae30e78214c6f9f22f4329902c095", "input": "Passage: Still other pathogens are spread by vectors. A vector is an organism that carries pathogens from one person or animal to another. Most vectors are insects such as ticks or mosquitoes. They pick up pathogens when they bite an infected animal and then transmit the pathogens to the next animal they bite. Ticks spread the bacteria that cause Lyme disease. Mosquitoes spread the protozoa that cause malaria. Answer: vector", "output": [ "An organism that carries pathogens from one individual to another is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-04da2a035e2842b183a7de6a1353091c", "input": "Passage: Homeostasis refers to the balance, or equilibrium, within the cell or a body. It is an organism’s ability to keep a constant internal environment. Keeping a stable internal environment requires constant adjustments as conditions change inside and outside the cell. The adjusting of systems within a cell is called homeostatic regulation. Because the internal and external environments of a cell are constantly changing, adjustments must be made continuously to stay at or near the set point (the normal level or range). Homeostasis is a dynamic equilibrium rather than an unchanging state. The cellular processes discussed in both the Diffusion and Active Transport concepts all play an important role in homeostatic regulation. You will learn more about homeostasis in other concepts. Answer: homeostasis", "output": [ "What term refers to the balance, or equilibrium, within the cell or a body, and an organism’s ability to keep a constant internal environment?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3e9f903bb85b4ec58f35f78e6f04dfc8", "input": "Passage: Angiosperms have vascular tissue, seeds, and flowers. Answer: angiosperms", "output": [ "Which plant group has vascular tissue, seeds, and flowers?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b95427550d6141868eff9bb263e04c50", "input": "Passage: Black holes Black holes are objects having such large gravitational fields that things can fall in, but nothing, not even light, can escape. Bodies, like the Earth or the Sun, have what is called an escape velocity. If an object moves straight up from the body, starting at the escape velocity, it will just be able to escape the gravity of the body. The greater the acceleration of gravity on the body, the greater is the escape velocity. As long ago as the late 1700s, it was proposed that if the escape velocity is greater than the speed of light, then light cannot escape. Simon Laplace (1749–1827), the French astronomer and mathematician, even incorporated this idea of a dark star into his writings. But the idea was dropped after Young’s double slit experiment showed light to be a wave. For some time, light was thought not to have particle characteristics and, thus, could not be acted upon by gravity. The idea of a black hole was very quickly reincarnated in 1916 after Einstein’s theory of general relativity was published. It is now thought that black holes can form in the supernova collapse of a massive star, forming an object perhaps 10 km across and having a mass greater than that of our Sun. It is interesting that several prominent physicists who worked on the concept, including Einstein, firmly believed that nature would find a way to prohibit such objects. Black holes are difficult to observe directly, because they are small and no light comes directly from them. In fact, no light comes from inside the event horizon, which is defined to be at a distance from the object at which the escape velocity is exactly the speed of light. The radius of the event horizon is known as the Schwarzschild radius R S and is given by. Answer: black holes", "output": [ "Not even light can escape from what extremely dense object sometimes found in deep space?" ] }, { "id": "task594-04519a08990e449f852608eb9dbc479e", "input": "Passage: Both alpha and beta decay change the number of protons in an atom’s nucleus, thereby changing the atom to a different element. In alpha decay, the nucleus loses two protons. In beta decay, the nucleus either loses a proton or gains a proton. In gamma decay, no change in proton number occurs, so the atom does not become a different element. Answer: protons", "output": [ "Both alpha and beta decay change the number of what in an atom's nucleus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3ff931e3ce3f478689e92421de185313", "input": "Passage: Eleutherozoa are the echinoderms that can move. This group includes the starfish and most other echinoderms. Answer: gametophytes", "output": [ "Like other bryophytes, moss plants spend most of their life cycle as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cbf555b2434d4868b6091a05a4c12721", "input": "Passage: Blood consists of liquid plasma, which contains dissolved substances, and three types of cells: red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. The main function of blood is transport. Blood also fights infections, repairs tissues, controls pH, and helps regulate body temperature. Answer: platelets", "output": [ "Red blood cells, white blood cells and what other cell is found in blood?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3c1c96a87b87400a8e5453f1e79a9c75", "input": "Passage: Attached to the placenta is the amniotic sac , an enclosed membrane that surrounds and protects the fetus. It contains amniotic fluid , which consists of water and dissolved substances. The fluid allows the fetus to move freely until it grows to fill most of the available space. The fluid also cushions the fetus and helps protect it from injury. Answer: amniotic sac", "output": [ "What is the enclosed, fluid-filled membrane that surrounds and protects the fetus and is attached to the placenta?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0fa72947b6764550a3521593317a6d84", "input": "Passage: Hemoglobin is an example of a transport protein in the blood. You can see how it works in Figure below . The heme parts of a hemoglobin molecule bind with oxygen. Each red blood cell has hundreds of hemoglobin molecules. This is how oxygen is carried in the blood to cells throughout the body. Answer: oxygen", "output": [ "The heme parts of a hemoglobin molecule bind with what element?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0a08057d5854476984d35eb81079f104", "input": "Passage: The fuel that burns in a combustion reaction contains compounds called hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are compounds that contain only carbon (C) and hydrogen (H). The charcoal pictured in the Figure above consists of hydrocarbons. So do fossil fuels such as natural gas. Natural gas is a fuel that is commonly used in home furnaces and gas stoves. The main component of natural gas is the hydrocarbon called methane (CH 4 ). You can see a methane flame in the Figure below . The combustion of methane is represented by the equation:. Answer: hydrocarbons", "output": [ "What is the name for compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1f4c4c5b4b0d4750891462aa0a7d8a57", "input": "Passage: The process in which rocks or other solids change to liquids is called melting. Melting occurs when particles of a solid absorb enough energy to partly overcome the force of attraction holding them together. This allows them to move out of their fixed positions and slip over one another. Melting, like other changes of state, is a physical change in matter, so it doesn’t change the chemical makeup or chemical properties of matter. Answer: at temperatures above 0 degrees c", "output": [ "At what temperature does solid water melt to a liquid?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2f2a3bba5588496f84c12c0b4110c046", "input": "Passage: 29.4 | Reptiles By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Describe the main characteristics of amniotes • Explain the difference between anapsids, synapsids, and diapsids, and give an example of each • Identify the characteristics of reptiles • Discuss the evolution of reptiles The amniotes —reptiles, birds, and mammals—are distinguished from amphibians by their terrestrially adapted egg, which is protected by amniotic membranes. The evolution of amniotic membranes meant that the embryos of amniotes were provided with their own aquatic environment, which led to less dependence on water for development and thus allowed the amniotes to branch out into drier environments. This was a significant development that distinguished them from amphibians, which were restricted to moist environments due their shell-less eggs. Although the shells of various amniotic species vary significantly, they all allow retention of water. The shells of bird eggs are composed of calcium carbonate and are hard, but fragile. The shells of reptile eggs are leathery and require a moist environment. Most mammals do not lay eggs (except for monotremes). Instead, the embryo grows within the mother’s body; however, even with this internal gestation, amniotic membranes are still present. Answer: monotremes", "output": [ "What are mammals that lay eggs called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8f1c8a0df7e64b29af3a64763c33c10f", "input": "Passage: The Dust Bowl taught people that soil could be lost by plowing and growing crops. This led to the development of new ways of farming that help protect the soil. Some of the methods are described in Figure below . Answer: the dust bowl", "output": [ "What historical event taught people that soil could be lost by plowing and growing crops and encouraged new methods to prevent erosion?" ] }, { "id": "task594-203e0f749d874847a010a549605c0219", "input": "Passage: Most fungi are decomposers. They are the main decomposers in forests. Many fungi have symbiotic relationships with other species. Answer: fungi", "output": [ "What organism is responsible for most decomposition in forest?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e6d3a93e5c7d443583df6da81e5bd65d", "input": "Passage: Leaves are the keys not only to plant life but to virtually all life on land. The primary role of leaves is to collect sunlight and make food by photosynthesis. Leaves vary in size, shape, and how they are arranged on stems. You can see examples of different types of leaves in Figure below . Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "Which is the process through which leaves collect sunlight and make food?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e2fd20fbc68245e591ab7f4ed3e61d52", "input": "Passage: When gametes unite during fertilization, the resulting zygote inherits two alleles for each gene. One allele comes from each parent. Answer: one", "output": [ "How many alleles comes from each parent?" ] }, { "id": "task594-70e867be62174082b3412fe2651250ef", "input": "Passage: Muscle tissue is one of the four types of tissue found in animals. There are three different types of muscle in the body ( Figure below ):. Answer: four", "output": [ "How many types of tissue are found in animals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4eb25fbb4ce54a9793d59a4c0e84cbb4", "input": "Passage: 3. Electrical energy is the energy of moving electrons. Electrons flow through wires to create electric current. Answer: electric current", "output": [ "Electrons flow through wires to create what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1e2074f0e1b14300a377337b9dfca4e9", "input": "Passage: Wave interference occurs when waves interact with other waves. Constructive interference increases wave amplitude. Destructive interference decreases wave amplitude. Answer: interference", "output": [ "What occurs when waves interact with other waves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f732d63223f043e2a0de4be9bc29ad12", "input": "Passage: Organisms evolve adaptations that help them survive in the climate of the biome where they live. For example, in biomes with arid climates, plants may have special tissues for storing water (see Figure below ). The desert animals pictured in Figure below also have adaptations for a dry climate. Answer: adaptations", "output": [ "A plant that forms special tissues for storing water in an arid climate is an example of the plant evolving what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c355cb6534554c0c8b013b43e5db7811", "input": "Passage: The cerebrum is divided down the middle from the front to the back of the head. The two halves of the cerebrum are called the right and left hemispheres. The two hemispheres are very similar but not identical. They are connected to each other by a thick bundle of axons deep within the brain. These axons allow the two hemispheres to communicate with each other. Did you know that the right hemisphere of the cerebrum controls the left side of the body, and vice versa? This can happen because of the connections between the two hemispheres. Answer: cerebrum", "output": [ "What part of the brain is divided from front to back into the left and right hemispheres?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4dcdb393f6734c7ba1a07ce42716041a", "input": "Passage: Christopher Auyeung, using bat image by User:Rugby471/Wikimedia Commons. Bats use echolocation to identify the location of objects . CC BY-NC 3.0 (bat image available under public domain). Answer: echolocation", "output": [ "What do bats use to determine the location of objects?" ] }, { "id": "task594-71f509fcb50042e39953ab9359fe71ed", "input": "Passage: Opposite charges attract, and like charges repel. Answer: attract", "output": [ "What do opposite charges do to one another?" ] }, { "id": "task594-62eaed49baf544838e6c791369e62858", "input": "Passage: Poison ivy plants are wild vines with leaves in groups of three. They grow in wooded areas in most of the United States. Contact with poison ivy may cause a rash in a person allergic to the plant. Answer: three", "output": [ "How many groups of leaves does poison ivy typically have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c0d6b84bf3674fdcbfac8b69aa97e3fb", "input": "Passage: mass, water should be a gas at room temperature (20°C), but the strong intermolecular interactions in liquid water greatly increase its boiling point. Hydrogen bonding also produces the relatively open molecular arrangement found in ice, which causes ice to be less dense than water. Because ice floats on the surface of water, it creates an insulating layer that allows aquatic organisms to survive during cold winter months. These same strong intermolecular hydrogen-bonding interactions are also responsible for the high heat capacity of water and its high heat of fusion. A great deal of energy must be removed from water for it to freeze. Consequently, as noted in Chapter 5 \"Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions\", large bodies of water act as “thermal buffers” that have a stabilizing effect on the climate of adjacent land areas. Perhaps the most striking example of this effect is the fact that humans can live comfortably at very high latitudes. For example, palm trees grow in southern England at the same latitude (51°N) as the southern end of frigid Hudson Bay and northern Newfoundland in North America, areas known more for their moose populations than for their tropical vegetation. Warm water from the Gulf Stream current in the Atlantic Ocean flows clockwise from the tropical climate at the equator past the eastern coast of the United States and then turns toward England, where heat stored in the water is released. The temperate climate of Europe is largely attributable to the thermal properties of water. Answer: water", "output": [ "The thermal properties of what substance largely contribute to the temperature climate of europe?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b20d6d67583f451ea95d1148c07468d6", "input": "Passage: How about both? That would suggest that fungi can produce both diploid and haploid cells, which they can. Shown above are fungi mycelia and haploid spores. Spores allow fungi to reproduce through unfavorable conditions. Answer: spores", "output": [ "What particles allow fungi to reproduce through unfavorable conditions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7612af7797d24da28209f56e497abbc0", "input": "Passage: Forensic Scientist Forensic science is the application of science to answer questions related to the law. Biologists as well as chemists and biochemists can be forensic scientists. Forensic scientists provide scientific evidence for use in courts, and their job involves examining trace material associated with crimes. Interest in forensic science has increased in the last few years, possibly because of popular television shows that feature forensic scientists on the job. Also, the development of molecular techniques and the establishment of DNA databases have updated the types of work that forensic scientists can do. Their job activities are primarily related to crimes against people such as murder, rape, and assault. Their work involves analyzing samples such as hair, blood, and other body fluids and also processing DNA (Figure 1.13) found in many different environments and materials. Forensic scientists also analyze other biological evidence left at crime scenes, such as insect parts or pollen grains. Students who want to pursue careers in forensic science will most likely be required to take chemistry and biology courses as well as some intensive math courses. Answer: forensic", "output": [ "What type of science is the application of science to answer questions related to the law?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3f8dc12280954b5f9ac65b3539a4a13d", "input": "Passage: If energy cannot be destroyed, what happens to the energy that is absorbed in an endothermic reaction? The energy is stored in the chemical bonds of the products. This form of energy is called chemical energy. In an endothermic reaction, the products have more stored chemical energy than the reactants. In an exothermic reaction, the opposite is true. The products have less stored chemical energy than the reactants. The excess energy in the reactants is released to the surroundings when the reaction occurs. The graphs in Figure below show the chemical energy of reactants and products in each type of reaction. Answer: it can not be destroyed", "output": [ "What is one thing that can not happen to energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9394cedafd6044868f701f47ec383c89", "input": "Passage: Amino acids connect together like beads on a necklace. MET, ASN, TRP, and GLN refer to four different amino acids. Answer: amino acids", "output": [ "Met, asn, trp, and gln connect together like beads on a necklace and are an example of what type of acids?" ] }, { "id": "task594-148e5aab662c41d3882e0a35eb1afbd8", "input": "Passage: Minerals form as magma or lava cools. Answer: magma", "output": [ "What is lava called before it reaches the surface of the earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0b780aa100bf4d4da569cdfb24787ae0", "input": "Passage: Three main groups of ocean life are plankton, nekton, and benthos. Plankton float in the water. Nekton swim through the water. Benthos live on the ocean floor. Answer: on the ocean floor", "output": [ "Where do benthos live in oceans?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1d2d38cd0ff54a0ca1720ee4fa2fd575", "input": "Passage: The mother’s mammary glands go through changes during the third trimester to prepare for lactation and breastfeeding. When the baby begins suckling at the breast, signals are sent to the hypothalamus causing the release of prolactin from the anterior pituitary. Prolactin causes the mammary glands to produce milk. Oxytocin is also released, promoting the release of the milk. The milk contains nutrients for the baby’s development and growth as well as immunoglobulins to protect the child from bacterial and viral infections. Answer: milk", "output": [ "Human mammary glands can produce what substance, which can be used to feed children?" ] }, { "id": "task594-de0d642d139448998a1103086efd6010", "input": "Passage: Composite volcanoes are also called stratovolcanoes. This is because they are formed by alternating layers (strata) of magma and ash ( Figure below ). The magma that creates composite volcanoes tends to be thick. The steep sides form because the lava cannot flow too far from the vent. The thick magma may also create explosive eruptions. Ash and pyroclasts erupt into the air. Much of this material falls back down near the vent. This creates the steep sides of stratovolcanoes. Answer: explosive eruptions", "output": [ "What is in danger of happening when thick magma is formed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-db1d23300c5a4b21a9623ce219439dc1", "input": "Passage: Cell division is relatively simple in prokaryotic cells. The two cells divide by binary fission. Green and orange lines indicate old and newly-generated bacterial cell walls, respectively. Eventually the parent cell will pinch apart to form two identical daughter cells. Left, growth at the center of bacterial body, such as in Bacillus subtilis and E. coli . Right, apical growth from the ends of the bacterial body, such as in Corynebacterium diphtheriae . Answer: daughter cells", "output": [ "Eventually the parent cell will pinch apart to form two identical types of what cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-254af2ee3232419881761aa7cf30af88", "input": "Passage: Sensory organs such as the eyes contain cells called sensory receptors that respond to particular sensory stimuli. Answer: sensory receptors", "output": [ "Sensory organs that respond to particular sensory stimuli contain cells called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9bac5d9adc7749d68dd40acfced85a50", "input": "Passage: The age of a rock in years is its absolute age . Absolute ages are much different from relative ages. The way of determining them is different, too. Absolute ages are determined by radiometric methods, such as carbon-14 dating. These methods depend on radioactive decay. Answer: absolute age", "output": [ "The age of a rock in years is its?" ] }, { "id": "task594-043af162b2a04c9c92191b61ee78883d", "input": "Passage: organelle in muscle fibers that allows muscles to contract. Answer: organelle", "output": [ "What term is used to describe muscle fibers that allows muscles to contract?" ] }, { "id": "task594-419e4af67a0b427cb390653cdd542b5f", "input": "Passage: Gnathostomes: Jawed Fishes Gnathostomes or “jaw-mouths” are vertebrates that possess jaws. One of the most significant developments in early vertebrate evolution was the development of the jaw, which is a hinged structure attached to the cranium that allows an animal to grasp and tear its food. The evolution of jaws allowed early gnathostomes to exploit food resources that were unavailable to jawless fishes. Early gnathostomes also possessed two sets of paired fins, allowing the fishes to maneuver accurately. Pectoral fins are typically located on the anterior body, and pelvic fins on the posterior. Evolution of the jaw and paired fins permitted gnathostomes to expand from the sedentary suspension feeding of jawless fishes to become mobile predators. The ability of gnathostomes to exploit new nutrient sources likely is one reason that they replaced most jawless fishes during the Devonian period. Two early groups of gnathostomes were the acanthodians and placoderms (Figure 29.10), which arose in the late Silurian period and are now extinct. Most modern fishes are gnathostomes that belong to the clades Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes. Answer: jaw", "output": [ "What is the hinged structure attached to the cranium that allows an animal to grasp and tear its food?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5e9c21000a1d4ae1b5374603b43ae591", "input": "Passage: The strength of an acid depends on how many hydrogen ions it produces when it dissolves in water. A stronger acid produces more hydrogen ions than a weaker acid. For example, sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ), which is found in car batteries, is a strong acid because nearly all of it breaks down into ions when it dissolves in water. On the other hand, acetic acid (CH 3 CO 2 H), which is the acid in vinegar, is a weak acid because less than 1 percent of it breaks down into ions in water. Answer: hydrogen", "output": [ "The strength of an acid depends on how many of which ions it produces when it dissolves in water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-faef70dcb59b4e91844435a4ca5cc0bc", "input": "Passage: An acidic solution and a basic solution react together in a neutralization reaction that also forms a salt. Answer: salt", "output": [ "What is formed when an acidic solution and a basic solution react together in a neutralization reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d70b806726814f6592c54ff58a124eb2", "input": "Passage: The placenta develops throughout the embryonic period and during the first several weeks of the fetal period; placentation is complete by weeks 14–16. As a fully developed organ, the placenta provides nutrition and excretion, respiration, and endocrine function (Table 28.1 and Figure 28.12). It receives blood from the fetus through the umbilical arteries. Capillaries in the chorionic villi filter fetal wastes out of the blood and return clean, oxygenated blood to the fetus through the umbilical vein. Nutrients and oxygen are transferred from maternal blood surrounding the villi through the capillaries and into the fetal bloodstream. Some substances move across the placenta by simple diffusion. Oxygen, carbon dioxide, and any other lipid-soluble substances take this route. Other substances move across by facilitated diffusion. This includes water-soluble glucose. The fetus has a high demand for amino acids and iron, and those substances are moved across the placenta by active transport. Maternal and fetal blood does not commingle because blood cells cannot move across the placenta. This separation prevents the mother’s cytotoxic T cells from reaching and subsequently destroying the fetus, which bears “non-self” antigens. Further, it ensures the fetal red blood cells do not enter the mother’s circulation and trigger antibody development (if they carry “non-self” antigens)—at least until the final stages of pregnancy or birth. This is the reason that, even in the absence of preventive treatment, an Rh− mother doesn’t develop antibodies that could cause hemolytic disease in her first Rh+ fetus. Although blood cells are not exchanged, the chorionic villi provide ample surface area for the two-way exchange of substances between maternal and fetal blood. The rate of exchange increases throughout gestation as the villi become thinner and increasingly branched. The placenta is permeable to lipid-soluble fetotoxic substances: alcohol, nicotine, barbiturates, antibiotics, certain pathogens, and many other substances that can be dangerous or fatal to the developing embryo or fetus. For these reasons, pregnant women should avoid fetotoxic substances. Alcohol consumption by pregnant women, for example, can result in a range of abnormalities referred to as fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD). These include organ and facial malformations, as well as cognitive and behavioral disorders. Answer: umbilical vein", "output": [ "Capillaries in the chorionic villi filter fetal wastes out of the blood and return clean, oxygenated blood to the fetus through what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9364b14adc774f218eb582c3f815be91", "input": "Passage: Figure 28.41 All crustaceans go through different larval stages. Shown are (a) the nauplius larval stage of a tadpole shrimp, (b) the cypris larval stage of a barnacle, and (c) the zoea larval stage of a green crab. (credit a: modification of work by USGS; credit b: modification of work by Mª. Mingorance Rodríguez; credit c: modification of work by B. Kimmel based on original work by Ernst Haeckel). Answer: crustaceans", "output": [ "What goes through different larval stages?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ef445a3e8018466ab95dd85dfb1b9a5a", "input": "Passage: No new mutations are occurring. Therefore, no new alleles are being created. Answer: new mutations", "output": [ "What is necessary for new alleles to be created?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d3bd63aa187a43a6b4aaf155f3b7154b", "input": "Passage: Adult frogs are characterized by long hind legs, a short body, webbed finger-like parts, and the lack of a tail. They also have a three-chambered heart, as do all tetrapods except birds and mammals. Most frogs live part of the time in water and part of the time on land. They move easily on land by jumping or climbing. To become great jumpers, frogs evolved long hind legs and long ankle bones. They also have a short backbone with only ten vertebrae. Frog and toad skin hangs loosely on the body, and skin texture can be smooth, warty, or folded. Answer: three chambers", "output": [ "Like all tetrapods except birds and mammals, frogs possess a heart with what structure?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9c5b16176c4c4c0fabf16e37a8704911", "input": "Passage: Mid-wavelength electromagnetic waves are called light. Light consists of visible, infrared, and ultraviolet light. Humans can see only visible light. Infrared light has longer wavelengths than visible light and is perceived as warmth. Ultraviolet light has shorter wavelengths than visible light and has enough energy to kill bacteria. It can also harm the skin. Answer: ultraviolet", "output": [ "What type of light has shorter wavelengths than visible light and has enough energy to kill bacteria?" ] }, { "id": "task594-259887b82c18497d851b0c2c2cbd031b", "input": "Passage: Every surface has microscopic bumps, lumps, and imperfections, emphasized as in the image above. If we try to slide the top block over the lower block, there will be numerous collisions as the bumps impact each other. The forward motion causes the collisions with bumps which then exert a force in opposite way the block is moving. The force of friction always opposes whatever motion is causing the friction. Answer: friction", "output": [ "What force is caused by microscopic bumps, lumps, and imperfections colliding?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f943b52e418a4e50a63b3d730c6f8b23", "input": "Passage: There are three types of RNA involved in protein synthesis: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribisomal RNA (rRNA). All three of these nucleic acids work together to produce a protein. The mRNA takes the genetic instructions from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, where the ribosomes are located. Ribosomes are the organelles where the proteins are made. The ribosomes themselves are made out of rRNA and other proteins. The mRNA binds to the ribosome, bringing the genetic instructions to order the amino acids to the site of protein synthesis. Finally, the tRNA brings the correct amino acid to the ribosome ( Figure below and Figure below ). In mRNA, the four nucleotides (A, C, G, and U) are arranged into codons of three bases each. Each codon encodes for a specific amino acid, except for the stop codons , which terminate protein synthesis. tRNA, which has a specific “3-leaf clover structure,” contains a three base region called the anticodon , which can base pair to the corresponding three-base codon region on mRNA. More will be discussed on these processes in the Protein Synthesis: The Genetic Code (Advanced) and Protein Synthesis: Translation (Advanced) concepts. Answer: messenger, transfer, and ribosomal", "output": [ "What are the three types of rna involved in protein synthesis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8b4b929c2c8f49f1ab8ffb148b472007", "input": "Passage: HIV spreads through contact between an infected person’s body fluids and another person's bloodstream or mucus membranes, which are found in the mouth, nose, and genital areas. Body fluids that may contain HIV are blood, semen, vaginal fluid, and breast milk. The virus can spread through sexual contact or shared drug needles. It can also spread from an infected mother to her baby during childbirth or breastfeeding. Saliva can carry the HIV virus, but it won't spread it, unless the saliva gets into the bloodstream. Other body fluids such as urine and sweat do not contain the virus. HIV does not spread in any fluid in which the host cells cannot survive. Answer: bloodstream", "output": [ "Saliva can carry the hiv virus, but it won't spread it, unless the saliva gets into what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6362bb6298974502a3153ef9bf359e28", "input": "Passage: Competition is a relationship between organisms that depend on the same resources. The resources might be food, water, or space. Competition can occur between organisms of the same species or between organisms of different species. Answer: space", "output": [ "Competition is a relationship between organisms that depend on the same resources. the resources might be food, water, or what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d94446171d8248c589158e1b6d698032", "input": "Passage: Metallic Solids Metals are characterized by their ability to reflect light, called luster, their high electrical and thermal conductivity, their high heat capacity, and their malleability and ductility. Every lattice point in a pure metallic element is occupied by an atom of the same metal. The packing efficiency in metallic crystals tends to be high, so the resulting metallic solids are dense, with each atom having as many as 12 nearest neighbors. Bonding in metallic solids is quite different from the bonding in the other kinds of solids we have discussed. Because all the atoms are the same, there can be no ionic bonding, yet metals always contain too few electrons or valence orbitals to form covalent bonds with each of their neighbors. Instead, the valence electrons are delocalized throughout the crystal, providing a strong cohesive force that holds the metal atoms together. Answer: metals", "output": [ "What category of elements are chacterized by their ability to reflect light, called luster, their high electrical and thermal conductivity, their high heat capacity, and their malleability and ductility?" ] }, { "id": "task594-44c26d7e643148adb39107cf6bbe209e", "input": "Passage: Upon fertilization a diploid zygote is formed. In humans, a zygote has 46 chromosomes, 23 inherited from each parent. The gametes, sperm and eggs, are haploid cells, with 23 chromosomes each. Answer: 46", "output": [ "In humans, a zygote has how many chromosomes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0e1efec671e448febe722f7a7267959d", "input": "Passage: 40.4 | Blood Flow and Blood Pressure Regulation By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Describe the system of blood flow through the body • Describe how blood pressure is regulated Blood pressure (BP) is the pressure exerted by blood on the walls of a blood vessel that helps to push blood through the body. Systolic blood pressure measures the amount of pressure that blood exerts on vessels while the heart is beating. The optimal systolic blood pressure is 120 mmHg. Diastolic blood pressure measures the pressure in the vessels between heartbeats. The optimal diastolic blood pressure is 80 mmHg. Many factors can affect blood pressure, such as hormones, stress, exercise, eating, sitting, and standing. Blood flow through the body is regulated by the size of blood vessels, by the action of smooth muscle, by one-way valves, and by the fluid pressure of the blood itself. Answer: diastolic", "output": [ "What blood pressure reading measures the pressure in the vessels between heartbeats?" ] }, { "id": "task594-89e2f54db6fa42debfb5939ac3a4f871", "input": "Passage: In the humid subtropical climate, summers are wet but winters are very cold. Answer: wet", "output": [ "In the humid subtropical climate, summers are ____ but winters are very cold." ] }, { "id": "task594-fa1ebe8acf894f5d91090d52547873fd", "input": "Passage: The moment magnitude scale is the favored method of measuring earthquake magnitudes. It measures the total energy released by an earthquake. Moment magnitude is calculated by two things. One is the length of the fault break. The other is the distance the ground moves along the fault. Answer: moment magnitude scale", "output": [ "What scale measures the total energy released by an earthquake?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a2e6a1b630024f6e84020231d7e99100", "input": "Passage: The trachea , or wind pipe, is a long tube that leads down to the chest. Answer: trachea", "output": [ "What's the other term for your wind pipe?" ] }, { "id": "task594-85f648713b654c41bbd0d65a22ce8b1b", "input": "Passage: Improving crops by selecting for certain genetic traits. The desired traits promote productivity. Recently, genetically engineered crops have been introduced. Answer: promotes productivity", "output": [ "What is the advantage of selecting for certain genetic traits for crops?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f59075aa522940f4b321bd4e99ae2808", "input": "Passage: Understanding Pigments Different kinds of pigments exist, and each absorbs only certain wavelengths (colors) of visible light. Pigments reflect the color of the wavelengths that they cannot absorb. All photosynthetic organisms contain a pigment called chlorophyll a, which humans see as the common green color associated with plants. Chlorophyll a absorbs wavelengths from either end of the visible spectrum (blue and red), but not from green. Because green is reflected, chlorophyll appears green. Other pigment types include chlorophyll b (which absorbs blue and red-orange light) and the carotenoids. Each type of pigment can be identified by the specific pattern of wavelengths it absorbs from visible light, which is its absorption spectrum. Many photosynthetic organisms have a mixture of pigments; between them, the organism can absorb energy from a wider range of visible-light wavelengths. Not all photosynthetic organisms have full access to sunlight. Some organisms grow underwater where light intensity decreases with depth, and certain wavelengths are absorbed by the water. Other organisms grow in competition for light. Plants on the rainforest floor must be able to absorb any bit of light that comes through, because the taller trees block most of the sunlight (Figure 5.11). Answer: chlorophyll", "output": [ "All photosynthetic organisms contain a pigment called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-48685c6c2f6f4326ad67a0406145d1b0", "input": "Passage: 5.2 Accessory Structures of the Skin Accessory structures of the skin include hair, nails, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands. Hair is made of dead keratinized cells, and gets its color from melanin pigments. Nails, also made of dead keratinized cells, protect the extremities of our. Answer: melanin pigments", "output": [ "What does hair get its color from?" ] }, { "id": "task594-18c5270edf77439eae5a3bddc0aad643", "input": "Passage: Immovable joints allow no movement because the bones at these joints are held securely together by dense collagen. The bones of the skull are connected by immovable joints. Answer: immovable", "output": [ "The bones of the skull are connected by what type of joints?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5e7ebad79a424aa98b5e541cf390cb47", "input": "Passage: Effects of Hormones Virtually all of the effects of pregnancy can be attributed in some way to the influence of hormones—particularly estrogens, progesterone, and hCG. During weeks 7–12 from the LMP, the pregnancy hormones are primarily generated by the corpus luteum. Progesterone secreted by the corpus luteum stimulates the production of decidual cells of the endometrium that nourish the blastocyst before placentation. As the placenta develops and the corpus luteum degenerates during weeks 12–17, the placenta gradually takes over as the endocrine organ of pregnancy. The placenta converts weak androgens secreted by the maternal and fetal adrenal glands to estrogens, which are necessary for pregnancy to progress. Estrogen levels climb throughout the pregnancy, increasing 30-fold by childbirth. Estrogens have the following actions: • They suppress FSH and LH production, effectively preventing ovulation. (This function is the biological basis of hormonal birth control pills. ) • They induce the growth of fetal tissues and are necessary for the maturation of the fetal lungs and liver. • They promote fetal viability by regulating progesterone production and triggering fetal synthesis of cortisol, which helps with the maturation of the lungs, liver, and endocrine organs such as the thyroid gland and adrenal gland. • They stimulate maternal tissue growth, leading to uterine enlargement and mammary duct expansion and branching. Relaxin, another hormone secreted by the corpus luteum and then by the placenta, helps prepare the mother’s body for childbirth. It increases the elasticity of the symphysis pubis joint and pelvic ligaments, making room for the growing fetus and allowing expansion of the pelvic outlet for childbirth. Relaxin also helps dilate the cervix during labor. Answer: hormones", "output": [ "Virtually all of the effects of pregnancy can be attributed in some way to the influence of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7061dd619fff490b801f25bd8aa4d349", "input": "Passage: Flowers Flowers are modified leaves or sporophylls organized around a central stalk. Although they vary greatly in appearance, all flowers contain the same structures: sepals, petals, pistils, and stamens. A whorl of sepals (the calyx) is located at the base of the peduncle, or stem, and encloses the floral bud before it opens. Sepals are usually photosynthetic organs, although there are some exceptions. For example, the corolla in lilies and tulips consists of three sepals and three petals that look virtually identical—this led botanists to coin the word tepal. Petals (collectively the corolla) are located inside the whorl of sepals and usually display vivid colors to attract pollinators. Flowers pollinated by wind are usually small and dull. The sexual organs are located at the center of the flower. As illustrated in Figure 14.25, the stigma, style, and ovary constitute the female organ, the carpel or pistil, which is also referred to as the gynoecium. A gynoecium may contain one or more carpels within a single flower. The megaspores and the female gametophytes are produced and protected by the thick tissues of the carpel. A long, thin structure called a style leads from the sticky stigma, where pollen is deposited, to the ovary enclosed in the carpel. The ovary houses one or more ovules that will each develop into a seed upon fertilization. The male reproductive organs, the androecium or stamens, surround the central carpel. Stamens are composed of a thin stalk called a filament and a sac-like structure, the anther, in which microspores are produced by meiosis and develop into pollen grains. The filament supports the anther. Answer: flowers", "output": [ "Sepals, petals, pistils, and stamens are contained in all what, which are actually modified leaves or sporophylls organized around a central stalk?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2cb1fe9fc2974d50829aec80357a7ccc", "input": "Passage: Chemical and physical changes in a system may be accompanied by either an increase or a decrease in the disorder of the system, corresponding to an increase in entropy (ΔS> 0) or a decrease in entropy (ΔS < 0), respectively. As with any other state function, the change in entropy is defined as the difference between the entropies of the final and initial states: ΔS = Sf − Si. When a gas expands into a vacuum, its entropy increases because the increased volume allows for greater atomic or molecular disorder. The greater the number of atoms or molecules in the gas, the greater the disorder. The magnitude of the entropy of a system depends on the number of microscopic states, or microstates, associated with it (in this case, the number of atoms or molecules); that is, the greater the number of microstates, the greater the entropy. We can illustrate the concepts of microstates and entropy using a deck of playing cards, as shown in Figure 18.7 \"Illustrating Low- and High-Entropy States with a Deck of Playing Cards\". In any new deck, the 52 cards are arranged by four suits, with each suit arranged in descending order. If the cards are shuffled, however, there are approximately 1068 different ways they might be arranged, which corresponds to 1068different microscopic states. The entropy of an ordered new deck of cards is therefore low, whereas the entropy of a randomly shuffled deck is high. Card games assign a higher value to a hand that has a low degree of disorder. In games such as five-card poker, only 4 of the 2,598,960 different possible hands, or microstates, contain the highly ordered and valued arrangement of cards called a royal flush, almost 1.1 million hands contain one pair, and more than 1.3 million hands are completely disordered and therefore have no value. Because the last two arrangements are far more probable than the first, the value of a poker hand is inversely proportional to its entropy. We can see how to calculate these kinds of probabilities for a chemical system by considering the possible arrangements of a sample of four gas molecules in a two-bulb container (Figure 18.8 \"The Possible Microstates for a Sample of Four Gas Molecules in Two Bulbs of Equal Volume\"). There are five possible arrangements: all four molecules in the left bulb (I); three molecules in the left bulb and one in the right bulb (II); two molecules in each bulb (III); one molecule in the left bulb and three molecules in the right bulb (IV); and four molecules in the right bulb (V). If we assign a different color to each molecule to keep track of it for this discussion (remember, however, that in reality the molecules are indistinguishable from one another), we can see that there are 16 different ways the four molecules can be distributed in the bulbs, each corresponding to a particular microstate. As shown in Figure 18.8 \"The Possible Microstates. Answer: entropy", "output": [ "Chemical and physical changes in a system may be accompanied by an increase or a decrease in the disorder of the system, corresponding to an increase or decrease in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f3dedbfce48a43ad8c3eb974429a18e0", "input": "Passage: Prokaryotes are currently placed in two domains. A domain is the highest taxon in the classification of living things. It's even higher than the kingdom. Answer: a domain", "output": [ "What is the highest taxon in the classification of living things?" ] }, { "id": "task594-036be3ea20c34a4799bf702a5aa8cd4f", "input": "Passage: If you take a hot shower in a closed bathroom, the mirror is likely to \"fog\" up. The \"fog\" consists of tiny droplets of water that form on the cool surface of the mirror. Why does this happen? Some of the hot water from the shower evaporates, so the air in the bathroom contains a lot of water vapor. When the water vapor contacts cooler surfaces, such as the mirror, it cools and loses energy. The cooler water particles no longer have enough energy to overcome the forces of attraction between them. They come together and form droplets of liquid water. Answer: foggy mirror", "output": [ "What results when the water vapor from a hot shower contacts the cooler surface of a mirror?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2b9aeef576d246118a98bd389934ed7f", "input": "Passage: Various conditions affect enzyme function. Pepsin and trypsin are two digestive enzymes that work in contrasting environments. Answer: digestion", "output": [ "Pepsin and trypsin are examples of enzymes involved in what bodily process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-935566daa05748638416f5cbbb3f64cf", "input": "Passage: Calculations are described showing conversions between molar mass and density for gases. Answer: density", "output": [ "Calculations are described showing conversions between molar mass and what for gases?" ] }, { "id": "task594-72eed7a376e1479bab64059eb2549dc0", "input": "Passage: Normal light microscopes can magnify objects up to about 1,500 times. Electron microscopes can magnify objects up to 1,000,000 times. Why can electron microscopes magnify images so much? A microscope’s resolution depends on the wavelength of light used. The smaller the wavelength, the more a microscope can magnify. Light is a wave, and, as such, it has a wavelength associated with it. The wavelength of visible light, which is detected by the eyes, varies from about 700 nm to about 400 nm. One of the startling conclusions about modern science is that electrons also act as waves. However, the wavelength of electrons is much, much shorter—about 0.5 to 1 nm. This allows electron microscopes to magnify 600–700 times more than light microscopes. This allows us to see even smaller features in a world that is invisible to the naked eye. Atoms act the way they do because of their structure. We already know that atoms are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus, and electrons orbit around the nucleus. But we need to know the structural details to understand why atoms react the way they do. Virtually everything we know about atoms ultimately comes from light. Before we can understand the composition of atoms (especially electrons), we need to understand the properties of light. Answer: electron microscopes", "output": [ "While normal light microscopes can magnify objects up to about 1,500 times, what advanced instruments can magnify objects up to 1,000,000 times?" ] }, { "id": "task594-91bfcc48fa4b414aa9b710f6c77c1e7d", "input": "Passage: A screw is an inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder. When on a screw, inclined planes are called threads, which can be seen in the image above. The mechanical advantage of a screw increases with the density of the threads. The calculations to determine the IMA for a screw involve the circumference of the head of the screw and the thread width. When the screw is turned completely around one time, the screw penetrates by one thread width. So, if the circumference of the head of a screw is 3.0 cm and the thread width is 0.60 cm, then the IMA would be calculated by. Answer: blood vessels", "output": [ "How does the heart transport blood?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e1ba5cd34a2a41b1b66250afc926e5c9", "input": "Passage: Invertebrates are animals that lack a vertebral column, or backbone. All the phyla in Table above , except the Phylum Chordata, consist only of invertebrates. Even the Phylum Chordata includes some invertebrate taxa. Invertebrates make up about 95 percent of all animal species. Answer: 95 percent", "output": [ "Invertebrates make up what percentage of all animal species?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7ce044cb4fc948bd8e5b659c7bcdde67", "input": "Passage: Binary Fission Due to the relative simplicity of the prokaryotes, the cell division process, called binary fission, is a less complicated and much more rapid process than cell division in eukaryotes. The single, circular DNA chromosome of bacteria is not enclosed in a nucleus, but instead occupies a specific location, the nucleoid, within the cell (Figure 10.2). Although the DNA of the nucleoid is associated with proteins that aid in packaging the molecule into a compact size, there are no histone proteins and thus no nucleosomes in prokaryotes. The packing proteins of bacteria are, however, related to the cohesin and condensin proteins involved in the chromosome compaction of eukaryotes. The bacterial chromosome is attached to the plasma membrane at about the midpoint of the cell. The starting point of replication, the origin, is close to the binding site of the chromosome to the plasma membrane (Figure 10.15). Replication of the DNA is bidirectional, moving away from the origin on both strands of the loop simultaneously. As the new double strands are formed, each origin point moves away from the cell wall attachment toward the opposite ends of the cell. As the cell elongates, the growing membrane aids in the transport of the chromosomes. After the chromosomes have cleared the midpoint of the elongated cell, cytoplasmic separation begins. The formation of a ring composed of repeating units of a protein called FtsZ directs the partition between the nucleoids. Formation of the FtsZ ring triggers the accumulation of other proteins that work together to recruit new membrane and cell wall materials to the site. A septum is formed between the nucleoids, extending gradually from the periphery toward the center of the cell. When the new cell walls are in place, the daughter cells separate. Answer: nucleus", "output": [ "The single circular dna chromosome of bacteria is not enclosed in what, but instead occupies a specific location called the nucleoid within the cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1db22f2264bb4b34a9ac0e1dd594e006", "input": "Passage: When stars fuse helium into larger atoms, they become red giants. Answer: helium", "output": [ "Red giants are stars that fuse what element into larger atoms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1815d61176ea41108390ed8cc3dee057", "input": "Passage: birth of dizygotic (or fraternal) twins. Because dizygotic twins develop from two eggs fertilized by two sperm, they are no more identical than siblings born at different times. Much less commonly, a zygote can divide into two separate offspring during early development. This results in the birth of monozygotic (or identical) twins. Although the zygote can split as early as the two-cell stage, splitting occurs most commonly during the early blastocyst stage, with roughly 70–100 cells present. These two scenarios are distinct from each other, in that the twin embryos that separated at the two-cell stage will have individual placentas, whereas twin embryos that form from separation at the blastocyst stage will share a placenta and a chorionic cavity. Answer: different times", "output": [ "Because dizygotic twins develop from two eggs fertilized by two sperm, they are no more identical than siblings born at what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9b2f038fadbe4cfaacf5e5ab1a0a6c55", "input": "Passage: Almost all fungi have a single common ancestor. The earliest fungi may have evolved about 600 million years ago. Fungi colonized land at least 460 million years ago. By 250 million years ago, they may have been the dominant life forms on Earth. Answer: fungi", "output": [ "Evolving from a single common ancestor, what group of organisms was perhaps the dominant life form on earth 250 million years ago?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3e5bc834cf55466d91e1d329f54792d5", "input": "Passage: A mutation may have no effect. However, sometimes a mutation can cause a protein to be made incorrectly. A defect in the protein can affect how well the protein works, or whether it works at all. Usually the loss of a protein function is detrimental to the organism. Answer: mutation", "output": [ "What phenomenon can cause a protein in an organism to be made incorrectly?" ] }, { "id": "task594-647450f162ee478293d34b9aa7b87e9e", "input": "Passage: Peroxisomes Like lysosomes, a peroxisome is a membrane-bound cellular organelle that contains mostly enzymes (Figure 3.17). Peroxisomes perform a couple of different functions, including lipid metabolism and chemical detoxification. In contrast to the digestive enzymes found in lysosomes, the enzymes within peroxisomes serve to transfer hydrogen atoms from various molecules to oxygen, producing hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). In this way, peroxisomes neutralize poisons such as alcohol. In order to appreciate the importance of peroxisomes, it is necessary to understand the concept of reactive oxygen species. Answer: hydrogen peroxide", "output": [ "Peroxisomes perform a couple of different functions, including lipid metabolism and chemical detoxification. in contrast to the digestive enzymes found in lysosomes, the enzymes within peroxisomes serve to transfer hydrogen atoms from various molecules to oxygen, producing what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fb8831830a334fb780e1a4b8b2f9ba03", "input": "Passage: In receptor-mediated endocytosis, as in phagocytosis, clathrin is attached to the cytoplasmic side of the plasma membrane. If uptake of a compound is dependent on receptor-mediated endocytosis and the process is ineffective, the material will not be removed from the tissue fluids or blood. Instead, it will stay in those fluids and increase in concentration. Some human diseases are caused by the failure of receptor-mediated endocytosis. For example, the form of cholesterol termed low-density lipoprotein or LDL (also referred to as “bad” cholesterol) is removed from the blood by receptor-mediated endocytosis. In the human genetic disease familial hypercholesterolemia, the LDL receptors are defective or missing entirely. People with this condition have life-threatening levels of cholesterol in their blood, because their cells cannot clear LDL particles from their blood. Although receptor-mediated endocytosis is designed to bring specific substances that are normally found in the extracellular fluid into the cell, other substances may gain entry into the cell at the same site. Flu viruses, diphtheria, and cholera toxin all have sites that cross-react with normal receptor-binding sites and gain entry into cells. Answer: low-density lipoprotein (ldl)", "output": [ "Patients with familial hypercholesterolemia have life-threatening levels of cholesterol because their cells cannot clear what particles from their blood?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d2dfb6509878441093bf91a360bbf768", "input": "Passage: The rates at which chemical reactions take place in organisms are very important. Chemical reactions in organisms are involved in processes ranging from the contraction of muscles to the digestion of food. For example, when you wave goodbye, it requires repeated contractions of muscles in your arm over a period of a couple of seconds. A huge number of reactions must take place in that time, so each reaction cannot take longer than a few milliseconds. If the reactions took much longer, you might not finish waving until sometime next year. Answer: chemical", "output": [ "What kind of reactions are involved in processes ranging from the contraction of muscles to the digestion of food?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f13dfbd045064683bbe321df6cec7136", "input": "Passage: Lasers Most light emitted by atoms is polychromatic—containing more than one wavelength. In contrast, lasers (from light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) emitmonochromatic light— a single wavelength only. Lasers have many applications in fiber-optic telecommunications, the reading and recording of compact discs (CDs) and digital video discs (DVDs), steel cutting, and supermarket checkout scanners. Laser beams are generated by the same general phenomenon that gives rise to emission spectra, with one difference: only a single excited state is produced, which in principle results in only a single frequency of emitted light. In practice, however, inexpensive commercial lasers actually emit light with a very narrow range of wavelengths. How a CD player uses a laser to read a CD. Inside a CD is a flat, light-reflecting layer called “land. ” On the land are many “pits” recorded in a spiral-shaped track. (From the laser’s point of view, pits are actually the “bumps” shown here because the master disc with pits is duplicated negatively, turning the pits into bumps. ) Pits have the same light-reflecting surface as land, but there are differences in the frequencies of the reflected light in the pit and the land, making light reflected by pits relatively dark compared with light reflected by land. Answer: wavelength", "output": [ "Light emitted by atoms is polychromatic—containing more than one of these?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f22f72e9f3ba465f9a2dbb29e914cce4", "input": "Passage: Over 99 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth have gone extinct. Five mass extinctions are recorded in the fossil record. They were caused by major geologic and climatic events. Evidence shows that a sixth mass extinction is occurring now. Unlike previous mass extinctions, the sixth extinction is due to human actions. Answer: 99%", "output": [ "What percentage of all species that ever lived on earth have gone extinct?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c6c1ee409afa44679d43f8f6d9d79024", "input": "Passage: Ocean water is salty because water dissolves minerals out of rocks. The ions enter the water. This happens whenever water flows over or through rocks. Much of this water and its minerals end up in the oceans. Minerals dissolved in water form salts. When the water evaporates, it leaves the salts behind. As a result, ocean water is much saltier than other water on Earth. Answer: salty", "output": [ "Ocean water has what property because water dissolves minerals out of rocks?" ] }, { "id": "task594-debac13b70f2460b87e1c85656367146", "input": "Passage: Yeasts do not produce spores. Instead, they reproduce asexually by budding. Budding is the pinching off of an offspring from the parent cell. The offspring cell is genetically identical to the parent. Budding in yeast is pictured in Figure below . Answer: by budding", "output": [ "How do yeasts reproduce asexually?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e7ae85e3c67c4657a4985ac7dc75fa59", "input": "Passage: Protozoa are single-celled eukaryotes that share some traits with animals. Answer: eukaryotes", "output": [ "Single-celled eukaryotes that share some traits with animals are also called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0a2733792e7a436cae95454fd2a4a904", "input": "Passage: According to the kinetic theory, particles of matter are in constant motion. The energy of motion is called kinetic energy. Answer: kinetic energy", "output": [ "What is the energy of motion called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-43aa238d98cc46e487c68414e350fef7", "input": "Passage: Chlamydia is the most common bacterial STI in the U. S. Females are more likely to develop it than males. Symptoms may include burning during urination and a discharge from the vagina or penis. Answer: chlamydia", "output": [ "What is the most common bacterial sti in the u. s.?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6c888622dfe94f3b85bf9083579c9ec7", "input": "Passage: Saturated hydrocarbons have only single bonds between carbon atoms, so the carbon atoms are bonded to as many hydrogen atoms as possible. In other words, they are saturated with hydrogen atoms. Answer: hydrogen", "output": [ "Saturated hydrocarbons get their name because they are saturated with what atoms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1b783d44e8aa49cdaf967a374b0898de", "input": "Passage: Seawalls and breakwaters are built parallel to the shore. Answer: shore", "output": [ "Seawalls and breakwaters are built parallel to what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d36f0adcb7ab44748b3b63c2afb43711", "input": "Passage: Primates have five digits (fingers or toes) on each extremity. Unlike the hooves of horses or the paddles of whales, the digits of primates are relatively unspecialized. Therefore, they can be used to do a variety of tasks, including grasping branches and holding tools. Answer: five", "output": [ "How many digits do primates have on each extremity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a686d758a81345a0b40c1935fc7ce3b9", "input": "Passage: The Arrhenius definition of acids and bases is somewhat limited. There are some compounds whose properties suggest that they are either acidic or basic, but which do not qualify according to the Arrhenius definition. An example is ammonia (NH 3 ). Its aqueous solution turns litmus blue, it reacts with acids, and displays all the other properties of a base. However, it does not contain the hydroxide ion. In 1923, a broader definition of acids and bases was independently proposed by Danish chemist Johannes Brønsted (1879-1947) and English chemist Thomas Lowry (1874-1936). A Brønsted-Lowry acid is a molecule or ion that donates a hydrogen ion in a reaction. A Brønsted-Lowry base is a molecule or ion that accepts a hydrogen ion in a reaction. A hydrogen ion is commonly referred to as a proton, and so acids and bases are proton donors and proton acceptors respectively according to the Brønsted-Lowry definition. All substances that are categorized as acids and bases under the Arrhenius definition are also defined as such under the Brønsted-Lowry definition. The new definition, however, includes some substances that are left out according to the Arrhenius definition. Answer: acid", "output": [ "Which type of substance is considered a proton donor in a reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-29f741d041064bc2a552656e21e5a3a4", "input": "Passage: Humans need lipids for many vital functions such as storing energy and forming cell membranes. Lipids can also supply cells with energy. In fact, a gram of lipids supplies more than twice as much energy as a gram of carbohydrates or proteins. Lipids are necessary in the diet for most of these functions. Although the human body can manufacture most of the lipids it needs, there are others, called essential fatty acids , that must be consumed in food. Essential fatty acids include omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. Both of these fatty acids are needed for important biological processes, not just for energy. Answer: cell membranes", "output": [ "Humans need lipids for many vital functions such as storing energy and forming what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7b76de396f65481cbfed6fb0083d209b", "input": "Passage: In many species display behaviors, rather than actual physical attacks, are used to show aggression. This helps prevent injury and death. Male gorillas, for example, are more likely to put on a display of aggression than to attack another male. In fact, gorillas have a whole series of display behaviors that they use to show aggression. They beat on their chest, dash back and forth, and pound the ground with their hands. Answer: showing aggression", "output": [ "How do the male gorillas show display behaviors?" ] }, { "id": "task594-14f55827991b4975871bc738d931d3ca", "input": "Passage: Not all diseases are contagious. A disease that is not contagious is called a noninfectious disease. These diseases are not caused by pathogens. Instead, they are likely to have causes such as lifestyle factors, environmental toxins, or gene mutations. Common types of noninfectious diseases include cancer, diabetes, and immune system diseases. Answer: noninfectious disease", "output": [ "What is the term for a disease that is not contagious?" ] }, { "id": "task594-89deb33474d84bafbc134fbb3b6c2447", "input": "Passage: Jami Dwyer. Deforestation creates significant increases in carbon dioxide levels around the world . Public Domain. Answer: increase", "output": [ "Does deforestation increase or decrease carbon dioxide levels around the world?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6742eb362ead4790850ff5c165649b72", "input": "Passage: Scientists also have to “check their work. ” The results of an investigation are not likely to be well accepted unless the investigation is repeated—usually many times—and the same result is always obtained. Getting the same result when an experiment is repeated is called replication . If research results can be replicated, it means they are more likely to be correct. Repeated replication of investigations may turn a hypothesis into a theory. On the other hand, if results cannot be replicated they are likely to be incorrect. Answer: replication", "output": [ "Getting the same result when an experiment is repeated is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f0d9460b1eb94e518d1d01ff674cd939", "input": "Passage: Potential energy is energy that is stored in a person or object. Answer: potential energy", "output": [ "Energy that is stored in a person or object is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3428439dfad24284bbca564bf49dd075", "input": "Passage: An underwater earthquake creates a tsunami this way: the movement of the crust displaces water. The displacement forms a set of waves. The waves travel at jet speed through the ocean. Since the waves have low amplitudes and long wavelengths, they are unnoticed in deep water. As the waves reach shore they compress. They are also pushed upward by the shore. For these reasons, tsunamis can grow to enormous wave heights. Tsunami waves can cause tremendous destruction and loss of life. Fortunately, few undersea earthquakes generate tsunamis. Answer: underwater", "output": [ "What type of earthquake creates a tsunami?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6c5df11e8dfd4d37a5f8b204d5637ebd", "input": "Passage: Upwelling brings nutrients to the surface from the ocean floor. Nutrients are important resources for ocean life. However, they aren’t the only resources on the ocean floor. Answer: upwelling", "output": [ "What process brings nutrients from the ocean's floor to its surface?" ] }, { "id": "task594-99cc2988395540b3b2d3624741bf7dc1", "input": "Passage: Some of the damage done by storms is from storm surge . Low pressure in a storm pulls water upward. Water piles up at a shoreline as storm winds push waves into the coast. Storm surge may raise sea level as much as 7.5 m (25 ft). This can be devastating in a shallow land area when winds, waves, and rain are intense. Answer: storm surge", "output": [ "What weather phenomenon can raise sea level as much as 25 feet when low pressure pulls water upward?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bf8e5b21aabf43af92a6edeb42ec7147", "input": "Passage: A protein is an organic compound made up of small molecules called amino acids . There are 20 different amino acids commonly found in the proteins of living organisms. Small proteins may contain just a few hundred amino acids, whereas large proteins may contain thousands of amino acids. The largest known proteins are titins, found in muscle, which are composed from over 27,000 amino acids. Answer: titins", "output": [ "What are the largest known proteins called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c1861914d29145f98152f44d8e28c498", "input": "Passage: 41.2 The main stages of food processing are ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination. Answer: ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination", "output": [ "What are the four stages of food processing?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3014f8712fe3406faa4fad30e9a09c56", "input": "Passage: The surface of Mars has volcanoes and canyons. There is a polar ice cap and channels that were once filled with water. Curiosity has found evidence of a flowing stream. Answer: volcanoes and canyons", "output": [ "What two structures are found on mars?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3bba5696be7443089e724bf5e7195e51", "input": "Passage: 3.4 Proteins Proteins are a class of macromolecules that perform a diverse range of functions for the cell. They help in metabolism by providing structural support and by acting as enzymes, carriers, or hormones. The building blocks of proteins (monomers) are amino acids. Each amino acid has a central carbon that is linked to an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and an R group or side chain. There are 20 commonly occurring amino acids, each of which differs in the R group. Each amino acid is linked to its neighbors by a peptide bond. A long chain of amino acids is known as a polypeptide. Proteins are organized at four levels: primary, secondary, tertiary, and (optional) quaternary. The primary structure is the unique sequence of amino acids. The local folding of the polypeptide to form structures such as the α helix and β-pleated sheet constitutes the secondary structure. The overall three-dimensional structure is the tertiary structure. When two or more polypeptides combine to form the complete protein structure, the configuration is known as the quaternary structure of a protein. Protein shape and function are intricately linked; any change in shape caused by changes in temperature or pH may lead to protein denaturation and a loss in function. Answer: proteins", "output": [ "Amino acids are the building blocks of what macromolecules?" ] }, { "id": "task594-18467ce42dd84b46923b211a0a787b87", "input": "Passage: Glaciers are melting back in many locations around the world. When a glacier no longer moves, it is called an ice sheet. This usually happens when it is less than 0.1 km2 in area and 50 m thick. Answer: an ice sheet", "output": [ "When a glacier no longer moves, what is it called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d55547cc661646ccbc8beb71ac1866da", "input": "Passage: In this equation, the letters A and B represent the reactants that begin the reaction, and the letter C represents the product that is synthesized in the reaction. The arrow shows the direction in which the reaction occurs. Answer: reaction mechanism", "output": [ "What term is used to describe the sequence of elementary steps that together comprise an entire chemical reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-16839a0b59b54bcaab8e2afd7547da5a", "input": "Passage: Cooling and forming crystals. Deep within the Earth, temperatures can get hot enough to melt rock. This molten material is called magma. As it cools, crystals grow, forming an igneous rock. The crystals will grow larger if the magma cools slowly, as it does if it remains deep within the Earth. If the magma cools quickly, the crystals will be very small. Answer: magma", "output": [ "What is the molten material deep within the earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d1305c7cc02342bdaedecc833aa88f46", "input": "Passage: events in angiosperms are known as double fertilization (Figure 32.18). After fertilization is complete, no other sperm can enter. The fertilized ovule forms the seed, whereas the tissues of the ovary become the fruit, usually enveloping the seed. Answer: fruit", "output": [ "After fertilization is complete, no other sperm can enter. the fertilized ovule forms the seed, whereas the tissues of the ovary become this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-94390e16f7cc40d9aba68ffd6bfb13bd", "input": "Passage: Cycloalkanes are hydrocarbons whose molecules are closed rings rather than straight or branched chains. A cyclic hydrocarbon is a hydrocarbon with a ring of carbon atoms. Answer: carbon atoms", "output": [ "Cycloalkanes are hydrocarbons whose molecules are closed rings rather than straight or branched chains. a cyclic hydrocarbon is a hydrocarbon with a ring of these?" ] }, { "id": "task594-711f9f89906d4a1586a04582ec94b706", "input": "Passage: Insects are the only invertebrates than can fly. Flight is the main reason for their success. Answer: insects", "output": [ "The only invertebrates than can fly belong to what broad group, which is highly successful?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eb4ded8117434828972278032385f806", "input": "Passage: Most scientists who study dark matter think it is a combination. Ordinary matter is part of it. That is mixed with some kind of matter that we haven’t discovered yet. Most scientists think that ordinary matter is less than half of the total matter in the Universe. Answer: less than half", "output": [ "Most scientists think that ordinary matter makes up how much of the total matter in the universe?" ] }, { "id": "task594-94b44a68903f49b79e870aa1713b82d4", "input": "Passage: Scientists compare the anatomy, embryos, and DNA of living things to understand how they evolved. Evidence for evolution is provided by homologous structures. These are structures shared by related organisms that were inherited from a common ancestor. Other evidence is provided by analogous structures. These are structures that unrelated organisms share because they evolved to do the same job. Answer: analogous structures", "output": [ "What type of structures evolved to do the same job by unrelated organisms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cf8488116f5648f286df004a2a868221", "input": "Passage: Longitudinal waves cause the particles of medium to move parallel to the direction of the wave. Answer: longitudinal waves", "output": [ "What causes the particles of medium to move parallel to the direction of the wave?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6af28ad0a11343ca979b4805e700baed", "input": "Passage: The skin has multiple roles in the body. Many of these roles are related to homeostasis. The skin’s main functions are preventing water loss from the body and serving as a barrier to the entry of microorganisms. In addition, melanin in the skin blocks UV light and protects deeper layers from its damaging effects. Answer: water", "output": [ "The skin plays an important role in preventing the escape of what commonly found liquid from the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6afb9a7855474c4b9a3484bed2cf4f8e", "input": "Passage: The most common type of brain injury is a concussion. This is a bruise on the surface of the brain. It may cause temporary symptoms such as headache and confusion. Most concussions heal on their own in a few days or weeks. However, repeated concussions can lead to permanent changes in the brain. More serious brain injuries also often cause permanent brain damage. Answer: concussion", "output": [ "What is the most common type of brain injury?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a005b83b8c2b4811b4ed0e50b6a59069", "input": "Passage: The majority of human genes have two or more possible alleles. Differences in alleles account for the considerable genetic variation among people. In fact, most human genetic variation is the result of differences in individual DNA bases within alleles. Answer: two or more", "output": [ "How many possible alleles do the majority of human genes have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dd50c49b18ce41ba81191f1cae18e0f9", "input": "Passage: Freshwater marshes and swamps are characterized by slow and steady water flow. Bogs develop in depressions where water flow is low or nonexistent. Bogs usually occur in areas where there is a clay bottom with poor percolation. Percolation is the movement of water through the pores in the soil or rocks. The water found in a bog is stagnant and oxygen depleted because the oxygen that is used during the decomposition of organic matter is not replaced. As the oxygen in the water is depleted, decomposition slows. This leads to organic acids and other acids building up and lowering the pH of the water. At a lower pH, nitrogen becomes unavailable to plants. This creates a challenge for plants because nitrogen is an important limiting resource. Some types of bog plants (such as sundews, pitcher plants, and Venus flytraps) capture insects and extract the nitrogen from their bodies. Bogs have low net primary productivity because the water found in bogs has low levels of nitrogen and oxygen. Answer: bogs", "output": [ "What develops in depressions where water flow is low or nonexistent?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b2b9e41cb16045fe90577aeddf8b3c4d", "input": "Passage: Food calories are determined by burning the food and measuring the heat released. Answer: calories", "output": [ "What property of food is determined by burning the food and measuring the heat released?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0338aef848f94478b62c4e85ece296c9", "input": "Passage: Metaphase II: The chromosomes line up one on top of each other along the middle of the cell, similar to how they line up in mitosis. The spindle is attached to the centromere of each chromosome. Answer: metaphase ii", "output": [ "In which stage do chromosomes line up one on top of each other along the middle of the cell, similar to how they line up in mitosis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bf2798ae35b844c99f590d217739aa62", "input": "Passage: Some materials are natural permanent magnets. The most magnetic material in nature is the mineral magnetite, also called lodestone (see Figure below ). The magnetic domains of magnetite naturally align with Earth’s axis. The picture on the left shows a chunk of magnetite attracting small bits of iron. The magnetite spoon compass shown on the right dates back about 2000 years and comes from China. The handle of the spoon always points north. Clearly, the magnetic properties of magnetite have been recognized for thousands of years. Answer: natural permanent magnet", "output": [ "Also called lodestone, the mineral magnetite is the most powerful what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d47aef8a6dc844d4afc62651cddc9032", "input": "Passage: Most bacteria may be placed into one of three groups based on their response to gaseous oxygen. What are these three groups?. Answer: oxygen", "output": [ "Most bacteria may be placed into one of three groups based on their response to gaseous?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e2888d0e8b6340dc86e49a0b200a9907", "input": "Passage: Heat is the transfer of thermal energy between substances. Thermal energy is the kinetic energy of moving particles of matter, measured by their temperature. Thermal energy always moves from matter with greater thermal energy to matter with less thermal energy, so it moves from warmer to cooler substances. You can see this in the Figure below . Faster-moving particles of the warmer substance bump into and transfer some of their energy to slower-moving particles of the cooler substance. Thermal energy is transferred in this way until both substances have the same thermal energy and temperature. For a visual introduction to these concepts, watch the animation “Temperature vs. Heat” at this URL:. Answer: thermal energy", "output": [ "Kinetic energy of moving particles of matter, measured by their temperatures are known as:" ] }, { "id": "task594-e612a25cb87c4da6a3ebb0ec2242f380", "input": "Passage: Humus is the decayed remains of living organisms. Humus makes soil fertile. Answer: humus", "output": [ "What is the decayed remains of living organisms called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d8f0c6ad9d10471c95c5e6953422d2af", "input": "Passage: Plant-like protists, which are autotrophs that photosynthesize. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "Plant-like protists are autotrophs capable of what process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2e0727b88d5140e4b0b58c481f0db89b", "input": "Passage: Descending fibers from the cerebrum have branches that connect to neurons in the pons. Those neurons project into the cerebellum, providing a copy of motor commands sent to the spinal cord. Sensory information from the periphery, which enters through spinal or cranial nerves, is copied to a nucleus in the medulla known as the inferior olive. Fibers from this nucleus enter the cerebellum and are compared with the descending commands from the cerebrum. If the primary motor cortex of the frontal lobe sends a command down to the spinal cord to initiate walking, a copy of that instruction is sent to the cerebellum. Sensory feedback from the muscles and joints, proprioceptive information about the movements of walking, and sensations of balance are sent to the cerebellum through the inferior olive and the cerebellum compares them. If walking is not coordinated, perhaps because the ground is uneven or a strong wind is blowing, then the cerebellum sends out a. Answer: spinal cord", "output": [ "Descending fibers from the cerebrum have branches that connect to neurons in the pons. those neurons project into the cerebellum, providing a copy of motor commands sent to this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d78bd3ed144244beafcd71b5c2bc2689", "input": "Passage: Distance is the length of the route between two points. The distance of a race, for example, is the length of the track between the starting and finishing lines. In a 100-meter sprint, that distance is 100 meters. Answer: distance", "output": [ "What is the length of the route between two points?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b573b5aa57f44c03afb8d1b6cd211eb3", "input": "Passage: When iron filings and sulfur powder are mixed together in any ratio, they form a mixture. No chemical reaction occurs, and both elements retain their individual properties. A magnet can be used to mechanically separate the two elements by attracting the iron filings out of the mixture and leaving the sulfur behind. Answer: magnet", "output": [ "What can be used to mechanically separate the two elements by attracting the iron filings out of the mixture and leaving the sulfur behind?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f5bdc8752aed4c3baf8e14f013325c77", "input": "Passage: Some maps have a double compass rose. This allows users to make the corrections between magnetic north and true north. An example is a nautical chart that boaters use to chart their positions at sea ( Figure below ). Answer: double compass rose", "output": [ "Which feature in maps allows users to make corrections between magnetic north and true north?" ] }, { "id": "task594-533bf99bbdaf4446b28c9d3c30f94039", "input": "Passage: A puddle of water left undisturbed eventually disappears. The liquid molecules escape into the gas phase, becoming water vapor. Vaporization is the process in which a liquid is converted to a gas. Evaporation is the conversion of a liquid to its vapor below the boiling temperature of the liquid. If the water is instead kept in a closed container, the water vapor molecules do not have a chance to escape into the surroundings and so the water level does not change. As some water molecules become vapor, an equal number of water vapor molecules condense back into the liquid state. Condensation is the change of state from a gas to a liquid. Answer: condensation", "output": [ "What is the change of state from a gas to a liquid?" ] }, { "id": "task594-43669e03f2294dd5b0c6733c046d6dd3", "input": "Passage: Many turtles are aquatic. They may live in the ocean or in fresh water. Other turtles are terrestrial and live on land. All lizards are terrestrial. Their habitats may range from deserts to rainforests. They may live in a range of places, from underground burrows to the tops of trees. Most snakes are terrestrial, but some are aquatic. Crocodilians live in and around swamps or bodies of water. The water may be fresh or salty, depending on the species of crocodilian. Answer: ocean water and fresh water", "output": [ "Name the two types of water turtles live in." ] }, { "id": "task594-707f2380ad7343adbadf6c7880b36ee8", "input": "Passage: Salts Recall that salts are formed when ions form ionic bonds. In these reactions, one atom gives up one or more electrons, and thus becomes positively charged, whereas the other accepts one or more electrons and becomes negatively charged. You can now define a salt as a substance that, when dissolved in water, dissociates into ions other than H+ or OH–. This fact is important in distinguishing salts from acids and bases, discussed next. A typical salt, NaCl, dissociates completely in water (Figure 2.15). The positive and negative regions on the water molecule (the hydrogen and oxygen ends respectively) attract the negative chloride and positive sodium ions, pulling them away from each other. Again, whereas nonpolar and polar covalently bonded compounds break apart into molecules in solution, salts dissociate into ions. These ions are electrolytes; they are capable of conducting an electrical current in solution. This property is critical to the function of ions in transmitting nerve impulses and prompting muscle contraction. Answer: salts", "output": [ "What substances, which are distinct from acids and bases, form when ions form ionic bonds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e4314e3cf38a43c1a16d3b1766590f05", "input": "Passage: 17.3 | Whole-Genome Sequencing By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Describe three types of sequencing • Define whole-genome sequencing Although there have been significant advances in the medical sciences in recent years, doctors are still confounded by some diseases, and they are using whole-genome sequencing to get to the bottom of the problem. Whole-genome sequencing is a process that determines the DNA sequence of an entire genome. Whole-genome sequencing is a brute-force approach to problem solving when there is a genetic basis at the core of a disease. Several laboratories now provide services to sequence, analyze, and interpret entire genomes. For example, whole-exome sequencing is a lower-cost alternative to whole genome sequencing. In exome sequencing, only the coding, exon-producing regions of the DNA are sequenced. In 2010, whole-exome sequencing was used to save a young boy whose intestines had multiple mysterious abscesses. The child had several colon operations with no relief. Finally, whole-exome sequencing was performed, which revealed a defect in a pathway that controls apoptosis (programmed cell death). A bone-marrow transplant was used to overcome this genetic disorder, leading to a cure for the boy. He was the first person to be successfully treated based on a diagnosis made by whole-exome sequencing. Today, human genome sequencing is more readily available and can be completed in a day or two for about $1000. Answer: whole-genome sequencing", "output": [ "What process determines the dna sequence of an entire genome?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7fd78ca319034886976c0571fc59e96b", "input": "Passage: Bioluminescent organisms include jellyfish and fireflies. Jellyfish give off visible light to startle predators. Fireflies give off visible light to attract mates. Answer: visible light", "output": [ "What do jellyfish use to startle predators?" ] }, { "id": "task594-63ed7aec7adf4179ac86b848267effab", "input": "Passage: If the temperature of a gas sample is decreased, the volume decreases as well. Answer: decreases", "output": [ "If the temperature of a gas sample is decreased, what happens to the volume?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9c8867f2ec27423fad154c5d7ebf9096", "input": "Passage: The muscular system consists of all the muscles of the body. Muscles are organs composed mainly of muscle cells, which are also called muscle fibers . Each muscle fiber is a very long, thin cell that can do something no other cell can do. It can contract, or shorten. Muscle contractions are responsible for virtually all the movements of the body, both inside and out. There are three types of muscle tissues in the human body: cardiac, smooth, and skeletal muscle tissues. They are shown in Figure below and described below. Answer: muscle fibers", "output": [ "What are muscle cells in the muscles called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f11d89a1185346a4a3ee9f99c9eb2ecf", "input": "Passage: Despite its dangers, radioactivity has several uses. For example, it can be used to determine the ages of ancient rocks and fossils. It can also be used as a source of power to generate electricity. Radioactivity can even be used to diagnose and treat diseases, including cancer. Cancer cells grow rapidly and take up a lot of glucose for energy. Glucose containing radioactive elements can be given to patients. Cancer cells take up more of the glucose than normal cells do and give off radiation. The radiation can be detected with special machines like the one in the Figure below . The radiation may also kill cancer cells. You can learn more about medical uses of radiation at this URL: http://www. youtube. com/watch?v=v_8xM-mLxJ8. Answer: energy", "output": [ "Cancer cells take up glucose for what reason?" ] }, { "id": "task594-22e2f441792745a197ad73105e7e1ea8", "input": "Passage: The most destructive types of mass movement are landslides and mudslides. Both occur suddenly. Answer: mass movement", "output": [ "Landslides and mudslides are the most destructive types of what geologic phenomenon?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f82e138ce4e2456ca74576d0a61abf78", "input": "Passage: Two identical diploid cells result from spermatogonia mitosis. One of these cells remains a spermatogonium, and the other becomes a primary spermatocyte, the next stage in the process of spermatogenesis. As in mitosis, DNA is replicated in a primary spermatocyte, and the cell undergoes cell division to produce two cells with identical chromosomes. Each of these is a secondary spermatocyte. Now a second round of cell division occurs in both of the secondary spermatocytes, separating the chromosome pairs. This second meiotic division results in a total of four cells with only half of the number of chromosomes. Each of these new cells is a spermatid. Although haploid, early spermatids look very similar to cells in the earlier stages of spermatogenesis, with a round shape, central nucleus, and large amount of cytoplasm. A process called spermiogenesis transforms these early spermatids, reducing the cytoplasm, and beginning the formation of the parts of a true sperm. The fifth stage of germ cell formation—spermatozoa, or formed sperm—is the end result of this process, which occurs in the portion of the tubule nearest the lumen. Eventually, the sperm are released into the lumen and are moved along a series of ducts in the testis toward a structure called the epididymis for the next step of sperm maturation. Answer: dna", "output": [ "During mitosis what is replicated in the primary spermatocyte?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2cd71cab35944060b709ab4b4e7876e3", "input": "Passage: When fuel is burned, most of the energy is released as heat. Some of this heat can be used to do work. Heat cooks food or warms your house. Sometimes the heat is just waste heat. It still heats the environment, though. Answer: heat", "output": [ "When fuel is burned, most of the energy is released in what form?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0c08547eb423400faabc650424d62bf2", "input": "Passage: Good conductors have large numbers of free charges in them. In metals, the free charges are free electrons. Figure 20.6 shows how free electrons move through an ordinary conductor. The distance that an individual electron can move between collisions with atoms or other electrons is quite small. The electron paths thus appear nearly random, like the motion of atoms in a gas. But there is an electric field in the conductor that causes the electrons to drift in the direction shown (opposite to the field, since they are negative). The drift velocity v d is the average velocity of the free charges. Drift velocity is quite small, since there are so many free charges. If we have an estimate of the density of free electrons in a conductor, we can calculate the drift velocity for a given current. The larger the density, the lower the velocity required for a given current. Answer: many free charges", "output": [ "Why is the drift velocity negligible?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9b45f42670d942c5a7b349fedfd90fc1", "input": "Passage: The large intestine eliminates food wastes that remain after digestion takes place. Answer: large intestine", "output": [ "What eliminates food wastes that remain after digestion takes place?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8ce106bca8c7444e8333cae285d9a696", "input": "Passage: The part of each nephron called the glomerulus is where blood in the capillaries is filtered. Excess water and wastes are filtered out of the blood. The tubule of the nephron collects these substances. Some of the water is reabsorbed. The remaining fluid is urine. Answer: tubule", "output": [ "Which part of the nephron collects wastes in the blood?" ] }, { "id": "task594-af19c82d122342a39f539fc7b8d392bb", "input": "Passage: We see examples of mammals (other than people!) serving our needs everywhere. We have pets that are mammals, such as dogs and cats. Mammals are also used around the world for transport. For example, horses, donkeys, mules, or camels ( Figure below ) may be the primary means of transport in some parts of the world. Mammals also do work for us. Service dogs can be trained to help the disabled. These include guide dogs, which are assistance dogs trained to lead blind and visually impaired people around obstacles. Horses and elephants can carry heavy loads. Humans also use some mammals for food. For example, cows and goats are commonly raised for their milk and meat. Mammals’ more highly developed brains have made them ideal for use by scientists in studying such things as learning, as seen in maze studies of mice and rats. Answer: mammals", "output": [ "What broad group of animals - which includes rats, dogs and camels - have highly developed brains and often perform work for humans?" ] }, { "id": "task594-74971bed4477456d9051561ea5fc362d", "input": "Passage: The order of bases in nucleic acids is highly significant. The bases are like the letters of a four-letter alphabet. These \"letters\" can be combined to form \"words. \" Groups of three bases form words of the genetic code . Each code word, called a codon, stands for a different amino acid. A series of many codons spells out the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide or protein ( Figure below ). In short, nucleic acids contain the information needed for cells to make proteins. This information is passed from a body cell to its daughter cells when the cell divides. It is also passed from parents to their offspring when organisms reproduce. Answer: proteins", "output": [ "Nucleic acids contain the information needed for cells to make what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d396ad22f02f4034939be6590901ab32", "input": "Passage: This inverse relationship between solubility and temperature can be understood by looking at a molecular model. Recall that higher temperatures are associated with faster particles. Gas particles are held in solution by attractive interactions with the solvent molecules. If the particles are moving slowly, these attractive forces will pull back any particles that try to escape the surface of the solution and re-enter the gas phase. However, if the gas particles are moving fast enough, these interactions will not be sufficiently strong to prevent this process from occurring. As a result, more particles are able to escape, and the amount of dissolved solute is less than it would be at a lower temperature. Answer: molecular model", "output": [ "This inverse relationship between solubility and temperature can be understood by looking at a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-948e1acbdccc449795814e69382d0cb5", "input": "Passage: Humans learn behaviors through conditioning, as well. A young child might learn to put away his toys by being rewarded with a bedtime story. An older child might learn to study for tests in school by being rewarded with better grades. Can you think of behaviors you have learned by being rewarded for them?. Answer: conditioning", "output": [ "How do humans learn behaviors?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e81e4124a40f4b719214efa8d645af16", "input": "Passage: Chemistry is the study of matter and energy and how they interact, mainly at the level of atoms and molecules. Basic concepts in chemistry include chemicals, which are specific types of matter, and chemical reactions. In a chemical reaction, atoms or molecules of certain types of matter combine chemically to form other types of matter. All chemical reactions involve energy. Answer: chemistry", "output": [ "What is the study of the interaction between matter and energy called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-082aaa788ab84e7396d62562d72530d6", "input": "Passage: After a heavy rain, you may find puddles of water standing in low spots. The same principle explains why water collects in ponds and lakes. Water travels downhill, so a depression in the ground fills with standing water. A pond is a small body of standing water. A lake is a large body of standing water. Most lakes have freshwater, but a few are salty. The Great Salt Lake in Utah is an example of a saltwater lake. Answer: downhill", "output": [ "In which direction does water travel?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a192430b550b495db44a513b2b1cc230", "input": "Passage: Naming anions is slightly different than naming cations. The ending of the element’s name is dropped and replaced with the – ide suffix. For example, F - is the fluoride ion, while O 2- is the oxide ion. As is the case with cations, the charge on the anion is indicated by a superscript following the symbol. Common anions are listed in the Table below :. Answer: anions", "output": [ "When naming this type of ion the ending of the element’s name is dropped and replaced with the – ide suffix?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3e8b26bd6f124304bf78bd8720b0f5d2", "input": "Passage: What is physics ? Physics is the branch of science that studies the physical world, including objects as small as subatomic particles and as large as galaxies. It studies the nature of matter and energy and how they interact. Physicists are inquisitive people who want to know the causes of what they see. How does the moon move? Why does the moon move? Why do the stars shine? Why do your hands get warm when you rub them together? Physicists, like all scientists, hope to find explanations that describe more than one phenomenon and offer a better understanding of how the universe works. Answer: physics", "output": [ "What is the branch of science that studies the physical world?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c0ee9fe256374767ab07e94f263ac35a", "input": "Passage: Fossils may form in other ways. With complete preservation, the organism doesn't change much. As seen below, tree sap may cover an organism and then turn into amber. The original organism is preserved so that scientists might be able to study its DNA. Organisms can also be completely preserved in tar or ice. Molds and casts are another way organisms can be fossilized. A mold is an imprint of an organism left in rock. The organism's remains break down completely. Rock that fills in the mold resembles the original remains. The fossil that forms in the mold is called a cast. Molds and casts usually form in sedimentary rock. With compression, an organism's remains are put under great pressure inside rock layers. This leaves behind a dark stain in the rock. Answer: rock", "output": [ "A mold is an imprint of an organism left in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9d6cb55c4e4f415390a840734e183f13", "input": "Passage: Unsaturated hydrocarbons have at least one double or triple bond between carbon atoms, so the carbon atoms are not bonded to as many hydrogen atoms as possible. In other words, they are unsaturated with hydrogen atoms. Answer: unsaturated", "output": [ "When carbon atoms are not bonded to as many hydrogen atoms as possible, what kind of hydrocarbon results?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2c40df4807a54169bbae97644115b438", "input": "Passage: Most of the stars pictured in this view of the night sky are hundreds of light years from Earth. A light year is the distance that light can travel in a year, or about 6 trillion (6,000,000,000,000) miles. As this example shows, quantities in science may be very large. Many other quantities in science are very small. Both very large and very small numbers have many zeroes, so they are hard to read and write without making mistakes. That’s where scientific notation comes in. Answer: light year", "output": [ "The distance that light can travel in a year is known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e451fab3c926413a8ae1c56b7e3d5a99", "input": "Passage: The Esophageal Phase The entry of food into the esophagus marks the beginning of the esophageal phase of deglutition and the initiation of peristalsis. As in the previous phase, the complex neuromuscular actions are controlled by the medulla oblongata. Peristalsis propels the bolus through the esophagus and toward the stomach. The circular muscle layer of the muscularis contracts, pinching the esophageal wall and forcing the bolus forward. At the same time, the longitudinal muscle layer of the muscularis also contracts, shortening this area and pushing out its walls to receive the bolus. In this way, a series of contractions keeps moving food toward the stomach. When the bolus nears the stomach, distention of the esophagus initiates a short reflex relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter that allows the bolus to pass into the stomach. During the esophageal phase, esophageal glands secrete mucus that lubricates the bolus and minimizes friction. Answer: peristalsis", "output": [ "The entry of food into the esophagus marks the beginning of the esophageal phase of deglutition and the initiation of this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-716785fa75e24475b9a2dab1af7ac509", "input": "Passage: Bacteria change nitrogen gas from the atmosphere to nitrogen compounds that plants can absorb. Answer: bacteria", "output": [ "What changes nitrogen gas from the atmosphere to nitrogen compounds that plants can absorb?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7cd01f6203ff4b14b8cfe3e0b3cfc5f0", "input": "Passage: Afterbirth The delivery of the placenta and associated membranes, commonly referred to as the afterbirth, marks the final stage of childbirth. After expulsion of the newborn, the myometrium continues to contract. This movement shears the placenta from the back of the uterine wall. It is then easily delivered through the vagina. Continued uterine contractions then reduce blood loss from the site of the placenta. Delivery of the placenta marks the beginning of the postpartum period—the period of approximately 6 weeks immediately following childbirth during which the mother’s body gradually returns to a nonpregnant state. If the placenta does not birth spontaneously within approximately 30 minutes, it is considered retained, and the obstetrician may attempt manual removal. If this is not successful, surgery may be required. It is important that the obstetrician examines the expelled placenta and fetal membranes to ensure that they are intact. If fragments of the placenta remain in the uterus, they can cause postpartum hemorrhage. Uterine contractions continue for several hours after birth to return the uterus to its pre-pregnancy size in a process called involution, which also allows the mother’s abdominal organs to return to their pre-pregnancy locations. Breastfeeding facilitates this process. Although postpartum uterine contractions limit blood loss from the detachment of the placenta, the mother does experience a postpartum vaginal discharge called lochia. This is made up of uterine lining cells, erythrocytes, leukocytes, and other debris. Thick, dark, lochia rubra (red lochia) typically continues for 2–3 days, and is replaced by lochia serosa, a thinner, pinkish form that continues until about the tenth postpartum day. After this period, a scant, creamy, or watery discharge called lochia alba (white lochia) may continue for another 1–2 weeks. Answer: postpartum", "output": [ "What period starts after the baby is born, and the placenta is expelled from the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-34835c7d1db64d84bfdbc48253141039", "input": "Passage: The whirring blades of these wind turbines look stark against the darkening sky at sunset. The energy of the wind causes the blades to spin, and the energy of the spinning blades is used to generate electricity. People have been using wind for energy for centuries. Until about 200 years ago, for example, ships depended on wind to sail the oceans. And windmills have long been used to gather wind energy to pump water and do other useful work. Today, wind energy is making a comeback. Do you know why? What might be advantages of using the wind for energy? This chapter has the answers. Answer: wind energy", "output": [ "What energy source, now making a comeback, has helped propel ships and pump water for many years?" ] }, { "id": "task594-72ddf05da4924bfbad479ae74bd32185", "input": "Passage: Angiosperms , or flowering seed plants, form seeds in ovaries. As the seeds develop, the ovaries may develop into fruits. Flowers attract pollinators, and fruits encourage animals to disperse the seeds. Answer: angiosperms", "output": [ "What is the term for flowering seed plants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d841c099f6ef48f9944404d5b6e20862", "input": "Passage: 36.2 | Somatosensation By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Describe four important mechanoreceptors in human skin • Describe the topographical distribution of somatosensory receptors between glabrous and hairy skin • Explain why the perception of pain is subjective Somatosensation is a mixed sensory category and includes all sensation received from the skin and mucous membranes, as well from as the limbs and joints. Somatosensation is also known as tactile sense, or more familiarly, as the sense of touch. Somatosensation occurs all over the exterior of the body and at some interior locations as well. A variety of receptor types—embedded in the skin, mucous membranes, muscles, joints, internal organs, and cardiovascular system—play a role. Recall that the epidermis is the outermost layer of skin in mammals. It is relatively thin, is composed of keratin-filled cells, and has no blood supply. The epidermis serves as a barrier to water and to invasion by pathogens. Below this, the much thicker dermis contains blood vessels, sweat glands, hair follicles, lymph vessels, and lipid-secreting sebaceous glands (Figure 36.4). Below the epidermis and dermis is the subcutaneous tissue, or hypodermis, the fatty layer that contains blood vessels, connective tissue, and the axons of sensory neurons. The hypodermis, which holds about 50 percent of the body’s fat, attaches the dermis to the bone and muscle, and supplies nerves and blood vessels to the dermis. Answer: touch", "output": [ "Somatosensation refers to what of the five senses?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8234d4a5d97f4fcebe72a7da5bee94fb", "input": "Passage: Electric devices, such as lights and household appliances, change electric current to other forms of energy. For example, an electric stove changes electric current to thermal energy. Other common devices, such as mobile phones and computers, use electric current for another purpose: to encode information. A message encoded this way is called an electronic signal , and the use of electric current for this purpose is called electronics . For an overview of electronics and electronic signals, read the short article at this URL: http://www. bbc. co. uk/scotland/learning/bitesize/standard/physics/electronics/overview_rev1. shtml . Answer: thermal", "output": [ "An electric stove changes electric current to what form of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-136824d2a0174c719f31ed5b66d36e17", "input": "Passage: The epidermis of the leaf consists of a single layer of tightly-packed dermal cells. They secrete waxy cuticle to prevent evaporation of water from the leaf. The epidermis has tiny pores called stomata (singular, stoma) that control transpiration and gas exchange with the air. For photosynthesis, stomata must control the transpiration of water vapor and the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen. Stomata are flanked by guard cells that swell or shrink by taking in or losing water through osmosis . When they do, they open or close the stomata (see Figure below ). Answer: dermal cells", "output": [ "What type of cells make up the epidermis of a leaf?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b105447435b643abac85bf99be55e64d", "input": "Passage: Making these healthy lifestyle choices can also help prevent some types of cancer. In addition, you can lower the risk of cancer by avoiding carcinogens , which are substances that cause cancer. For example, you can reduce your risk of lung cancer by not smoking. You can reduce your risk of skin cancer by using sunscreen. How to choose a sunscreen that offers the most protection is explained below ( Figure below ). Some people think that tanning beds are a safe way to get a tan. This is a myth. Tanning beds expose the skin to UV radiation. Any exposure to UV radiation increases the risk of skin cancer. It doesn’t matter whether the radiation comes from tanning lamps or the sun. Answer: cancer", "output": [ "Avoiding carcinogens helps lower the risk of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-37dcbf7964ce46b8acae334657b1084c", "input": "Passage: How does the food you eat provide energy? When you need a quick boost of energy, you might reach for an apple or a candy bar. But cells do not \"eat\" apples or candy bars; these foods need to be broken down so that cells can use them. Through the process of cellular respiration , the energy in food is changed into energy that can be used by the body's cells. Initially, the sugars in the food you eat are digested into the simple sugar glucose , a monosaccharide . Recall that glucose is the sugar produced by the plant during photosynthesis. The glucose, or the polysaccharide made from many glucose molecules, such as starch , is then passed to the organism that eats the plant. This organism could be you, or it could be the organism that you eat. Either way, it is the glucose molecules that holds the energy. Answer: glucose molecules", "output": [ "Which molecules in the body holds energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-78157f1d13e8441cbd8a72ed53e76b1a", "input": "Passage: These values suggest that water should be oxidized at the anode because a smaller potential would be needed—using reaction (ii) for the oxidation would give a less-negative cell potential. When the experiment is run, it turns out chlorine, not oxygen, is produced at the anode. The unexpected process is so common in electrochemistry that it has been given the name overpotential. The overpotential is the difference between the theoretical cell voltage and the actual voltage that is necessary to cause electrolysis. It turns out that the overpotential for oxygen is rather high and effectively makes the reduction potential more positive. As a result, under normal conditions, chlorine gas is what actually forms at the anode. Now consider the cathode. Three reductions could occur:. Answer: anode and a cathode", "output": [ "What are the two metals within a battery called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-caa32df50b5f4730a2381d219f1723f7", "input": "Passage: All electric circuits have at least two parts: a voltage source and a conductor. They may have other parts as well, such as light bulbs and switches, as in the simple circuit seen in the Figure below . To see an animation of a circuit like this one, go to: http://www. rkm. com. au/animations/animation-electrical-circuit. html. Answer: electric circuits", "output": [ "A voltage source and a conductor are common to all what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9c54245a654e4412867f740559563e3a", "input": "Passage: Remember that proteins are made out of amino acids. How does the information in the gene get converted from the language of nucleotides to the language of amino acids? The process is called translation . The amino acids are placed in a specific order during translation. The order is specified by the codons in the mRNA, which is produced during transcription. As the mRNA sequence is based on the gene sequence in the DNA, the order of amino acids that makes the protein is based on the gene sequence as well. Answer: translation", "output": [ "What is the name for the process where data in the genes is transferred to amino acids?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bd49f21a24be4ae799baa73f8bb65098", "input": "Passage: 8.5 Regulation of enzyme activity helps control metabolism. Answer: enzyme activity", "output": [ "Metabolism is controlled by regulation of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b83eab8ddded415498d893889a10e539", "input": "Passage: Water on Mars can't be a liquid. This is because the pressure of the atmosphere is too low. The planet does have a lot of water; it is in the form of ice. The south pole of Mars has a very visible ice cap. Scientists also have evidence that there is also a lot of ice just under the Martian surface. The ice melts when volcanoes erupt. At this times liquid water flows across the surface. Answer: ice", "output": [ "What form does water take on the planet mars?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9d97b10659bb4cc8adae7535583b6f36", "input": "Passage: All living things have ways of maintaining a stable internal environment. This stable condition is called homeostasis. Answer: homeostasis", "output": [ "All living things maintain a stable internal environment through what process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-effc35b4c6df4d0cbaa3575890a68e66", "input": "Passage: The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It controls conscious functions such as reasoning, language, sight, touch, and hearing. It is divided into two hemispheres, or halves. The hemispheres are very similar but not identical to one another. They are connected by a thick bundle of axons deep within the brain. Each hemisphere is further divided into the four lobes shown in Figure below . Answer: cerebrum", "output": [ "What is the largest part of the brain?" ] }, { "id": "task594-068cbdf1402e496ba7e03068da9e15d4", "input": "Passage: 19.3 The Human Population Earth’s human population is growing exponentially. Humans have increased their carrying capacity through technology, urbanization, and harnessing the energy of fossil fuels. The age structure of a population allows us to predict population growth. Unchecked human population growth could have dire long-term effects on human welfare and Earth’s ecosystems. Answer: carrying capacity", "output": [ "Human population is growing exponentially and humans have increased what normally limiting factor through technology, urbanization, and harnessing the energy of fossil fuels?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9c5c23a620ea4c84a86f2d9b19612780", "input": "Passage: Meteorites provide clues about our solar system. Many were formed in the early solar system ( Figure below ). Some are from asteroids that have split apart. A few are rocks from nearby bodies like Mars. For this to happen, an asteroid smashed into Mars and sent up debris. A bit of the debris entered Earth’s atmosphere as a meteor. Answer: meteorites", "output": [ "What astronomical phenomenon, formed of split asteroids or planetary rocks, provides clues about our solar system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-589df2d536e64d65b2c401cc029ae9ef", "input": "Passage: Insects produce useful substances, such as honey, wax, lacquer, and silk. Answer: insects", "output": [ "Which type of animal creates useful substances such as honey, wax, lacquer, and silk?" ] }, { "id": "task594-78abdd9ce85848baa3ae0db587097e29", "input": "Passage: From a human point of view, natural resources can be classified as either renewable or nonrenewable. Renewable resources, such as sunlight and living things, can be remade quickly by natural processes. Nonrenewable resources, such as fossil fuels and soil, cannot be remade or else take millions of years to remake. Answer: renewable", "output": [ "These resources can be remade quickly, through natural processes" ] }, { "id": "task594-90fd8a4146884658b66b91b6bf22e68c", "input": "Passage: People protect areas that might flood with dams. In dire situations, they use sandbags ( Figure below ). Dams are usually very effective, but high water levels sometimes cause a dam to break. In that case, flooding can be catastrophic. Flood waters can also overflow a dam. People may line a river bank with levees to protect against floods. These are high walls that keep the stream within its banks during floods. Flood protection in one location sometimes causes problems elsewhere. For example, a levee in one location may just force the high water upstream or downstream. This will lead to flooding in a different location. Sometimes water gets so high that the river must be allowed to flood. Answer: dams", "output": [ "What do people build to protect areas from floods?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1a045a0fa160450a8eb2b248facd2139", "input": "Passage: The cardiovascular system transports many substances to and from cells throughout the body. Answer: cardiovascular", "output": [ "What system transports many substances to and from cells throughout the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-78bbf1bb2aba46f382b5620d32e424dc", "input": "Passage: The outer ear includes the pinna, ear canal, and eardrum. Answer: outer", "output": [ "The eardrum is part of what part of the ear?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8fc88d4a31dd49e7aa7314360415b9ab", "input": "Passage: Phosphate groups are found within phospholipids and nucleotides. Answer: nucleotides", "output": [ "Phosphate groups are found within phospholipids and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-08cd23f389ca4f88859286fb8385a387", "input": "Passage: Inside of elements, you will find identical atoms. An atom is the simplest and smallest particle of matter that still has chemical properties of the element. Atoms are the building block of all of the elements that make up the matter in your body or any other living or non-living thing. Atoms are so small that only the most powerful microscopes can see them. Answer: an atom", "output": [ "The simplest and smallest particle of matter that still has chemical properties of the element is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7bf706ccace84a87954ed9f64d6a176c", "input": "Passage: Some birds have lost the ability to fly during the course of their evolution. Several flightless birds are shown in Figure below . They include the ostrich, kiwi, rhea, cassowary, and moa. All of these birds have long legs and are adapted for running. The penguins shown in the figure are also flightless birds, but they have a very different body shape. That’s because they are adapted for swimming rather than running. Answer: flightless", "output": [ "The ostrich, kiwi, rhea, cassowary, and moa are examples of what kind of birds?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7df8dbefa88c4f85b2ec483d3019e4ce", "input": "Passage: 32.4 Food Irradiation Ionizing radiation is widely used to sterilize medical supplies, such as bandages, and consumer products, such as tampons. Worldwide, it is also used to irradiate food, an application that promises to grow in the future. Food irradiation is the treatment of food with ionizing radiation. It is used to reduce pest infestation and to delay spoilage and prevent illness caused by microorganisms. Food irradiation is controversial. Proponents see it as superior to pasteurization, preservatives, and insecticides, supplanting dangerous chemicals with a more effective process. Opponents see its safety as unproven, perhaps leaving worse toxic residues as well as presenting an environmental hazard at treatment sites. In developing countries, food irradiation might increase crop production by 25.0% or more, and reduce food spoilage by a similar amount. It is used chiefly to treat spices and some fruits, and in some countries, red meat, poultry, and vegetables. Over 40 countries have approved food irradiation at some level. Food irradiation exposes food to large doses of. Answer: ionizing radiation", "output": [ "Which radiations helps sterilize medical supplies?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c01f5884e3c741e1b0d6ab0646c96967", "input": "Passage: 2.11 EL NIÑO Introduction: Consider the physical dynamics of the oceans. WOW! That sounds like trouble! What do “physical dynamics” mean? It sounds hard and boring. Not to fear. Though it may be boring to some of you, it should not be too hard. What is meant by “physical dynamics”? Physical refers to something that is observable and measurable. Dynamics are the way things work. So, the physical dynamics of the ocean refer to the measurable, observable ways that the ocean works. Not so bad, right? The physical dynamics of the ocean include things like tides, temperature, wave action, ocean currents, salinity (concentration of salt), and ocean depth. The physical dynamics of the ocean are all abiotic factors. It should not be surprising to you that the abiotic ocean factors (the physical dynamics) affect the ocean’s biotic factors, i. the organisms that live in and around the ocean. We often hear the term \"El Nino\" but few of us really understand what it means or how it affects us. El Nino is a physical phenomenon of the ocean that has a significant impact on both ocean life and human life. In this assignment you will describe El Nino and its impact on the Earth’s biosphere. Assignment: Using the Internet, find information related to El Nino. There are a multitude of Internet sources; you will probably find more information than you can possibly use. Using the information from at least THREE different Internet sources, write a THREE page, type written, double spaced essay that answers the following FOUR questions: 1. What are oceans currents? What are tides? Describe the ocean currents and tides, what they are; what causes them, where they normally flow, etc… 2. What is El Nino? Describe what it is and what causes it. How does it affect ocean currents and tides? Water temperature? Other abiotic factors? 3. Answer: el nino", "output": [ "Name the physical phenomenon of the ocean that has a significant impact on both ocean life and human life." ] }, { "id": "task594-5aa85f05b9dc4ab6b6ef79a666f2f3cd", "input": "Passage: When air is very humid, it doesn’t have to cool very much for water vapor in the air to start condensing. The temperature at which condensation occurs is called the dew point. The dew point varies depending on air temperature and moisture content. It is always less than or equal to the actual air temperature, but warmer air and moister air have dew points closer to the actual air temperature. That’s why glasses of cold drinks “sweat” more on a hot, humid day than they do on a cool, dry day. For more details on the dew point, read the short article at this URL: http://www. kidsgeo. com/geography-for-kids/0108-dew-point. php. Answer: condensation", "output": [ "Dew point is the temperature at which what occurs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5f5b01e16d604c7399ed9b4c147e508e", "input": "Passage: Fossil fuels are compounds of carbon and hydrogen, called hydrocarbons . Hydrocarbons can be solid, liquid, or gas. The solid form is coal. The liquid form is petroleum, or crude oil. The gaseous form is natural gas. Answer: coal", "output": [ "What do we call the solid form of hydrocarbons?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5795f08e1e704739b457ac81909687fe", "input": "Passage: Geothermal energy uses heat from magma within the Earth to heat homes or produce steam that turns turbines. Answer: geothermal energy", "output": [ "What kind of energy used heat from magma within the earth to heat homes or produce steam that turns turbines?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9e1531e2901d4181a09c04cef0320745", "input": "Passage: Figure 6.20 According to early accounts, Newton was inspired to make the connection between falling bodies and astronomical motions when he saw an apple fall from a tree and realized that if the gravitational force could extend above the ground to a tree, it might also reach the Sun. The inspiration of Newton’s apple is a part of worldwide folklore and may even be based in fact. Great importance is attached to it because Newton’s universal law of gravitation and his laws of motion answered very old questions about nature and gave tremendous support to the notion of underlying simplicity and unity in nature. Scientists still expect underlying simplicity to emerge from their ongoing inquiries into nature. Answer: sun", "output": [ "According to early accounts, newton was inspired to make the connection between falling bodies and astronomical motions when he saw an apple fall from a tree and realized that if the gravitational force could extend above the ground to a tree, it might also reach this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6b33165c1c4a4304a0d7856f5450d681", "input": "Passage: Weather maps show storms, air masses, and fronts. Answer: fronts", "output": [ "Weather maps show storms, air masses, and what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9318c664ff27442494aac11ab10437e4", "input": "Passage: or myotube. As a myotube is formed from many different myoblast cells, it contains many nuclei, but has a continuous cytoplasm. This is why skeletal muscle cells are multinucleate, as the nucleus of each contributing myoblast remains intact in the mature skeletal muscle cell. However, cardiac and smooth muscle cells are not multinucleate because the myoblasts that form their cells do not fuse. Gap junctions develop in the cardiac and single-unit smooth muscle in the early stages of development. In skeletal muscles, ACh receptors are initially present along most of the surface of the myoblasts, but spinal nerve innervation causes the release of growth factors that stimulate the formation of motor end-plates and NMJs. As neurons become active, electrical signals that are sent through the muscle influence the distribution of slow and fast fibers in the muscle. Although the number of muscle cells is set during development, satellite cells help to repair skeletal muscle cells. A satellite cell is similar to a myoblast because it is a type of stem cell; however, satellite cells are incorporated into muscle cells and facilitate the protein synthesis required for repair and growth. These cells are located outside the sarcolemma and are stimulated to grow and fuse with muscle cells by growth factors that are released by muscle fibers under certain forms of stress. Satellite cells can regenerate muscle fibers to a very limited extent, but they primarily help to repair damage in living cells. If a cell is damaged to a greater extent than can be repaired by satellite cells, the muscle fibers are replaced by scar tissue in a process called fibrosis. Because scar tissue cannot contract, muscle that has sustained significant damage loses strength and cannot produce the same amount of power or endurance as it could before being damaged. Smooth muscle tissue can regenerate from a type of stem cell called a pericyte, which is found in some small blood vessels. Pericytes allow smooth muscle cells to regenerate and repair much more readily than skeletal and cardiac muscle tissue. Similar to skeletal muscle tissue, cardiac muscle does not regenerate to a great extent. Dead cardiac muscle tissue is replaced by scar tissue, which cannot contract. As scar tissue accumulates, the heart loses its ability to pump because of the loss of contractile power. However, some minor regeneration may occur due to stem cells found in the blood that occasionally enter cardiac tissue. Answer: cytoplasm", "output": [ "As a myotube is formed from many different myoblast cells, it contains many nuclei, but has a continuous what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bf942cd2b88d4a31884fc5e3127bc569", "input": "Passage: The allele frequency (or gene frequency) is the rate at which a specific allele appears within a population. Until now we have discussed evolution as a change in the characteristics of a population of organisms, but behind that phenotypic change is genetic change. In population genetics, the term evolution is defined as a change in the frequency of an allele in a population. Using the ABO blood type system as an example, the frequency of one of the alleles, IA, is the number of [1] copies of that allele divided by all the copies of the ABO gene in the population. For example, a study in Jordan found a frequency of IA to be 26.1 percent. The IB and I0 alleles made up 13.4 percent and 60.5 percent of the alleles respectively, and all of the frequencies added up to 100 percent. A change in this frequency over time would constitute evolution in the population. The allele frequency within a given population can change depending on environmental factors; therefore, certain alleles become more widespread than others during the process of natural selection. Natural selection can alter the population’s genetic makeup; for example, if a given allele confers a phenotype that allows an individual to better survive or have more offspring. Because many of those offspring will also carry the beneficial allele, and often the corresponding phenotype, they will have more offspring of their own that also carry the allele, thus, perpetuating the cycle. Over time, the allele will spread throughout the population. Some alleles will quickly become fixed in this way, meaning that every individual of the population will carry the allele, while detrimental mutations may be swiftly eliminated if derived from a dominant allele from the gene pool. The gene pool is the sum of all the alleles in a population. Sometimes, allele frequencies within a population change randomly with no advantage to the population over existing allele frequencies. This phenomenon is called genetic drift. Natural selection and genetic drift usually occur simultaneously in populations and are not isolated events. It is hard to determine which process dominates because it is often nearly impossible to determine the cause of change in allele frequencies at each occurrence. An event that initiates an allele frequency change in an isolated part of the population, which is not typical of the original population, is called the founder effect. Natural selection, random drift, and founder effects can lead to significant changes in the genome of a population. Answer: allele frequecy", "output": [ "What is the rate at which a specific allele appears within a population called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d643d39179ba44d78cf0d9555c35a766", "input": "Passage: Acids can be classified as monoprotic or polyprotic based on the number of acidic hydrogens they contain. Answer: acids", "output": [ "What can be classified as monoprotic or polyprotic based on the number of acidic hydrogens they contain?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4410390dd0704d1bb209c93980390ee0", "input": "Passage: Like plants, animals are multicellular eukaryotes. However, animals differ from plants in other important ways. Answer: eukaryotes", "output": [ "Like plants, animals are multicellular what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-24ffd089075f4401bb75e696cfdbb530", "input": "Passage: In addition to these properties, other physical properties of matter include the state of matter. States of matter include liquid, solid, and gaseous states. For example at 20°C, coal exists as a solid and water exists as a liquid. Additional examples of physical properties include:. Answer: states", "output": [ "Gas, liquid, and solid describe what property of matter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8cfd83b910b34e4488241e706e1cc648", "input": "Passage: An atom’s mass number is its mass in atomic mass units (amu), which is about equal to the total number of protons and neutrons in the atom. Different isotopes of an element have different mass numbers because they have different numbers of neutrons. Answer: neutrons", "output": [ "Different isotopes of an element have different mass numbers because they have different numbers of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e0c9dd4e4f6a4722b830298499c6a8c6", "input": "Passage: Figure 36.14 In the human ear, sound waves cause the stapes to press against the oval window. Vibrations travel up the fluid-filled interior of the cochlea. The basilar membrane that lines the cochlea gets continuously thinner toward the apex of the cochlea. Different thicknesses of membrane vibrate in response to different frequencies of sound. Sound waves then exit through the round window. In the cross section of the cochlea (top right figure), note that in addition to the upper canal and lower canal, the cochlea also has a middle canal. The organ of Corti (bottom image) is the site of sound transduction. Movement of stereocilia on hair cells results in an action potential that travels along the auditory nerve. Answer: oval window", "output": [ "In the human ear, sound waves cause the stapes to press against what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e02656ecc55b4974950016cb83fe17ae", "input": "Passage: Plant-like protists are commonly called algae (alga, singular) . Some algae consist of single cells. They are called diatoms. Other algae are multicellular. An example is seaweed. Seaweed called kelp can grow as large as trees. You can see both a diatom and kelp in Figure below . Algae are probably ancestors of plants. Answer: algae", "output": [ "Plant-like protists are commonly called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b02752f97b7a4ff38c3975f1197a7240", "input": "Passage: The type of atom is determined by the atomic number (i. e. the number of protons). The atomic mass of an atom is approximately the number of protons plus the number of neutrons. Typically, the atomic mass listed in a periodic table is an average, weighted by the natural abundances of different isotopes. Answer: atomic number", "output": [ "Adding the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in an atom, decides it's approximate mass, what is another word for this value?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d675682eba0142ef8042b2fe669b66d1", "input": "Passage: A whole molecule may also have a separation of charge, depending on its molecular structure and the polarity of each of its bonds. If such a charge separation exists, the molecule is said to be a polar molecule (or dipole); otherwise the molecule is said to be nonpolar. The dipole moment measures the extent of net charge separation in the molecule as a whole. We determine the dipole moment by adding the bond moments in three-dimensional space, taking into account the molecular structure. For diatomic molecules, there is only one bond, so its bond dipole moment determines the molecular polarity. Homonuclear diatomic molecules such as Br2 and N2 have no difference in electronegativity, so their dipole moment is zero. For heteronuclear molecules such as CO, there is a small dipole moment. For HF, there is a larger dipole moment because there is a larger difference in electronegativity. When a molecule contains more than one bond, the geometry must be taken into account. If the bonds in a molecule are arranged such that their bond moments cancel (vector sum equals zero), then the molecule is nonpolar. This is the situation in CO2 (Figure 7.27). Each of the bonds is polar, but the molecule as a whole is nonpolar. From the Lewis structure, and using VSEPR theory, we determine that the CO2 molecule is linear with polar C=O bonds on opposite sides of the carbon atom. The bond moments cancel because they are pointed in opposite directions. In the case of the water molecule (Figure 7.27), the Lewis structure again shows that there are two bonds to a central atom, and the electronegativity difference again shows that each of these bonds has a nonzero bond moment. In this case, however,. Answer: no difference in electronegativity", "output": [ "Why do homonuclear diatomic molecules have zero dipole moment?" ] }, { "id": "task594-39f33009842f4d45a71b7036529e3a99", "input": "Passage: Quaternary structure is a larger assembly of several polypeptide chains, now referred to as subunits of the protein. The quaternary structure is stabilized by the same interactions as the tertiary structure. Complexes of two or more polypeptides are called multimers. Specifically, a dimer contains two subunits, a trimer contains three subunits, and a tetramer contains four subunits. Answer: quaternary structure", "output": [ "What structure is a larger assembly of several polypeptide chains that are now referred to as subunits of the protein?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ec036780b6ae4bdf9ef3176f48cd4adf", "input": "Passage: Copper is a good conductor of electricity. That's why electric wires are often made of copper. They are covered with a protective coating of plastic, which does not conduct electricity. Answer: copper", "output": [ "What type of metal is a good conductor of electricity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f8932b86a4de446d915a7ad886a19343", "input": "Passage: A mineral is a solid material that forms by a natural process. A mineral can be made of an element or a compound. It has a specific chemical composition. Its chemical composition is different from other minerals. Each type of mineral has physical properties that differ from others. These properties include crystal structure, hardness, density, and color. For example, silver is a soft, shiny metal. Salt is a white, cube-shaped crystal. Diamond is an extremely hard, translucent crystal. Answer: mineral", "output": [ "What is the general name for a solid material that is formed via a natural process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fb62b0ea19df4ec38f5036d878172a7f", "input": "Passage: Chapter 11 1 Figure 11.9 Yes, it will be able to reproduce asexually. 2 C 4 D 6 C 8 C 10 C 12 B 14 During the meiotic interphase, each chromosome is duplicated. The sister chromatids that are formed during synthesis are held together at the centromere region by cohesin proteins. All chromosomes are attached to the nuclear envelope by their tips. As the cell enters prophase I, the nuclear envelope begins to fragment, and the proteins holding homologous chromosomes locate each other. The four sister chromatids align lengthwise, and a protein lattice called the synaptonemal complex is formed between them to bind them together. The synaptonemal complex facilitates crossover between non-sister chromatids, which is observed as chiasmata along the length of the chromosome. As prophase I progresses, the synaptonemal complex breaks down and the sister chromatids become free, except where they are attached by chiasmata. At this stage, the four chromatids are visible in each homologous pairing and are called a tetrad. 16 In metaphase I, the homologous chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate. In anaphase I, the homologous chromosomes are pulled apart and move to opposite poles. Sister chromatids are not separated until meiosis II. The fused kinetochore formed during meiosis I ensures that each spindle microtubule that binds to the tetrad will attach to both sister chromatids. 18 a. Crossover occurs in prophase I between non-sister homologous chromosomes. Segments of DNA are exchanged between maternally derived and paternally derived chromosomes, and new gene combinations are formed. Random alignment during metaphase I leads to gametes that have a mixture of maternal and paternal chromosomes. Fertilization is random, in that any two gametes can fuse. Answer: meiosis", "output": [ "During interphase of what process, each chromosome is duplicated, and the sister chromatids formed during synthesis are held together at the centromere region by cohesin proteins?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0acf99b70aa74a65b1446562275d2d77", "input": "Passage: Scientific method is a process consisting of making observations, developing a hypothesis, and testing that hypothesis. Answer: testing the hypothesis", "output": [ "What takes place directly after developing a hypothesis in the scientific method process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-03cea950e74545569a2d97a7ffd771f5", "input": "Passage: There are many genetic disorders that are due to a single gene. What if we could fix this faulty gene? With the development of gene therapy, that may eventually be possible for many types of genetic disorders. Answer: gene therapy", "output": [ "What type of treatment is being researched that may cure or prevent genetic disorders?" ] }, { "id": "task594-818f5dc222a34d748adf24a2b4400454", "input": "Passage: Oceans are the major source of water vapor in the atmosphere. Sunlight heats water near the sea surface ( Figure below ). As the water warms, some of it evaporates. The water vapor rises into the air, where it may form clouds and precipitation. Precipitation provides the freshwater needed by plants and other living things. Answer: ocean", "output": [ "What is the major source of water vapor in the atmosphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d5d5712834e5407988903ee3504c780f", "input": "Passage: These mutations may result in a protein with the same function, with altered function, or with no function. Silent mutations , as they code for the same amino acid, will have no altered effect on the protein. Missense mutations may have a minor effect or a dramatic effect on the protein. Nonsense mutations usually have the most dramatic effet. Depending on the position of the premature stop codon, nonsense mutations may result in an unstable mRNA that cannot be translated, or in a truncated mRNA and a much \"smaller\" protein without any significant activity. Answer: nonsense mutations", "output": [ "Which kind of mutations have the most dramatic effect on proteins?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d4a524f7cf534dd883da06bab1745d5d", "input": "Passage: In warmer regions, plants and bacteria grow faster. Plants and animals weather material and produce soils. In tropical regions, where temperature and precipitation are consistently high, thick soils form. Arid regions have thin soils. Answer: they grow faster", "output": [ "What happens to growth of plants and bacteria in warmer regions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dabd9a9fa76c4deab3bdb282c2eabcb7", "input": "Passage: Trisomy is a state where humans have an extra autosome. That is, they have three of a particular chromosome instead of two. For example, trisomy 18 results from an extra chromosome 18, resulting in 47 total chromosomes. To identify the chromosome number (including an abnormal number), a sample of cells is removed from an individual or developing fetus. Metaphase chromosomes are photographed and a karyotype is produced. A karyotype will display any abnormalities in chromosome number or large chromosomal rearrangements. Trisomy 8, 9, 12, 13, 16, 18, and 21 have been identified in humans. Trisomy 16 is the most common trisomy in humans, occurring in more than 1% of pregnancies. This condition, however, usually results in spontaneous miscarriage in the first trimester. The most common trisomy in viable births is Trisomy 21 . Answer: trisomy", "output": [ "What is it called when a human has an extra autosome?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cc629a142010459c85b2c4636b07e2cc", "input": "Passage: Primary pollutants enter the air directly. Some are released by natural processes, like ash from volcanoes. Most are released by human activities. They pour into the air from vehicles and smokestacks. Several of these pollutants are described below. Answer: primary pollutant", "output": [ "Ash that enters the air naturally as a result of a volcano eruption is classified as what kind of pollutant?" ] }, { "id": "task594-787700e062064b41a22eb7b0115d18bf", "input": "Passage: The sparks from a steel grinder are molten iron. The iron reacts with oxygen to form iron(III) oxide. Answer: iron oxide", "output": [ "When sparks from a steel grinder react with oxygen, what do they form?" ] }, { "id": "task594-24df198efbfc481ba38914315a7a9267", "input": "Passage: Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use energy from sunlight to synthesize carbohydrates. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "What is the name of the process by which plants use energy from sunlight to synthesize carbohydrates?" ] }, { "id": "task594-abde8870808045b4b5ef9419abba30c8", "input": "Passage: Chemical cells are found in batteries. They produce voltage by means of chemical reactions. Chemical cells have two electrodes, which are strips of different materials, such as zinc and carbon. The electrodes are suspended in an electrolyte. This is a substance that contains free ions, which can carry electric current. The electrolyte may be either a paste, in which case the cell is called a dry cell, or a liquid, in which case the cell is called a wet cell. Flashlight batteries contain dry cells. Car batteries contain wet cells. Answer: chemical", "output": [ "Batteries produce voltage through what type of reaction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3504914cbd994273bb1a270c93bb4c5a", "input": "Passage: If a swimming pool and wading, both full of water at the same temperature were subjected to the same input of heat energy, the wading pool would certainly rise in temperature more quickly than the swimming pool. The heat capacity of an object depends both on its mass and its chemical composition. Because of its much larger mass, the swimming pool of water has a larger heat capacity than the bucket of water. Answer: mass", "output": [ "The heat capacity of an object depends on its chemical composition and what other property?" ] }, { "id": "task594-47e05699d0184fb79c27360279e0c6c4", "input": "Passage: Next, light passes through the pupil. The pupil is a black opening in the eye that lets light enter the eye. Answer: pupil", "output": [ "What is the name of the black opening in the eye that lets light enter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-28de165e9f3d4bd9bc38d2179763785a", "input": "Passage: Most metalloids have some physical properties of metals and some physical properties of nonmetals. They fall between metals and nonmetals in their ability to conduct heat and electricity. They are shiny like metals but brittle like nonmetals. All exist as solids at room temperature. Answer: silicon", "output": [ "What is an example of a metaloid element?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dcb49c30db694971b05e89a4213a501b", "input": "Passage: The two parathyroid glands are located behind the thyroid gland. Parathyroid hormone helps keep the level of calcium in the blood within a narrow range. It stimulates bone cells to dissolve calcium in bone matrix and release it into the blood. Answer: thyroid", "output": [ "The two parathyroid glands are located behind what gland?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f61b832aac4f4dc5a07f08e0fb03c84c", "input": "Passage: Conservation of Biodiversity The threats to biodiversity at the genetic, species, and ecosystem levels have been recognized for some time. In the United States, the first national park with land set aside to remain in a wilderness state was Yellowstone Park in 1890. However, attempts to preserve nature for various reasons have occurred for centuries. Today, the main efforts to preserve biodiversity involve legislative approaches to regulate human and corporate behavior, setting aside protected areas, and habitat restoration. Changing Human Behavior Legislation has been enacted to protect species throughout the world. The legislation includes international treaties as well as national and state laws. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) treaty came into force in 1975. The treaty, and the national legislation that supports it, provides a legal framework for preventing “listed” species from being transported across nations’ borders, thus protecting them from being caught or killed in the first place when the purpose involves international trade. The listed species that are protected to one degree or another by the treaty number some 33,000. The treaty is limited in its reach because it only deals with international movement of organisms or their parts. It is also limited by various countries’ ability or willingness to enforce the treaty and supporting legislation. The illegal trade in organisms and their parts is probably a market in the hundreds of millions of dollars. Within many countries there are laws that protect endangered species and that regulate hunting and fishing. In the United States, the Endangered Species Act was enacted in 1973. When an at-risk species is listed by the Act, the U. Fish & Wildlife Service is required by law to develop a management plan to protect the species and bring it back to sustainable numbers. The Act, and others like it in other countries, is a useful tool, but it suffers because it is often difficult to get a species listed, or to get an effective management plan in place once a species is listed. Additionally, species may be controversially taken off the list without necessarily having had a change in their situation. More fundamentally, the approach to protecting individual species rather than entire ecosystems (although the management plans commonly involve. Answer: biodiversity", "output": [ "Conservation of what property of ecosystems is the aim of measures like the endangered species act?" ] }, { "id": "task594-01f7105e7a5045a0af645e9865008080", "input": "Passage: Law stating that a changing magnetic field produces an electric current in a conductor. Answer: a conductor", "output": [ "A changing magnetic field produces an electric current in what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e7e74e049aaa468ea6652e97179aead4", "input": "Passage: Specialized structures for reproduction: One example is a fruiting body. Just like a fruit is involved in the reproduction of a fruiting plant, a fruiting body is involved in the reproduction of a fungus. A mushroom is a fruiting body , which is the part of the fungus that produces spores ( Figure below ). The spores are the basic reproductive units of fungi. The mycelium remains hidden until it develops one or more fruiting bodies. Answer: fungi", "output": [ "Spores are the basic reproductive units of what organism?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e6d9e4908b584933b1d1661bf59728a0", "input": "Passage: Zappy's. Plankton, nekton, and benthos are the three groups of living things in the oceans . CC BY-NC 3.0. Answer: in the oceans", "output": [ "Where do plankton, nekton, and benthos live?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f327e4494dc6413fac84c4a8854a18e5", "input": "Passage: Birds need a light-weight body in order to stay aloft. Even so, flying is hard work, and flight muscles need a constant supply of oxygen- and nutrient-rich blood. The organ systems of birds are adapted to meet these needs. Answer: to stay aloft", "output": [ "Why do birds need a light-weight body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5b7521b8c2e94174a6a43117bec7b53c", "input": "Passage: The Scientific Revolution occurred in Europe. This was the beginning of modern Western science. Many scientific advances were made during this time. Copernicus proposed that the sun, not Earth, is the center of the solar system. Answer: copernicus", "output": [ "During the scientific revolution, who proposed that the sun, not earth, is the center of the solar system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ad811b55acd644b6a098857a47a8fa10", "input": "Passage: In plants, the embryo develops inside of the female plant after fertilization. Algae do not keep the embryo inside of themselves but release it into water. This was the first feature to evolve that separated plants from green algae. This is also the only adaptation shared by all plants. Answer: inside the female plant after fertilization", "output": [ "Where does the embryo develop in a plant?" ] }, { "id": "task594-99e309167e174fc7be2dee59f675304b", "input": "Passage: Less dramatic types of mass wasting move Earth materials slowly down a hillside. Slump is the sudden movement of large blocks of rock and soil down a slope. ( Figure below ). All the material moves together in big chunks. Slumps may happen when a layer of slippery, wet clay is underneath the rock and soil on a hillside. Or they may occur when a river (or road) undercuts a slope. Slump leaves behind crescent-shaped scars on the hillside. Answer: slump", "output": [ "What is the term for the sudden movement of large blocks of rock and soil down a slope?" ] }, { "id": "task594-871fd161006f4752b7f65ada48f637c4", "input": "Passage: An esker is a winding ridge of sand deposited by a stream of meltwater. Such streams flow underneath a retreating glacier. Answer: esker", "output": [ "What is a winding ridge of sand deposited by a stream of meltwater called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-65d27dad01a0443492c5b08ced13dab4", "input": "Passage: Rhesus blood type is determined by one common antigen. A person may either have the antigen (Rh + ) or lack the antigen (Rh - ). Answer: rh", "output": [ "What is the common abbreviation for noting the rhesus blood type?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a424a1204fa04bc38aef5365ec3bec6e", "input": "Passage: In humans, each set of chromosomes contains 22 autosomes and 1 sex chromosome . Autosomes are chromosomes that are not directly involved in determining the sex of an individual. The sex chromosomes contain genes that determine the sex of an individual. Answer: autosomes", "output": [ "In humans, each set of chromosomes contains 22 of these and 1 sex chromosome?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4afe2b54c0024d2896669a88cda61344", "input": "Passage: Membranes Biological membranes surround cells and serve to keep the insides separated from the outsides. They are formed of phospholipid bilayer1 s, which by definition are a double layer of fatty acid2 molecules (mostly phospholipid3 s, lipids containing lots of phosphorus). Proteins4 serve very important functions in cellular membranes. They are active transports in and out of the cell, acting as gatekeepers. They relay signals in and out of the cell. Proteins are the site of many enzymatic reactions in the cell, and play a role in regulation of cellular processes. Answer: biological membranes", "output": [ "What is it that surrounds cells and serve to keep the insides separated from the outsides?" ] }, { "id": "task594-60267e9d070b4e0792030d0de43e0cd6", "input": "Passage: Soil is a renewable resource, but it can take thousands of years to form. That’s why people need to do what they can to prevent soil erosion. Answer: soil", "output": [ "What is a renewable resource that can take thousand of years to form?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0a9c591fb9694abe8dbc703350d1883c", "input": "Passage: Traditionally, mammals were divided into groups based on their characteristics. Scientists took into consideration their anatomy (body structure), their habitats, and their feeding habits. Mammals are divided into three subclasses and about 26 orders. Some of the groups of mammals include:. Answer: their characteristics", "output": [ "Traditionally, mammals were divided into groups based on what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-996ea8a845f74107bc4fa4d96279586d", "input": "Passage: A crystal contains a three-dimensional array of alternating positive and negative ions. The precise pattern depends on the compound. A crystal of sodium chloride, shown here, is a collection of alternating sodium and chlorine ions. Answer: compound", "output": [ "What does the precise pattern of a crystal depend on?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e488b77462e54b0faa469a5bf02c4fd2", "input": "Passage: The word principle can be defined as \"a fundamental truth or proposition that serves as the foundation for a system of belief or behavior or for a chain of reasoning. \" A principle of biology is a fundamental concept that is just as true for a bee or a sunflower as it is for us. All life, including that sunflower and bee, is made of at least one cell. The traits of a particular organism are embedded within its genes, that organism must maintain homeostasis to survive, and that organism has evolved from previously existing species. Answer: principle", "output": [ "A _______ of biology is a fundamental concept that is just as true for a bee or a sunflower as it is for us." ] }, { "id": "task594-1c8b89fbf51c4b12a224e948e0e6b7a0", "input": "Passage: Elongation is the addition of nucleotides to the mRNA strand. Answer: nucleotides", "output": [ "Elongation is the addition of what to the mrna strand?" ] }, { "id": "task594-60aca08f562d485298d358d6ce433850", "input": "Passage: Most of the sounds we hear reach our ears through the air, but sounds can also travel through liquids and solids. If you swim underwater—or even submerge your ears in bathwater—any sounds you hear have traveled to your ears through the water. Some solids, including glass and metals, are very good at transmitting sounds. Foam rubber and heavy fabrics, on the other hand, tend to muffle sounds. They absorb rather than pass on the sound energy. Answer: air", "output": [ "Where does most of the sound we hear travel through?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6c225ee086c84c969e435f6b0f0dfe11", "input": "Passage: Mucosal Immune System The innate and adaptive immune responses compose the systemic immune system (affecting the whole body), which is distinct from the mucosal immune system. Mucosa associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) is a crucial component of a functional immune system because mucosal surfaces, such as the nasal passages, are the first tissues onto which inhaled or ingested pathogens are deposited. The mucosal tissue includes the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus, and the gastrointestinal, respiratory, and urogenital tracts. Mucosal immunity is formed by MALT, which functions independently of the systemic immune system, and which has its own innate and adaptive components. MALT is a collection of lymphatic tissue that combines with epithelial tissue lining the mucosa throughout the body. This tissue functions as the immune barrier and response in areas of the body with direct contact to the external environment. The systemic and mucosal immune systems use many of the same cell types. Foreign particles that make their way to MALT are taken up by absorptive epithelial cells and delivered to APCs located directly below the mucosal tissue. APCs of the mucosal immune system are primarily dendritic cells, with B cells and macrophages. Answer: mucosa associated lymphoid tissue (malt)", "output": [ "What is a collection of lymphatic tissue that combines with epithelial tissue lining the mucosa throughout the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-784ab94dc70241659acf1921cb1ee682", "input": "Passage: According to the table, aluminum has an atomic number of 13. Therefore, every aluminum atom has 13 protons in its nucleus. Iron has an atomic number of 26. Therefore, every iron atom has 26 protons in its nucleus. Carbon has an atomic number of 6. Therefore, every carbon atom has 6 protons in its nucleus. Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: nucleus", "output": [ "According to the table, aluminum has an atomic number of 13. therefore, every aluminum atom has 13 protons in its what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dcc6fab924404ace9b4a3dad554de901", "input": "Passage: Connective Tissues Connective tissues are made up of a matrix consisting of living cells and a non-living substance, called the ground substance. The ground substance is made of an organic substance (usually a protein) and an inorganic substance (usually a mineral or water). The principal cell of connective tissues is the fibroblast. This cell makes the fibers found in nearly all of the connective tissues. Fibroblasts are motile, able to carry out mitosis, and can synthesize whichever connective tissue is needed. Macrophages, lymphocytes, and, occasionally, leukocytes can be found in some of the tissues. Some tissues have specialized cells that are not found in the others. The matrix in connective tissues gives the tissue its density. When a connective tissue has a high concentration of cells or fibers, it has proportionally a less dense matrix. The organic portion or protein fibers found in connective tissues are either collagen, elastic, or reticular fibers. Collagen fibers provide strength to the tissue, preventing it from being torn or separated from the surrounding tissues. Elastic fibers are made of the protein elastin; this fiber can stretch to one and one half of its length and return to its original size and shape. Elastic fibers provide flexibility to the tissues. Reticular fibers are the third type of protein fiber found in connective tissues. This fiber consists of thin strands of collagen that form a network of fibers to support the tissue and other organs to which it is connected. The various types of connective tissues, the types of cells and fibers they are made of, and sample locations of the tissues is summarized in Table 33.3. Answer: fibroblast", "output": [ "What is the principal cell of connective tissues?" ] }, { "id": "task594-05e14a223c06433a913f041cfaa15abd", "input": "Passage: precision: A measure of how close a series of measurements are to one another. Precise measurements are highly reproducible, even if the measurements are not near the correct value. Answer: precision", "output": [ "A measure of how close a series of measurements are to one another is what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-52faf58c6b144f4da91763a1b27f9c2a", "input": "Passage: Some springs have water that contains minerals. Groundwater dissolves minerals out of the rock as it seeps through the pores. The water in some springs is hot because it is heated by hot magma. Many hot springs are also mineral springs. That’s because hot water can dissolve more minerals than cold water. Answer: hot magma", "output": [ "The water in some springs are hot because they're heated by what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-40c2f3221e8246919e71460fc20168ad", "input": "Passage: Prokaryotic organisms, like bacteria. Bacteria reproduce through binary fission , where they grow and divide in half ( Figure below ). First, their chromosome replicates and the cell enlarges. The cell then divides into two cells as new membranes form to separate the two cells. After cell division, the two new cells each have one identical chromosome. This simple process allows bacteria to reproduce very rapidly. Answer: binary fission", "output": [ "Prokaryotic organisms, like bacteria, reproduce through what process, where they grow and divide in half?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f667e4ef174041a0bc248e48bca5f002", "input": "Passage: The transmission of nerve impulses between neurons is like the passing of a baton between runners in a relay race. After the first runner races, she passes the baton to the second runner. Then the second runner takes over. Instead of a baton, a neuron passes neurotransmitters to the next neuron. Answer: neurotransmitters", "output": [ "Like a runner passing a baton, the transmission of nerve impulses between neurons depends on what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-14c7839b42a64134a8c844b795839b70", "input": "Passage: Communities consist of populations of different species. The size and growth of populations in a community are influenced by species interactions. For example, predator-prey relationships control the growth of both predator and prey populations. Answer: population", "output": [ "What is made up of organisms of the same species that live in the same area?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ad9cca6c4b504d41ad634026336e364f", "input": "Passage: Streak is the color of the powder of a mineral. To do a streak test, you scrape the mineral across an unglazed porcelain plate. The plate is harder than many minerals, causing the minerals to leave a streak of powder on the plate. The color of the streak often differs from the color of the larger mineral sample ( Figure below ). Yellow-gold pyrite has a blackish streak. This blackish streak tells you that the mineral is not gold, because gold has a gold-colored streak. Answer: streak", "output": [ "What is the color of the powder of a mineral called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7d807283c6e24af6b91fdb936fa87053", "input": "Passage: When plants and other organisms die, decomposers break down their remains. In the process, they release nitrogen in the form of ammonium ions. This process is called ammonification. Nitrifying bacteria change the ammonium ions into nitrites and nitrates. Some of the nitrates are used by plants. The process of converting ammonium ions to nitrites or nitrates is called nitrification. Still other bacteria, called denitrifying bacteria, convert some of the nitrates in soil back into nitrogen gas in a process called denitrification. The process is the opposite of nitrogen fixation. Denitrification returns nitrogen gas back to the atmosphere, where it can continue the nitrogen cycle. Answer: denitrification", "output": [ "What process is the opposite of nitrogen fixation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cca65f9fe7a84ab6a32e7ae2a66f823d", "input": "Passage: Did you ever have a picnic ruined by a surprise rainstorm? People often complain when the weather forecast is wrong. But in fact, weather forecasts today are much more accurate than they were just 20 years ago. Scientists who study and forecast the weather are called meteorologists . How do they predict the weather?. Answer: meteorologists", "output": [ "What do we call scientists who study and forecast the weather?" ] }, { "id": "task594-29037ffb99ec49deb52c4f19145de0b8", "input": "Passage: Oxygenated blood is transported by the circulatory system from lungs to tissues throughout the body. Answer: circulatory", "output": [ "Oxygenated blood is transported by what system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bde538a9515549efa56fe57daef5416f", "input": "Passage: Sexual reproduction occurs when spores from two parents fuse and form a zygospore. Answer: zygospore", "output": [ "What forms when the spores from two parents fuse during sexual reproduction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-98d91783d32b4baab1a24353105d8e63", "input": "Passage: There is some variation in the inherited traits of organisms within a species. Without this variation, natural selection would not be possible. Answer: natural selection", "output": [ "What process would be impossible without some variation in the inherited traits of organisms within a species?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5a12b52d21444fdeb9912e378e1be2e3", "input": "Passage: Next, we identify the least precise measurement: 13.7 kg. This measurement is expressed to the 0.1 decimal place, so our final answer must also be expressed to the 0.1 decimal place. Thus, the answer is rounded to the tenths place, giving us 15.2 kg. Significant Figures in this Text In this text, most numbers are assumed to have three significant figures. Furthermore, consistent numbers of significant figures are used in all worked examples. You will note that an answer given to three digits is based on input good to at least three digits, for example. If the input has fewer significant figures, the answer will also have fewer significant figures. Care is also taken that the number of significant figures is reasonable for the situation posed. In some topics, particularly in optics, more accurate numbers are needed and more than three significant figures will be used. Finally, if a number is exact, such as the two in the formula for the circumference of a circle, c = 2πr , it does not affect the number of significant figures in a calculation. Answer: significant", "output": [ "What type of numerical figure is important in considering the precision and accuracy of a number?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f10502602a5c4761802e67ab19b5be7c", "input": "Passage: The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system. Answer: central nervous system", "output": [ "The brain and spinal cord are part of what system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-877a4b2a5de049caa598d8e203e5aee0", "input": "Passage: Loudness refers to how loud or soft a sound seems to a listener. The loudness of sound is determined, in turn, by the intensity of the sound waves. Intensity is a measure of the amount of energy in sound waves. The unit of intensity is the decibel (dB) . Answer: loudness", "output": [ "What is measured by the intensity of the sound waves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8e9fe6983a4a46ffb2537fc5358165eb", "input": "Passage: Dietary proteins are broken down during digestion to provide the amino acids needed for protein synthesis. Any extra proteins in the diet not needed for this purpose are used for energy or stored as fat. One gram of proteins provides 4 Calories of energy. Answer: four", "output": [ "One gram of proteins provides how many calories of energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b6b6331234d84cbe9b0ac2196536564c", "input": "Passage: A: The wave travels down the string to the end. The string vibrates up and down at right angles to the direction of the wave. Answer: direction", "output": [ "When a wave travels down a string, the string vibrates up and down at right angles to the wave's what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5e9b32a257bf46d1bf52dca25825786b", "input": "Passage: Leaves are rich in chloroplasts that function as solar collectors and food factories. The first leaves were very small, but leaves became larger over time. Answer: chloroplasts", "output": [ "What are in leaves that function as solar collectors and food factories?" ] }, { "id": "task594-27a78955f9ee42c6b7cc9848cafc0735", "input": "Passage: The spermatids are transported from the testes to the epididymis. Involuntary muscular contraction moves the spermatids along. Answer: epididymis", "output": [ "The spermatids are transported from the testes to where?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e2dd9042833f49ac84d36dc00af84752", "input": "Passage: Sedimentary rocks form when sediments are compacted and cemented together. Sediments are pieces of rock. They may be gravel, sand, silt, or clay. Some sedimentary rocks form the solid minerals left behind after a liquid evaporates. Answer: sedimentary rocks", "output": [ "What type of rocks form when sediments are compacted and cemented together?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e562e9f2b68146e4acb506afcd730c63", "input": "Passage: Volvox Colony. Volvox cells live in a colony shaped like a hollow ball. The cells of the colony may be connected by strands of cytoplasm and can function together. For example, the whole colony can swim from one place to another as one. Answer: hollow ball shaped", "output": [ "What shape is the colony of a volvox cell?" ] }, { "id": "task594-65b9ca136ae343c7bfd6cf41db3cc337", "input": "Passage: Topographic maps have a horizontal scale to indicate horizontal distances. Answer: horizontal", "output": [ "Topographic maps have a horizontal scale to indicate what distances?" ] }, { "id": "task594-491522af4bb942c78f19b6af48fbc1e2", "input": "Passage: Solid-state radiation detectors convert ionization produced in a semiconductor (like those found in computer chips) directly into an electrical signal. Semiconductors can be constructed that do not conduct current in one particular direction. When a voltage is applied in that direction, current flows only when ionization is produced by radiation, similar to what happens in a Geiger tube. Further, the amount of current in a solid-state detector is closely related to the energy deposited and, since the detector is solid, it can have a high efficiency (since ionizing radiation is stopped in a shorter distance in solids fewer particles escape detection). As with scintillators, very sophisticated information can be obtained from solid-state detectors. PhET Explorations: Radioactive Dating Game Learn about different types of radiometric dating, such as carbon dating. Understand how decay and half life work to enable radiometric dating to work. Play a game that tests your ability to match the percentage of the dating element that remains to the age of the object. Answer: electrical signal", "output": [ "Solid-state radiation detectors convert ionization produced in a semiconductor (like those found in computer chips) directly into what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-38ab948706f8499bbe190a18ddd735a0", "input": "Passage: Potential energy is not only associated with the location of matter, but also with the structure of matter. Even a spring on the ground has potential energy if it is compressed; so does a rubber band that is pulled taut. On a molecular level, the bonds that hold the atoms of molecules together exist in a particular structure that has potential energy. Remember that anabolic cellular pathways require energy to synthesize complex molecules from simpler ones and catabolic pathways release energy when complex molecules are broken down. The fact that energy can be released by the breakdown of certain chemical bonds implies that those bonds have potential energy. In fact, there is potential energy stored within the bonds of all the food molecules we eat, which is eventually harnessed for use. This is because these bonds can release energy when broken. The type of potential energy that exists within chemical bonds, and is released when those bonds are broken, is called chemical energy. Chemical energy is responsible for providing living cells with energy from food. The release of energy occurs when the molecular bonds within food molecules are broken. Answer: compressed", "output": [ "Potential energy is not only associated with the location of matter, but also with the structure of matter. even a spring on the ground has potential energy if it is what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e74a54b143874d69b0da2910d84d477e", "input": "Passage: Fresh water is also preserved by purifying wastewater. Wastewater is water that has been used for cleaning, washing, flushing, or manufacturing. It includes the water that goes down your shower drain and that is flushed down your toilet. Instead of dumping wastewater directly into rivers, wastewater can be purified at a water treatment plant ( Figure below ). When wastewater is recycled, waterborne diseases caused by pathogens in sewage can be prevented. What are some ways you can save water in your own house?. Answer: wastewater", "output": [ "What do we call water that has been used for cleaning, washing, flushing, or manufacturing?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fbc0c7374a964762bd973173c934b578", "input": "Passage: Ecology is the study of how living things interact with each other and with their environment. Answer: ecology", "output": [ "What is the study of how living things interact with each other and with their environment?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8b9c3172902e4f90928db95a41f7616e", "input": "Passage: Electricity is a flow of electrons. Atoms of metals tend to give up electrons, explaining why they are good conductors of electricity. The tendency to give up electrons also explains many of the other properties of metals. Answer: give up electrons", "output": [ "Why are atoms of metals good conductors of electricity?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fd1de6525f224412864674e701628859", "input": "Passage: Figure 6.11 The frictional force supplies the centripetal force and is numerically equal to it. Centripetal force is perpendicular to velocity and causes uniform circular motion. The larger the F c , the smaller the radius of curvature r and the sharper the curve. The second curve has the same v , but a larger. Answer: centripetal force", "output": [ "What force is perpendicular to velocity and causes uniform circular motion?" ] }, { "id": "task594-88986b2479014a1f9cb5e9325fedb3a9", "input": "Passage: Some mutations have a positive effect on the organism in which they occur. They are called beneficial mutations . They lead to new versions of proteins that help organisms adapt to changes in their environment. Beneficial mutations are essential for evolution to occur. They increase an organism’s changes of surviving or reproducing, so they are likely to become more common over time. There are several well-known examples of beneficial mutations. Here are just two:. Answer: beneficial mutations", "output": [ "Mutations which benefit the organism in which they occur are known as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bda053d6a48a419e9c01b69283d69115", "input": "Passage: Simple Epithelium The shape of the cells in the single cell layer of simple epithelium reflects the functioning of those cells. The cells in simple squamous epithelium have the appearance of thin scales. Squamous cell nuclei tend to be flat, horizontal, and elliptical, mirroring the form of the cell. The endothelium is the epithelial tissue that lines vessels of the lymphatic and cardiovascular system, and it is made up of a single layer of squamous cells. Simple squamous epithelium, because of the thinness of the cell, is present where rapid passage of chemical compounds is observed. The alveoli of lungs where gases diffuse, segments of kidney tubules, and the lining of capillaries are also made of simple squamous epithelial tissue. The mesothelium is a simple squamous epithelium that forms the surface layer of the serous membrane that lines body cavities and internal organs. Its primary function is to provide a smooth and protective surface. Mesothelial cells are squamous epithelial cells that secrete a fluid that lubricates the mesothelium. In simple cuboidal epithelium, the nucleus of the box-like cells appears round and is generally located near the center of the cell. These epithelia are active in the secretion and absorptions of molecules. Simple cuboidal epithelia are observed in the lining of the kidney tubules and in the ducts of glands. Answer: simple epithelium", "output": [ "The thin scale-like or flat shape of what cells fits their primary function, to provide a smooth and protective surface?" ] }, { "id": "task594-af9b6cf7a0f746849296508a0fc4a970", "input": "Passage: In many ways, humans are unique among mammals. For example, we have bigger brains and a greater ability to learn than any other species in the mammalian class. In many ways, however, we are typical of the mammalian order to which we belong. That order is the Primate Order. To fully understand what it means to be human, you need to know more about this fascinating order of mammals. Answer: humans", "output": [ "What mammalian class has the greatest ability to learn?" ] }, { "id": "task594-07cf7e9059ef4b779997543cfe0b96f5", "input": "Passage: This same logic explains the behavior of gyroscopes. Figure 10.31 shows the two forces acting on a spinning gyroscope. The torque produced is perpendicular to the angular momentum, thus the direction of the torque is changed, but not its magnitude. The gyroscope precesses around a vertical axis, since the torque is always horizontal and perpendicular to L . If the gyroscope is not spinning, it acquires angular momentum in the direction of the torque ( L falling over just as we would expect. Answer: torque", "output": [ "If a gyroscope is not spinning, it acquires angular momentum in the direction of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7aa0e48d55434913b1dd5ca073b0ba3b", "input": "Passage: Scientists studied the distinctive pink color of the gas discharge created by hydrogen gas. When a narrow beam of this light was viewed through a prism, the light was separated into four lines of very specific wavelengths (and frequencies since and are inversely related). An atomic emission spectrum is the pattern of lines formed when light passes through a prism to separate it into the different frequencies of light it contains. The Figure below shows the atomic emission spectrum of hydrogen. Answer: atomic emission spectrum", "output": [ "What do you call the pattern of lines formed when light passes through a prism to separate it into the different frequencies of light it contains?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2eca063485c6402ab4bde7aa39b24bc0", "input": "Passage: Although migration is thought of as innate behavior, only some migrating species always migrate (obligate migration). Animals that exhibit facultative migration can choose to migrate or not. Additionally, in some animals, only a portion of the population migrates, whereas the rest does not migrate (incomplete migration). For example, owls that live in the tundra may migrate in years when their food source, small rodents, is relatively scarce, but not migrate during the years when rodents are plentiful. Foraging Foraging is the act of searching for and exploiting food resources. Feeding behaviors that maximize energy gain and minimize energy expenditure are called optimal foraging behaviors, and these are favored by natural section. The painted stork, for example, uses its long beak to search the bottom of a freshwater marshland for crabs and other food (Figure 45.36). Answer: obligate migration", "output": [ "When a species always migrates, what is this type of migration called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bb13b1c82e7048fdbd3e7ab658e44b8c", "input": "Passage: Some echinoderms can reproduce asexually by fission, but most echinoderms reproduce sexually. They generally have separate sexes and external fertilization. Eggs hatch into free-swimming larvae. The larvae undergo metamorphosis to change into the adult form. During metamorphosis, their bilateral symmetry changes to radial symmetry. Answer: sexually", "output": [ "How do most echinoderms reproduce?" ] }, { "id": "task594-92a148118d7b4bfe9b2c0f1f7857a6aa", "input": "Passage: Nuclear energy is produced by splitting atoms. It also produces radioactive wastes that are very dangerous for many years. Answer: atoms", "output": [ "What is split to produce nuclear energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-196b34bf68c74935b1c5b7c4ed56bb40", "input": "Passage: As the human population continues to grow, different factors limit population in different parts of the world. Space, clean air, clean water, and food to feed everyone are limiting in some locations. Worldwide though, human ingenuity has not placed a limit on the population. Not only does the population increase, the rate of population growth increases. Answer: increasing", "output": [ "Is the rate of population growth increasing or decreasing?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e37a046577dd4d158bb8124f478a54f0", "input": "Passage: In the modern periodic table, elements are organized by atomic number. The atomic number is the number of protons in an atom of an element. This number is unique for each element, so it seems like an obvious way to organize the elements. (Mendeleev used atomic mass instead of atomic number because protons had not yet been discovered when he made his table. ) In the modern table, atomic number increases from left to right across each period. It also increases from top to bottom within each group. How is this like Mendeleev’s table?. Answer: number of protons", "output": [ "What is the atomic number?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b0d27c65e7df4748b85340aaf04f13c7", "input": "Passage: The metallic bonding model explains the physical properties of metals. Metals conduct electricity and heat very well because of their free-flowing electrons. As electrons enter one end of a piece of metal, an equal number of electrons flow outward from the other end. When light is shone on to the surface of a metal, its electrons absorb small amounts of energy and become excited into one of its many empty orbitals. The electrons immediately fall back down to lower energy levels and emit light. This process is responsible for the high luster of metals. Answer: free flowing electrons", "output": [ "Why does metal conduct heat and electricity so well?" ] }, { "id": "task594-164fc1c7457d4e30a07a3549026395ab", "input": "Passage: Silicon dioxide, silica, occurs in both crystalline and amorphous forms. The usual crystalline form of silicon dioxide is quartz, a hard, brittle, clear, colorless solid. It is useful in many ways—for architectural decorations, semiprecious jewels, and frequency control in radio transmitters. Silica takes many crystalline forms, or polymorphs, in nature. Trace amounts of Fe3+ in quartz give amethyst its characteristic purple color. The term quartz is also used for articles such as tubing and lenses that are manufactured from amorphous silica. Opal is a naturally occurring form of amorphous silica. The contrast in structure and physical properties between silicon dioxide and carbon dioxide is interesting, as illustrated in Figure 18.18. Solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) contains single CO2 molecules with each of the two oxygen atoms attached to the carbon atom by double bonds. Very weak intermolecular forces hold the molecules together in the crystal. The volatility of dry ice reflect these weak forces between molecules. In contrast, silicon dioxide is a covalent network solid. In silicon dioxide, each silicon atom links to four oxygen atoms by single bonds directed toward the corners of a regular tetrahedron, and SiO4 tetrahedra share oxygen atoms. This arrangement gives a three dimensional, continuous, silicon-oxygen network. A quartz crystal is a macromolecule of silicon dioxide. The difference between these two compounds is the ability of the group 14 elements to form strong π bonds. Secondperiod elements, such as carbon, form very strong π bonds, which is why carbon dioxide forms small molecules with strong double bonds. Elements below the second period, such as silicon, do not form π bonds as readily as secondperiod elements, and when they do form, the π bonds are weaker than those formed by second-period elements. For this reason, silicon dioxide does not contain π bonds but only σ bonds. Answer: n bonds", "output": [ "Elements below the second period, such as silicon, do not form what as readily as second-period elements, and when they do form, they are weaker than those formed by second-period elements?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8b00dc353a644574bd3ba576826d8bdd", "input": "Passage: Following ovulation, the ovarian cycle enters its luteal phase, illustrated in Figure 43.15 and the menstrual cycle enters its secretory phase, both of which run from about day 15 to 28. The luteal and secretory phases refer to changes in the ruptured follicle. The cells in the follicle undergo physical changes and produce a structure called a corpus luteum. The corpus luteum produces estrogen and progesterone. The progesterone facilitates the regrowth of the uterine lining and inhibits the release of further FSH and LH. The uterus is being prepared to accept a fertilized egg, should it occur during this cycle. The inhibition of FSH and LH prevents any further eggs and follicles from developing, while the progesterone is elevated. The level of estrogen produced by the corpus luteum increases to a steady level for the next few days. If no fertilized egg is implanted into the uterus, the corpus luteum degenerates and the levels of estrogen and progesterone decrease. The endometrium begins to degenerate as the progesterone levels drop, initiating the next menstrual cycle. The decrease in progesterone also allows the hypothalamus to send GnRH to the anterior pituitary, releasing FSH and LH and starting the cycles again. Figure 43.17 visually compares the ovarian and uterine cycles as well as the commensurate hormone levels. Answer: corpus luteum", "output": [ "The cells in the follicle undergo physical changes and produce a structure called a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7c05c300501d4780bb3c894551fd2e3e", "input": "Passage: The seminiferous tubules within each testis join to form the epididymis. The epididymis (plural, epididymes) is a coiled tube about 6 meters (20 feet) long lying atop the testis inside the scrotum. The functions of the epididymis are to mature and store mature sperm until they leave the body. Answer: seminiferous tubules", "output": [ "What joins within each testis to form the epididymis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cedfea19d0f84600bd3db89b43fc4644", "input": "Passage: Ambrosia beetles bore holes in tree bark and “plant” fungal spores in the holes. The holes in the bark give the fungi an ideal place to grow. The beetles harvest fungi from their “garden. ”. Answer: tree bark", "output": [ "The ambrosia beetle bores holes in?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c24eec4d9941463b867c6e4b8986ee3b", "input": "Passage: A mineral is an inorganic substance. It was not made by living organisms. Organic substances contain carbon. Some types of organic substances are proteins, carbohydrates, and oils. Everything else is inorganic. In a few cases, living organisms make inorganic materials. The calcium carbonate shells made by marine animals are inorganic. Answer: carbon", "output": [ "Organic substances, including proteins, carbohydrates, and oils, contain what element?" ] }, { "id": "task594-77be8be8279b47aba370faf826f99069", "input": "Passage: Mass and volume are examples of extensive properties. Answer: extensive properties", "output": [ "Mass and volume are examples of what kind of properties?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d03ad7c5612b4e36a936f262e8d8345d", "input": "Passage: 29.4 Photon Momentum Measuring Photon Momentum The quantum of EM radiation we call a photon has properties analogous to those of particles we can see, such as grains of sand. A photon interacts as a unit in collisions or when absorbed, rather than as an extensive wave. Massive quanta, like electrons, also act like macroscopic particles—something we expect, because they are the smallest units of matter. Particles carry momentum as well as energy. Despite photons having no mass, there has long been evidence that EM radiation carries momentum. (Maxwell and others who studied EM waves predicted that they would carry momentum. ) It is now a well-established fact that photons do have momentum. In fact, photon momentum is suggested by the photoelectric effect, where photons knock electrons out of a substance. Figure 29.17 shows macroscopic evidence of photon momentum. Answer: units of matter", "output": [ "Massive quanta, like electrons, also act like macroscopic particles—something we expect, because they are the smallest what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-77c43cecb74b4486b47634a28e408472", "input": "Passage: blood containing the metabolic wastes from cells. All the blood in the human body is filtered about 60 times a day by the kidneys. The nephrons remove wastes, concentrate them, and form urine that is collected in the bladder. Internally, the kidney has three regions—an outer cortex, a medulla in the middle, and the renal pelvis, which is the expanded end of the ureter. The renal cortex contains the nephrons—the functional unit of the kidney. The renal pelvis collects the urine and leads to the ureter on the outside of the kidney. The ureters are urine-bearing tubes that exit the kidney and empty into the urinary bladder. Answer: kidneys", "output": [ "All the blood in the human body is filtered about 60 times a day by what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-efec414a233e470b8e790de859007047", "input": "Passage: The densities of many components and products of the body have a bearing on our health. Bones. Bone density is important because bone tissue of lower-than-normal density is mechanically weaker and susceptible to breaking. The density of bone is, in part, related to the amount of calcium in one’s diet; people who have a diet deficient in calcium, which is an important component of bones, tend to have weaker bones. Dietary supplements or adding dairy products to the diet seems to help strengthen bones. As a group, women experience a decrease in bone density as they age. It has been estimated that fully half of women over age 50 suffer from excessive bone loss, a condition known as osteoporosis. Exact bone densities vary within the body, but for a healthy 30-year-old female, it is about 0.95–1.05 g/cm3. Osteoporosis is diagnosed if the bone density is below 0.6–0.7 g/cm3. Urine. The density of urine can be affected by a variety of medical conditions. Sufferers of diabetes insipidus produce an abnormally large volume of urine with a relatively low density. In another form of diabetes, called diabetes mellitus, there is excess glucose dissolved in the urine, so that the density of urine is abnormally high. The density of urine may also be abnormally high because of excess protein in the urine, which can be caused by congestive heart failure or certain renal (kidney) problems. Thus, a urine density test can provide clues to various kinds of health problems. The density of urine is commonly expressed as a specific gravity, which is a unitless quantity defined as. Answer: calcium", "output": [ "The density of bone is, in part, related to the amount of what mineral in one’s diet?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e8c6478303eb44cab61c5cf197348b6b", "input": "Passage: There are a variety of substances in foods that the body needs. Any substance in food that the body needs is called a nutrient. There are six major types of nutrients: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, water, minerals, and vitamins. Carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids can be used for energy. Proteins also provide building materials. Proteins, minerals, and vitamins help control body processes. Water is needed by all cells just to stay alive. Answer: a nutrient", "output": [ "What do you call any substance in food that the body needs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-178c4c90d26f40e586d02b28d367c530", "input": "Passage: In some people, a food allergy can trigger a severe allergic reaction called anaphylaxis. Emergency treatment is critical for anaphylaxis. Untreated, anaphylaxis can cause a coma or death. Anaphylaxis is vary rare. The vast majority of people will never have an anaphylactic reaction. The life-threatening symptoms of anaphylaxis include:. Answer: emergency", "output": [ "What type of treatment is necessary for anaphylaxis?" ] }, { "id": "task594-33b2dd31d2314505b45a5f1ef2a20eb7", "input": "Passage: Scientific theories are broad explanations that are widely accepted as true. This is because they are supported by a great deal of evidence. Answer: scientific theories", "output": [ "What are broad explanations that are widely accepted as true?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d7dfe7dc7dd04ca2b8bcfc6f2dfb9aeb", "input": "Passage: Like mammals and birds, and unlike other reptiles, crocodiles have a four-chambered heart. But, unlike mammals, blood with and without oxygen can be mixed. Answer: four", "output": [ "Like mammals and birds, and unlike other reptiles, crocodiles have how many chambers in their heart?" ] }, { "id": "task594-61e4e9ea2d174622bf84691f18dd5b3d", "input": "Passage: plants—the pterophytes—from which modern ferns are derived. The lifecycle of bryophytes and pterophytes is characterized by the alternation of generations, like gymnosperms and angiosperms; what sets bryophytes and pterophytes apart from gymnosperms and angiosperms is their reproductive requirement for water. The completion of the bryophyte and pterophyte life cycle requires water because the male gametophyte releases sperm, which must swim—propelled by their flagella—to reach and fertilize the female gamete or egg. After fertilization, the zygote matures and grows into a sporophyte, which in turn will form sporangia or \"spore vessels. \" In the sporangia, mother cells undergo meiosis and produce the haploid spores. Release of spores in a suitable environment will lead to germination and a new generation of gametophytes. In seed plants, the evolutionary trend led to a dominant sporophyte generation, and at the same time, a systematic reduction in the size of the gametophyte: from a conspicuous structure to a microscopic cluster of cells enclosed in the tissues of the sporophyte. Whereas lower vascular plants, such as club mosses and ferns, are mostly homosporous (produce only one type of spore), all seed plants, or spermatophytes, are heterosporous. They form two types of spores: megaspores (female) and microspores (male). Megaspores develop into female gametophytes that produce eggs, and microspores mature into male gametophytes that generate sperm. Because the gametophytes mature within the spores, they are not free-living, as are the gametophytes of other seedless vascular plants. Heterosporous seedless plants are seen as the evolutionary forerunners of seed plants. Seeds and pollen—two critical adaptations to drought, and to reproduction that doesn’t require water—distinguish seed plants from other (seedless) vascular plants. Both adaptations were required for the colonization of land begun by the bryophytes and their ancestors. Fossils place the earliest distinct seed plants at about 350 million years ago. The first reliable record of gymnosperms dates their appearance to the Pennsylvanian period, about 319 million years ago (Figure 26.2). Gymnosperms were preceded by progymnosperms, the first naked seed plants, which arose about 380 million years ago. Progymnosperms were a transitional group of plants that superficially resembled conifers (cone bearers) because they produced wood from the secondary growth of the vascular tissues; however, they still reproduced like ferns, releasing spores into the environment. Gymnosperms dominated the landscape in the early (Triassic) and middle (Jurassic) Mesozoic era. Angiosperms surpassed gymnosperms by the middle of the Cretaceous (about 100 million years ago) in the late Mesozoic era, and today are the most abundant plant group in most terrestrial biomes. Answer: gametophytes", "output": [ "Release of spores in a suitable environment will lead to germination and a new generation of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6e92e30a84484aa080a024b387376404", "input": "Passage: In this lesson, you learned that electromagnetic waves are transverse waves. Like other transverse waves, electromagnetic waves have certain properties. Answer: transverse", "output": [ "What kind of waves are electromagnetic waves?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7320293fb5d14820a65eeae5c03bb9b0", "input": "Passage: The Nitrogen Cycle Getting nitrogen into the living world is difficult. Plants and phytoplankton are not equipped to incorporate nitrogen from the atmosphere (which exists as tightly bonded, triple covalent N2) even though this molecule comprises approximately 78 percent of the atmosphere. Nitrogen enters the living world via free-living and symbiotic bacteria, which incorporate nitrogen into their macromolecules through nitrogen fixation (conversion of N2). Cyanobacteria live in most aquatic ecosystems where sunlight is present; they play a key role in nitrogen fixation. Cyanobacteria are able to use inorganic sources of nitrogen to “fix” nitrogen. Rhizobium bacteria live symbiotically in the root nodules of legumes (such as peas, beans, and peanuts) and provide them with the organic nitrogen they need. Free-living bacteria, such as Azotobacter, are also important nitrogen fixers. Organic nitrogen is especially important to the study of ecosystem dynamics since many ecosystem processes, such as primary production and decomposition, are limited by the available supply of nitrogen. As shown in Figure 46.17, the nitrogen that enters living systems by nitrogen fixation is successively converted from organic nitrogen back into nitrogen gas by bacteria. This process occurs in three steps in terrestrial systems: ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification. First, the ammonification process converts nitrogenous waste from living animals or from the remains of dead animals. Answer: bacteria", "output": [ "The nitrogen that enters living systems by nitrogen fixation is successively converted from organic nitrogen back into nitrogen gas by what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4cb1557b9dba4ae7b9f56f915dc74138", "input": "Passage: Most sedimentary rocks form from sediments. The sediments must be packed together to form a rock. Sedimentary rocks also form as minerals precipitate from saline water. Sedimentary rock formation is described in the next concept. Answer: sediments", "output": [ "Most sedimentary rocks form from what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b562f060b4fd4386b3c57502df4ddcfb", "input": "Passage: Many human actions make it easier for wind and water to carry away soil. They include plowing, logging, construction, and even some types of recreation. Answer: soil erosion", "output": [ "Human actions such as plowing, logging, construction and other actions contribute to what kind of erosion?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1b1ca472671e44c9a933c92f64a51d8e", "input": "Passage: Lumbar Vertebrae Lumbar vertebrae carry the greatest amount of body weight and are thus characterized by the large size and thickness of the vertebral body (Figure 7.28). They have short transverse processes and a short, blunt spinous process that projects posteriorly. The articular processes are large, with the superior process facing backward and the inferior facing forward. Answer: lumbar vertebrae", "output": [ "Which vertebrae carry the greatest amount of body weight and are thus characterized by the large size and thickness of the vertebral body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-289df1b19a5947e8a5dc2abfd17534fb", "input": "Passage: Are you on the basketball team? Are you a cheerleader? Do you play an instrument in the band? Your niche would be your role or place in the school. Organisms also each have their own niche in the ecosystem. Is an organism a producer or a consumer? How does the organism interact with other organisms? Is the organism involved in any symbiotic relationships?. Answer: niche", "output": [ "An organism's unique role in the ecosystem is called its what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8d4b5ca0abaf47bf89c1bd04f2406419", "input": "Passage: The high points of a transverse wave are called crests, and the low points are called troughs. Answer: crests", "output": [ "The high points of a transverse wave are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-63d24f2fc5d845a684e84dd9889a0678", "input": "Passage: The sporophyte produces haploid spores. The rhizoid buds to form a mature gametophyte. The zygote is housed in the venter. Figure 25.21 Which of the following statements about the fern life cycle is false? a. Sporangia produce haploid spores. The sporophyte grows from a gametophyte. The sporophyte is diploid and the gametophyte is haploid. Sporangia form on the underside of the gametophyte. Answer: haploid", "output": [ "In some plants, the sporophyte is diploid, while the gametophyte is what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-73d83dd1e003430a97656856c1a1b035", "input": "Passage: Endocytosis and exocytosis are active transport mechanisms in which large molecules enter and leave the cell inside vesicles. Answer: endocytosis and exocytosis", "output": [ "What are the active transport mechanisms by which molecules enter and leave the cell inside vesicles?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1cb27045ba6840ab86cafafeadfe4fa1", "input": "Passage: Another mechanism besides diffusion to passively transport materials between compartments is filtration. Unlike diffusion of a substance from where it is more concentrated to less concentrated, filtration uses a hydrostatic pressure gradient that pushes the fluid—and the solutes within it—from a higher pressure area to a lower pressure area. Filtration is an extremely important process in the body. For example, the circulatory system uses filtration to move plasma and substances across the. Answer: hydrostatic pressure gradient", "output": [ "What is used during filtration to push fluids and solutes, from higher pressure areas to lower pressure areas?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ede811b8af7148a9aeecc1716e4c7cf4", "input": "Passage: Nonrandom Mating If individuals nonrandomly mate with their peers, the result can be a changing population. There are many reasons nonrandom mating occurs. One reason is simple mate choice; for example, female peahens may prefer peacocks with bigger, brighter tails. Traits that lead to more matings for an individual become selected for by natural selection. One common form of mate choice, called assortative mating, is an individual’s preference to mate with partners who are phenotypically similar to themselves. Another cause of nonrandom mating is physical location. This is especially true in large populations spread over large geographic distances where not all individuals will have equal access to one another. Some might be miles apart through woods or over rough terrain, while others might live immediately nearby. Answer: similar to themselves", "output": [ "One common form of mate choice, called assortative mating, is an individual’s preference to mate with partners who are what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d9be2f9f8ba04907adba2b93835768bd", "input": "Passage: Acceleration is a measure of the change in velocity of a moving object. It shows how quickly velocity changes. Acceleration may reflect a change in speed, a change in direction, or both. Because acceleration includes both a size (speed) and direction, it is a vector. Answer: acceleration", "output": [ "What is the measure of change in velocity of a moving object?" ] }, { "id": "task594-70657aa0fdee44d7aa0d23e7534abee0", "input": "Passage: The mass number is defined as the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom. Answer: mass number", "output": [ "The total number of protons and neutorns in an atom is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-18451b215e32494b8ea16208be7038d7", "input": "Passage: Vascular Plants The vascular plants are the dominant and most conspicuous group of land plants. There are about 275,000 species of vascular plants, which represent more than 90 percent of Earth’s vegetation. Several evolutionary innovations explain their success and their spread to so many habitats. Vascular Tissue: Xylem and Phloem The first fossils that show the presence of vascular tissue are dated to the Silurian period, about 430 million years ago. The simplest arrangement of conductive cells shows a pattern of xylem at the center surrounded by phloem. Xylem is the tissue responsible for long-distance transport of water and minerals, the transfer of water-soluble growth factors from the organs of synthesis to the target organs, and storage of water and nutrients. A second type of vascular tissue is phloem, which transports sugars, proteins, and other solutes through the plant. Phloem cells are divided into sieve elements, or conducting cells, and supportive tissue. Together, xylem and phloem tissues form the vascular system of plants. Answer: vascular plants", "output": [ "What type of plant is the dominant group of land plants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0a74b8e98a444665bda8966747d4b80e", "input": "Passage: A completely bonding molecular orbital contains no nodes (regions of zero electron probability) perpendicular to the internuclear axis, whereas a completelyantibonding molecular orbital contains at least one node perpendicular to the internuclear axis. A sigma (σ) orbital (bonding) or a sigma star (σ*) orbital(antibonding) is symmetrical about the internuclear axis. Hence all cross-sections perpendicular to that axis are circular. Both a pi (π) orbital (bonding) and a pi star (π*) orbital (antibonding) possess a nodal plane that contains the nuclei, with electron density localized on both sides of the plane. The energies of the molecular orbitals versus those of the parent atomic orbitals can be shown schematically in an energy-level diagram. The electron configuration of a molecule is shown by placing the correct number of electrons in the appropriate energy-level diagram, starting with the lowest-energy orbital and obeying the Pauli principle; that is, placing only two electrons with opposite spin in each orbital. From the completed energy-level diagram, we can calculate thebond order, defined as one-half the net number of bonding electrons. In bond orders, electrons in antibonding molecular orbitals cancel electrons in bonding molecular orbitals, while electrons in nonbonding orbitals have no effect and are not counted. Bond orders of 1, 2, and 3 correspond to single, double, and triple bonds, respectively. Molecules with predicted bond orders of 0 are generally less stable than the isolated atoms and do not normally exist. Molecular orbital energy-level diagrams for diatomic molecules can be created if the electron configuration of the parent atoms is known, following a few simple rules. Most important, the number of molecular orbitals in a molecule is the same as the number of atomic orbitals that interact. The difference between bonding and antibonding molecular orbital combinations is proportional to the overlap of the parent orbitals and decreases as the energy difference between the parent atomic orbitals increases. With such an approach, the electronic structures of virtually all commonly encountered homonuclear diatomic molecules, molecules with two identical atoms, can be understood. The molecular orbital approach correctly predicts that the O2 molecule has two unpaired electrons and hence is attracted into a magnetic field. In contrast, most substances have only paired electrons. A similar procedure can be applied to molecules with two dissimilar atoms, calledheteronuclear diatomic molecules, using a molecular orbital energy-level diagram that is skewed or tilted toward the more electronegative element. Answer: electrons", "output": [ "Atomic orbitals are populated with what subatomic particles?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5108920919a44ab1ad0f5c282ec3f086", "input": "Passage: Ponds and lakes may get their water from several sources. Some falls directly into them as precipitation. Some enters as runoff and some from streams and rivers. Water leaves ponds and lakes through evaporation and also as outflow. Answer: outflow", "output": [ "Water leaves ponds and lakes through evaporation and also as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-18412095335f4a6fa652e8e172ccea77", "input": "Passage: CHAPTER SUMMARY 40.1 Overview of the Circulatory System In most animals, the circulatory system is used to transport blood through the body. Some primitive animals use diffusion for the exchange of water, nutrients, and gases. However, complex organisms use the circulatory system to carry gases, nutrients, and waste through the body. Circulatory systems may be open (mixed with the interstitial fluid) or closed (separated from the interstitial fluid). Closed circulatory systems are a characteristic of vertebrates; however, there are significant differences in the structure of the heart and the circulation of blood between the different vertebrate groups due to adaptions during evolution and associated differences in anatomy. Fish have a two-chambered heart with unidirectional circulation. Amphibians have a three-chambered heart, which has some mixing of the blood, and they have double circulation. Most non-avian reptiles have a three-chambered heart, but have little mixing of the blood; they have double circulation. Mammals and birds have a four-chambered heart with no mixing of the blood and double circulation. Answer: body", "output": [ "In most animals, the circulatory system is used to transport blood through the what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cee6098a1f4a4f9fb8ae5ceb5379164a", "input": "Passage: Natural Selection for a Polygenic Trait. Natural selection may affect the distribution of a polygenic trait. These graphs show three ways this can happen. Answer: natural selection", "output": [ "What evolutionary process may affect the distribution of a polygenic trait?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6156ef43755340d19d0cef4b4e95d74d", "input": "Passage: After the ball of cells reaches the uterus, it fixes itself to the side of the uterus. This is called implantation . It usually happens about a week after fertilization. Now the implanted ball of cells is ready to continue its development into a baby boy or girl. Answer: rust", "output": [ "What is the process of oxidized iron that has been exposed to air and water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-450221a3b7d24505aad687d7033268d8", "input": "Passage: As we saw in the previous chapter, ions are formed when atoms gain or lose electrons. If an atom loses one or more electrons, the resulting ion has a positive charge (more protons are present than electrons). If the atom gains one or more electrons, the resulting ion has a negative charge (more electrons are present than protons). Positive ions are called cations, and negative ions are called anions. Because opposite charges attract one another, cations and anions are held together by strong electromagnetic forces. An ionic compound consists of a large three-dimensional array of alternating cations and anions. For example, sodium chloride (NaCl) is composed of Na + and Cl - ions arranged into a structure like the one shown in Figure below . Answer: ions", "output": [ "When atoms gain or lose electrons, what is formed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7fccfe52e82d4e4a874420ef358ab694", "input": "Passage: There are only about 25 living species of lancelets. They inhabit the ocean floor where the water is shallow. Lancelet larvae are free-swimming. The adults can swim but spend most of their time buried in the sand. Like tunicates, lancelets are filter feeders. They take in water through their mouth and expel it through an opening called the atriopore (see Figure below ). Lancelets reproduce sexually and have separates sexes. Answer: shallow ocean water", "output": [ "Where do lancelets live?" ] }, { "id": "task594-73d4320b5541472995d2929313472ae5", "input": "Passage: Shock Hazards Electrical currents through people produce tremendously varied effects. An electrical current can be used to block back pain. The possibility of using electrical current to stimulate muscle action in paralyzed limbs, perhaps allowing paraplegics to walk, is under study. TV dramatizations in which electrical shocks are used to bring a heart attack victim out of ventricular fibrillation (a massively irregular, often fatal, beating of the heart) are more than common. Yet most electrical shock fatalities occur because a current put the heart into fibrillation. A pacemaker uses electrical shocks to stimulate the heart to beat properly. Some fatal shocks do not produce burns, but warts can be safely burned off with electric current (though freezing using liquid nitrogen is now more common). Of course, there are consistent explanations for these disparate effects. The major factors upon which the effects of electrical shock depend are 1. The amount of current. Answer: heart", "output": [ "A pacemaker uses electrical shocks to stimulate the what to beat properly?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ba59bd5a0ff441b097b4ad710c436b39", "input": "Passage: Solutes change the physical properties of solvents. They lower the freezing point and raise the boiling point of solvents. Answer: solutes", "output": [ "What change the physical properties of solvents?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7fcb8fcfeceb4293927cf0251344c29a", "input": "Passage: An ionic bond forms when the metal sodium gives up an electron to the nonmetal chlorine. Answer: an ionic bond", "output": [ "What forms when the metal sodium gives up an electron to the nonmetal chlorine?" ] }, { "id": "task594-99a62479215c44e19dca73e6a3439ae0", "input": "Passage: Irrigation is the single biggest use of water. Overhead irrigation wastes a lot of water. Drip irrigation wastes a lot less. Figure below shows a drip irrigation system. Water pipes run over the surface of the ground. Tiny holes in the pipes are placed close to each plant. Water slowly drips out of the holes and soaks into the soil around the plants. Very little of the water evaporates or runs off the ground. Answer: drip irrigation", "output": [ "Does overhead irrigation or drip irrigation use less water?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7e2e3528dd7f42cc8b3c57575e3fac30", "input": "Passage: Saturated hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds between carbon atoms. As a result, each carbon atom is bonded to as many hydrogen atoms as possible. Answer: saturated hydrocarbons", "output": [ "What hydrocarbons contain only single bonds between carbon atoms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6189581c91ea4153ac6c4921257b5304", "input": "Passage: The molecular mass is the sum of the masses of the atoms in the formula. Answer: molecular mass", "output": [ "The sum of the masses of the atoms in the formula is referred to as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d15dc7bd09594f84ad4aef1e5888a934", "input": "Passage: Nuclear symbols are used to write nuclear equations for radioactive decay. Let’s consider an example. Uranium-238 undergoes alpha decay to become thorium-234. (The numbers following the chemical names refer to the number of protons plus neutrons. ) In this reaction, uranium-238 loses two protons and two neutrons to become the element thorium-234. The reaction can be represented by this nuclear equation:. Answer: nuclear symbols", "output": [ "What are used to write nuclear equations for radioactive decay?" ] }, { "id": "task594-aeb0d597e2b84ee682f0f46aa9ea5926", "input": "Passage: Visual Communication in Animals. Many animals use visual cues to communicate. Answer: visual communication", "output": [ "The process in which animals use visual cues to communicate is known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-75d573876f20425ba4d9f7834d42ca6c", "input": "Passage: Scientists did not actually see viruses for the first time until the 1930s. That’s when the electron microscope was invented. In 1915, English bacteriologist Frederick Twort discovered bacteriophage , the viruses that attack bacteria. He noticed tiny clear spots within bacterial colonies, and hypothesized that something was killing the bacteria. The tobacco mosaic virus shown in Figure below was the first one to be seen. Answer: electron microscope", "output": [ "The invention of what instrument in the 1930s allowed scientists to see viruses for the first time?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a20e105a8a8940d2a39b30866dc1f8fe", "input": "Passage: Figure 7.14 Lactic acid fermentation is common in muscle cells that have run out of oxygen. Answer: oxygen", "output": [ "Lactic acid fermentation is common in muscle cells that have run out of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3f9f938d644848fcae1dfd762a551f3b", "input": "Passage: Pb(s) + 2H+(aq) + SO42−(aq) → PbSO4(s) + H2(g) Lead(II) sulfate is the white solid that forms on corroded battery terminals. Exercise Using the activity series, predict what happens in each situation. If a reaction occurs, write the net ionic equation. Answer: lead sulfate", "output": [ "What is the white solid that forms on corroded battery terminals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f09419afafca47e49e15629e29dd2bf4", "input": "Passage: Epithelial tissue is made up of layers of tightly packed cells that line the surfaces of the body. Examples of epithelial tissue include the skin, the lining of the mouth and nose, and the lining of the digestive system. Answer: epithelial tissue", "output": [ "Tissue is made up of layers of tightly packed cells that line the surfaces of the body, such as skin." ] }, { "id": "task594-9db3d249725f419481139cd754345a69", "input": "Passage: Figure 24.8 Fungi may have both asexual and sexual stages of reproduction. Answer: reproduction", "output": [ "Fungi may have both asexual and sexual stages of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6f78407b8aca4705b53dd9bcedc06652", "input": "Passage: Fertilization Fertilization, pictured in Figure 43.23a is the process in which gametes (an egg and sperm) fuse to form a zygote. The egg and sperm each contain one set of chromosomes. To ensure that the offspring has only one complete diploid set of chromosomes, only one sperm must fuse with one egg. In mammals, the egg is protected by a layer of extracellular matrix consisting mainly of glycoproteins called the zona pellucida. When a sperm binds to the zona pellucida, a series of biochemical events, called the acrosomal reactions, take place. In placental mammals, the acrosome contains digestive enzymes that initiate the degradation of the glycoprotein matrix protecting the egg and allowing the sperm plasma. Answer: egg", "output": [ "In mammals what does the zona pellucida protect?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d5eadda731d0494f9f5606a52f89f345", "input": "Passage: n = cv , where v is the observed speed of light in the material. Since the speed of light is always less than only in a vacuum, the index of refraction is always greater than or equal to one. Answer: light", "output": [ "The constant \"c\" can be specifically used to represent the (extremely fast) speed of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3ee66c59833d484f94e237ea31b4e6d6", "input": "Passage: Chordates are defined by a set of four characteristics that are shared by these animals at some point during their development. In some chordates, all four traits are present in the adult animal and serve important functions. However, in many chordates, including humans, some traits are present only during the embryonic stage. After that, these traits may disappear. Answer: development", "output": [ "Chordates are defined by a set of four characteristics that are shared by these animals at some point during their?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cb105568b42444beb9a025d908888f18", "input": "Passage: Crustaceans, such as shrimp, lobsters, crabs, and crayfish, are the dominant aquatic arthropods. A few crustaceans are [3] terrestrial species like the pill bugs or sow bugs. The number of described crustacean species stands at about 47,000. Although the basic body plan in crustaceans is similar to the Hexapoda—head, thorax, and abdomen—the head and thorax may be fused in some species to form a cephalothorax, which is covered by a plate called the carapace (Figure 15.22). The exoskeleton of many species is also infused with calcium carbonate, which makes it even stronger than in other arthropods. Crustaceans have an open circulatory system in which blood is pumped into the hemocoel by the dorsal heart. Most crustaceans typically have separate sexes, but some, like barnacles, may be hermaphroditic. Serial hermaphroditism, in which the gonad can switch from producing sperm to ova, is also found in some crustacean species. Larval stages are seen in the early development of many crustaceans. Most crustaceans are carnivorous, but detritivores and filter feeders are also common. Answer: crustaceans", "output": [ "What subphylum, which includes crabs and crayfish, represents the dominant aquatic arthropods?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ca2fe98044714b56bd47db686f58607b", "input": "Passage: Diffusion can occur across a semipermeable membrane, such as the cell membrane, as long as a concentration gradient exists. Molecules will continue to flow in this manner until equilibrium is reached. At equilibrium, there is no longer an area of high concentration or low concentration, and molecules flow equally in both directions across the semipermeable membrane. At equilibrium, equal amounts of a molecule are entering and leaving a cell. Answer: concentration gradient", "output": [ "Diffusion can occur across a semipermeable membrane, such as the cell membrane, as long as a what exists?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ea40108c23c34a5fae2fcda6beb2d2a7", "input": "Passage: Some mammals are omnivores. Omnivores are heterotrophs that eat a mix of plant and animal foods. Mammals that are omnivores include bears, foxes, rats, pigs, and human beings. The chimpanzees in Figure below are also omnivorous mammals. In the wild, they eat mainly plant foods, but they supplement plants with birds, bird eggs, insects, small monkeys, and other small mammals. Their favorite and most common food, however, is fruit. Animals that eat mainly fruit are called frugivores. Answer: an omnivore", "output": [ "What is the name for a kind of animal that eats a mix of plant and animal foods." ] }, { "id": "task594-4798d8100cdf427595328a046fd91bd4", "input": "Passage: Tension stress pulls rocks apart. Tension causes rocks to lengthen or break apart. Tension is the major type of stress found at divergent plate boundaries. Answer: tension stress", "output": [ "Which process or force pulls rocks apart?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bc201f4167c444dbb35602cebb06c63d", "input": "Passage: Sponges reproduce both asexually and sexually. Asexual reproduction occurs by budding. Figure below shows the sponge life cycle when sexual reproduction is involved. Adult sponges produce eggs and sperm. In many species, the same individuals produce both. However, they don’t produce eggs and sperm at the same time. As a result, self-fertilization is unlikely to occur. What is an advantage of avoiding self-fertilization?. Answer: budding", "output": [ "Asexual reproduction occurs by what process?" ] }, { "id": "task594-50dc833f0686415da9aae02dc260937f", "input": "Passage: Sexual reproduction happens when a sperm and an egg cell combine together. This is called fertilization . Sperm are released into the vagina during sexual intercourse. They “swim” through the uterus and enter a fallopian tube . This is where fertilization normally takes place. Answer: fertilization", "output": [ "What happens when a sperm and an egg cell combine?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8061f41fe78c45149dccb9153c570db0", "input": "Passage: DNA consists of two long chains of nucleotides. Nitrogen bases on the two chains form hydrogen bonds with each other. Adenine always bonds with thymine, and guanine always bonds with cytosine. These bonds hold the two chains together and give DNA is characteristic double helix, or spiral, shape. You can see the shape of the DNA molecule in Figure below . Sugars and phosphate groups form the \"backbone\" of each chain of DNA. The bonded bases are called base pairs. RNA, in contrast to DNA, consists of just one chain of nucleotides. Determining the structure of DNA was a big scientific breakthrough. You can read the interesting story of its discovery at the URL below. Answer: two", "output": [ "Dna consists of how many long chains of nucleotides?" ] }, { "id": "task594-260d5bb7a8af4746b1e3a37657cb8e03", "input": "Passage: Anemia is a disease that occurs when there is not enough hemoglobin in the blood to carry oxygen to body cells. Hemoglobin is the blood protein that normally carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. Anemia leads to a lack of oxygen in organs. Answer: hemoglobin", "output": [ "What is the name of the blood protein that carries oxygen from the lungs to the body's assorted tissues?" ] }, { "id": "task594-469544eb0f0d4ad4af717d4e646e7d9d", "input": "Passage: Autoimmune diseases occur when the immune system fails to recognize the body’s own molecules as “self,” or belonging to the person. Instead, it attacks body cells as though they were dangerous pathogens. Some relatively common autoimmune diseases are listed in Table below . These diseases cannot be cured, although they can be treated to relieve symptoms and prevent some of the long-term damage they cause. Answer: autoimmune", "output": [ "What kind of diseases involve the immune system accidentally attacking healthy body cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-228ba65c3ffd44c6a581bb7840d5f4bf", "input": "Passage: Introduction Each somatic cell in the body generally contains the same DNA. A few exceptions include red blood cells, which contain no DNA in their mature state, and some immune system cells that rearrange their DNA while producing antibodies. In general, however, the genes that determine whether you have green eyes, brown hair, and how fast you metabolize food are the same in the cells in your eyes and your liver, even though these organs function quite differently. If each cell has the same DNA, how is it that cells or organs are different? Why do cells in the eye differ so dramatically from cells in the liver? Whereas each cell shares the same genome and DNA sequence, each cell does not turn on, or express, the same set of genes. Each cell type needs a different set of proteins to perform its function. Therefore, only a small subset of proteins is expressed in a cell. For the proteins to be expressed, the DNA must be transcribed into RNA and the RNA must be translated into protein. In a given cell type, not all genes encoded in the DNA are transcribed into RNA or translated into protein because specific cells in our body have specific functions. Specialized proteins that make up the eye (iris, lens, and cornea) are only expressed in the eye, whereas the specialized proteins in the heart (pacemaker cells, heart muscle, and valves) are only expressed in the heart. At any given time, only a subset of all of the genes encoded by our DNA are expressed and translated into proteins. The expression of specific genes is a highly regulated process with many levels and stages of control. This complexity ensures the proper expression in the proper cell at the proper time. Answer: genes", "output": [ "Whereas each cell shares the same genome and dna sequence, each cell does not turn on, or express, the same set of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4133f3817c8c44c280ff0b3ab8401c45", "input": "Passage: Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun. It has two small, irregular moons. Mars is red because of rust in its soil. Mars has the largest mountain and the largest canyon in the solar system. Answer: mars", "output": [ "What is the fourth planet from the sun?" ] }, { "id": "task594-483a35fc12cd4bfba2d5f03250c4552a", "input": "Passage: When fertilizer ends up in bodies of water, the added nutrients cause excessive growth of algae. This is called an algal bloom. You can see one in Figure below . The algae out-compete other water organisms. They may make the water unfit for human consumption or recreation. Answer: algal bloom", "output": [ "When fertilizer ends up in bodies of water, the added nutrients cause excessive growth referred to as what, which can render the water unfit for human consumption or recreation?" ] }, { "id": "task594-38a7caa5cf4f4f348c3fc7328ab53dd4", "input": "Passage: Water, carbon dioxide, and oxygen are important agents of chemical weathering. Answer: oxygen", "output": [ "Water, carbon dioxide, and what other element are important agents of chemical weathering?" ] }, { "id": "task594-29736837936b4f9dbdae0b905382bf5a", "input": "Passage: The half-life of titanium-44 is 60.0 y. A sample of titanium contains 0.600 g of titanium-44. How much remains after 100.0 y?. Answer: circulatory", "output": [ "Name the type of system that a jellyfish does not have?" ] }, { "id": "task594-80756aae9de043519b8e56161554bfa3", "input": "Passage: There are about 22,000 genes in every human cell. Does every human cell have the same genes? Yes. Does every human cell make the same proteins? No. In a multicellular organism, such as us, cells have specific functions because they have different proteins. They have different proteins because different genes are expressed in different cell types (which is known as gene expression ). Answer: genes", "output": [ "Every human cell has the same what, and each cell has thousands of them?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f4e8df3774c145e9a59fccfd57c8932d", "input": "Passage: Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure of Solutions A number of natural and synthetic materials exhibit selective permeation, meaning that only molecules or ions of a certain size, shape, polarity, charge, and so forth, are capable of passing through (permeating) the material. Biological cell membranes provide elegant examples of selective permeation in nature, while dialysis tubing used to remove metabolic wastes from blood is a more simplistic technological example. Regardless of how they may be fabricated, these materials are generally referred to as semipermeable membranes. Consider the apparatus illustrated in Figure 11.25, in which samples of pure solvent and a solution are separated by a membrane that only solvent molecules may permeate. Solvent molecules will diffuse across the membrane in both directions. Since the concentration of solvent is greater in the pure solvent than the solution, these molecules will diffuse from the solvent side of the membrane to the solution side at a faster rate than they will in the reverse direction. The result is a net transfer of solvent molecules from the pure solvent to the solution. Diffusion-driven transfer of solvent molecules through a semipermeable membrane is a process known as osmosis. Answer: selective permeation", "output": [ "What term means that only molecules or ions of a certain size, shape, polarity or charge are capable of passing through the material?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7fa06a30e67b49cda67cd215e38bf55a", "input": "Passage: Measuring devices must be used correctly to get accurate measurements. Figure below shows the correct way to use a graduated cylinder to measure the volume of a liquid. Answer: graduated cylinder", "output": [ "In a science lab, what device would you use to measure the volume of a liquid?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b82b0e22f4054fdab2bdf4353bc26cf9", "input": "Passage: Isomers that contain the same number of atoms of each kind but differ in which atoms are bonded to one another are called structural isomers. Isobutane and n-butane are examples of structural isomers. One kind of isomerism consists of two compounds that have the same empirical formula but differ in the number of formula units present in the molecular formula. An example in coordination compounds is two compounds with the empirical formula Pt(NH 3)2Cl2. One is a simple square planar platinum(II) complex, Pt(NH3)2Cl2, and the other is an ionic compound that contains the [Pt(NH 3)4]2+ cation and the [PtCl4]2− anion, [Pt(NH3)4][PtCl4]. As you might expect, these compounds have very different physical and chemical properties. One arrangement of the Cl− and NH3 ligands around the platinum ion in the former gives the anticancer drug cisplatin, whereas the other arrangement has no known biomedical applications. Answer: structural isomers", "output": [ "What type of isomers contain the same number of atoms of each kind but differ in which atoms are bonded to one another?" ] }, { "id": "task594-72727c801e414441bf9041ab82e19e9e", "input": "Passage: Breathing is the process of moving air into and out of the lungs. It depends on the muscle called the diaphragm. Answer: diaphragm", "output": [ "What muscle is imperative to breathing in helping the air move in and out of the lungs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-436559c00c6a43a1a9b77d1f5479c199", "input": "Passage: Light is produced when charged particles accelerate . As a result changing electric and magnetic fields radiate outward. The traveling electric and magnetic fields of an accelerating (often oscillating) charged particle are known as electromagnetic radiation or light. Answer: accelerate", "output": [ "Light is produced when charged particles do what, frequently in the form of oscillating?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a08932f5db0d47699284a0506066feb0", "input": "Passage: 3.4 | The Cell Membrane By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Understand the fluid mosaic model of membranes • Describe the functions of phospholipids, proteins, and carbohydrates in membranes A cell’s plasma membrane defines the boundary of the cell and determines the nature of its contact with the environment. Cells exclude some substances, take in others, and excrete still others, all in controlled quantities. Plasma membranes enclose the borders of cells, but rather than being a static bag, they are dynamic and constantly in flux. The plasma membrane must be sufficiently flexible to allow certain cells, such as red blood cells and white blood cells, to change shape as they pass through narrow capillaries. These are the more obvious functions of a plasma membrane. In addition, the surface of the plasma membrane carries markers that allow cells to recognize one another, which is vital as tissues and organs form during early development, and which later plays a role in the “self” versus “non-self” distinction of the immune response. The plasma membrane also carries receptors, which are attachment sites for specific substances that interact with the cell. Each receptor is structured to bind with a specific substance. For example, surface receptors of the membrane create changes in the interior, such as changes in enzymes of metabolic pathways. These metabolic pathways might be vital for providing the cell with energy, making specific substances for the cell, or breaking down cellular waste or toxins for disposal. Receptors on the plasma membrane’s exterior surface interact with hormones or neurotransmitters, and allow their messages to be transmitted into the cell. Some recognition sites are used by viruses as attachment points. Although they are highly specific, pathogens like viruses may evolve to exploit receptors to gain entry to a cell by mimicking the specific substance that the receptor is meant to bind. This specificity helps to explain why human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or any of the five types of hepatitis viruses invade only specific cells. Answer: plasma membrane", "output": [ "What encloses the border of animal cells?" ] }, { "id": "task594-51c0d1adef3047f0a8baee8f29586698", "input": "Passage: The name silicon dioxide implies one silicon atom and two oxygen atoms, so the formula is SiO2. We have a name that has numerical prefixes on both elements. Tri- means three, and tetrameans four, so the formula of this compound is Si3N4. Answer: two", "output": [ "How many atoms of oxygen does silicon dioxide contain?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1fce1d8c4b1a433f8670486e9c4d5a88", "input": "Passage: Sponges are filter feeders. They pump water into their body through their pores. The water flows through a large central cavity called the spongocoel (see Figure above ). As the water flows by, specialized collar cells filter out food particles such as bacteria. Collar cells have tiny hairs that trap the particles. They also have a flagellum that whips the water and keeps it moving. Once the food is trapped, the collar cells digest it (see Figure below ). Cells called amebocytes also help digest the food. They distribute the nutrients to the rest of the body as well. Finally, the water flows back out of the body through an opening called the osculum. As water flows through the sponge, oxygen diffuses from the water to the sponge’s cells. The cells also expel wastes into the water for removal through the osculum. Answer: pores", "output": [ "Filter feeders, such as sponges, pump water into their body through what structures?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5872d9622a42463eab1e2ebb2bdbc9d2", "input": "Passage: The population growth rate is how fast a population is growing. The letter r stands for the growth rate. The growth rate equals the number of new members added to the population in a year for each 100 members already in the population. The growth rate includes new members added to the population and old members removed from the population. Births add new members to the population. Deaths remove members from the population. The formula for population growth rate is:. Answer: growth rate", "output": [ "What term that shows how fast a population is growing includes new members added to the population over a given period, as well as old members removed from the population?" ] }, { "id": "task594-269d19f261b9453193babaa2db12cd7c", "input": "Passage: The chapter focuses on the atmosphere. Beyond the atmosphere is space. The next chapter introduces the study of space. Answer: space", "output": [ "What is beyond the atmosphere?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1755d2209a5e4845ba10f6b05899de9c", "input": "Passage: Ecological succession is the process in which a community changes through time. Primary succession occurs in an area that has never before been colonized. Secondary succession occurs in a formerly inhabited area that was disturbed. Answer: ecological succession", "output": [ "What is the term for the process in which an area that has never before been colonized changes through time?" ] }, { "id": "task594-46890ab984f7472db365412e55a3728e", "input": "Passage: Long Bones A long bone is one that is cylindrical in shape, being longer than it is wide. Keep in mind, however, that the term describes the shape of a bone, not its size. Long bones are found in the arms (humerus, ulna, radius) and legs (femur, tibia, fibula), as well as in the fingers (metacarpals, phalanges) and toes (metatarsals, phalanges). Long bones function as levers; they move when muscles contract. Answer: work as lever", "output": [ "What type of function does the long bone perform?" ] }, { "id": "task594-8388819b14b84ef6846e78d1228d3e25", "input": "Passage: Equilibriums are affected by changes in concentration, total pressure or volume, and temperature. Answer: temperature", "output": [ "Equilibriums are affected by changes in concentration, total pressure or volume, and this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-27e503eacb9240caacded622c449f031", "input": "Passage: Glucose is a substance that passes across cell membranes by facilitated diffusion. All cells need glucose for energy. Answer: glucose", "output": [ "All cells need what for energy?" ] }, { "id": "task594-65682cbf8f294cfa8b6b19d535ccb0bb", "input": "Passage: Scientists search for answers to questions and solutions to problems by using a procedure called the scientific method. This procedure consists of makingobservations, formulating hypotheses, and designing experiments, which in turn lead to additional observations, hypotheses, and experiments in repeated cycles (Figure 1.4 \"The Scientific Method\"). Answer: scientific method", "output": [ "Scientists search for answers to questions and solutions to problems by using a procedure called this?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ee5653d445b04a6ab8cac418c7062114", "input": "Passage: In sexually reproducing species, chromosomes are present in cells in pairs. Chromosomes in the same pair are called homologous chromosomes. They have the same genes at the same loci. These may be the same or different alleles. During meiosis, when gametes are produced, homologous chromosomes separate. They go to different gametes. Thus, the alleles for each gene also go to different gametes. Answer: homologous chromosomes", "output": [ "What are chromosomes in the same pair called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1570ec79fc3543b19481ac7305d17384", "input": "Passage: The lithosphere-asthensophere divisions are based on mechanical properties. Answer: mechanical properties", "output": [ "The lithosphere-asthensophere divisions are based on what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ba3593b03b684378a8bcbfefafe09bbb", "input": "Passage: Vertebrates have a backbone, but invertebrates do not. Except for the chordates, all animal phyla consist only of invertebrates. Chordates include both vertebrates and invertebrates. Answer: backbones", "output": [ "What do vertebrates have which invertebrates do not?" ] }, { "id": "task594-eb13a8f0b7c54b31960ec4ac11a9f1ec", "input": "Passage: Because they cannot escape the container, the vapor molecules above the surface of the liquid exert a pressure on the walls of the container. The vapor pressure is a measure of the presure (force per unit area) exerted by a gas above a liquid in a sealed container. Vapor pressure is a property of a liquid based on the strength of its intermolecular forces. A liquid with weak intermolecular forces evaporates more easily and has a high vapor pressure. A liquid with stronger intermolecular forces does not evaporate easily and thus has a lower vapor pressure. For example, diethyl ether is a nonpolar liquid with weak dispersion forces. Its vapor pressure at 20°C is 58.96 kPa. Water is a polar liquid whose molecules are attracted to one another by relatively strong hydrogen bonding. The vapor pressure of water at 20°C is only 2.33 kPa, far less than that of diethyl ether. Answer: vapor pressure", "output": [ "What term describes a property of a liquid based on the strength of its intermolecular forces?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3fe4e2d73729453a8217ad351a60e3cf", "input": "Passage: Another name for this compound is…water. Water can create some absolutely beautiful sights. Iguassu Falls is the largest series of waterfalls on the planet, located in Brazil, Argentina, and Paraguay. And water is necessary for life. Water, like carbon, has a special role in biology because of its importance to organisms. Water is essential to all known forms of life. Water, H 2 O, such a simple molecule, yet it is this simplicity that gives water its unique properties and explains why water is so vital for life. Answer: iguassu falls", "output": [ "Which waterfall series is the largest on the planet?" ] }, { "id": "task594-97571b065a704208830b9a731febf928", "input": "Passage: Group 14 is called the carbon group. Carbon (C) is a nonmetal. The next two elements are metalloids, and the final two are metals. All the elements in the carbon group have four valence electrons. They are not very reactive. All are solids at room temperature. Answer: valence", "output": [ "What type of electrons do all group 14 elements have four of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e84f307b40b1426f8f5618db7f76af1a", "input": "Passage: Chromosomal disorders also occur when part of a chromosome becomes damaged. For example, if a tiny portion of chromosome 5 is missing, the individual will have cri du chat (cat’s cry) syndrome. These individuals have misshapen facial features, and the infant’s cry resembles a cat’s cry. Answer: chromosome 5", "output": [ "Which chromosome is associated with cri du chat syndrome?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e7fd86cdea174b789246e38e125095fb", "input": "Passage: The value of , the ideal gas constant, depends on the units chosen for pressure, temperature, and volume in the ideal gas equation. It is necessary to use Kelvin for the temperature and it is conventional to use the SI unit of liters for the volume. However, pressure is commonly measured in one of three units: kPa, atm, or mmHg. Therefore, can have three different values. Answer: pressure", "output": [ "What are kpa, atm, and mmhg measurement units for?" ] }, { "id": "task594-69b7ace1a4894de4acc118cf9ed3de29", "input": "Passage: Electrons at the outermost energy level of an atom are called valence electrons. They determine many of the properties of an element. That’s because these electrons are involved in chemical reactions with other atoms. Atoms may share or transfer valence electrons. Shared electrons bind atoms together to form chemical compounds. Answer: valence electrons", "output": [ "What are electrons at the outermost energy level of an atom are called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d6a174a1befa4b4f85c506283d504671", "input": "Passage: Secondary succession occurs in a formerly inhabited area that was disturbed. Answer: secondary succession", "output": [ "What occurs when a former inhabited area gets disturbed?" ] }, { "id": "task594-286925fc210c4b2e94ed0a0f19d736d0", "input": "Passage: The tennis player in Figure below has really worked up a sweat. Do you know why we sweat? Sweating helps to keep us cool. When sweat evaporates from the skin, it uses up some of the body’s heat energy. Sweating is one of the ways that the body maintains a stable internal environment. It helps keep the body’s internal temperature constant. When the body’s internal environment is stable, the condition is called homeostasis . Answer: homeostasis", "output": [ "What is it called when body’s internal environment is stable?" ] }, { "id": "task594-dfb514dd2fae4ecb95bd32915012c3bc", "input": "Passage: Calcium hydroxide and calcium carbonate are effective in neutralizing the effects of acid rain on lakes. Suggest other compounds that might be effective in treating lakes. Give a plausible reason to explain why Ca(OH)2 and CaCO3 are used. ♦ Approximately 95% of the chlorine produced industrially comes from the electrolysis of sodium chloride solutions (brine): NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) → Cl2(g) + H2(g) + NaOH(aq) Chlorine is a respiratory irritant whose presence is easily detected by its penetrating odor and greenishyellow color. One use for the chlorine produced is in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid. Answer: acid rain", "output": [ "Calcium hydroxide and calcium carbonate are effective in neutralizing the effects of what on lakes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b56aef40a40c40648583a64702238fca", "input": "Passage: The three types of muscles in the body include skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle. Answer: muscle", "output": [ "Smooth, cardiac, and skeletal are all types of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c446f5cbfaec455ea80683ea4d8dfd1a", "input": "Passage: About half the energy used in the U. S. is used in homes and for transportation. Businesses, stores, and industry use the other half. Answer: half (fifty)", "output": [ "Homes and transportation use what percent of all energy in the u.s.?" ] }, { "id": "task594-62bed7f5e24b4704bf6fba06347b69cd", "input": "Passage: Electromagnets can be turned on or off and their strength can be changed by controlling the electric current. Answer: electric current", "output": [ "Electromagnets can be turned on or off and their strength can be changed by controlling what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0464a677ddbd4db08ac2172b875e6741", "input": "Passage: When a sperm penetrates the egg, it triggers the egg to complete meiosis. The sperm also undergoes changes. Its tail falls off, and its nucleus fuses with the nucleus of the egg. The resulting cell, called a zygote, contains all the chromosomes needed for a new human organism. Half the chromosomes come from the egg and half from the sperm. Answer: meiosis", "output": [ "When a sperm penetrates the egg, it triggers the egg to complete what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e7191efa738f4816af688247d7df3443", "input": "Passage: Role of Feedback Loops The contribution of feedback loops to homeostasis will only be briefly reviewed here. Positive feedback loops are characterized by the release of additional hormone in response to an original hormone release. The release of oxytocin during childbirth is a positive feedback loop. The initial release of oxytocin begins to signal the uterine muscles to contract, which pushes the fetus toward the cervix, causing it to stretch. This, in turn, signals the pituitary gland to release more oxytocin, causing labor contractions to intensify. The release of oxytocin decreases after the birth of the child. The more common method of hormone regulation is the negative feedback loop. Negative feedback is characterized by the inhibition of further secretion of a hormone in response to adequate levels of that hormone. This allows blood levels of the hormone to be regulated within a narrow range. An example of a negative feedback loop is the release of glucocorticoid hormones from the adrenal glands, as directed by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. As glucocorticoid concentrations in the blood rise, the hypothalamus and pituitary gland reduce their signaling to the adrenal glands to prevent additional glucocorticoid secretion (Figure 17.6). Answer: homeostasis", "output": [ "By allowing blood levels of a hormone to be regulated within a narrow range, feedback loops contribute to maintaining what state?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e0bd3de36f2e4f2297c726f1888475f8", "input": "Passage: Strontium is a silver-colored alkaline Earth metal that is even softer than calcium. Strontium compounds are quite common and have a variety of uses—from fireworks to cement to toothpaste. In fireworks, strontium compounds produce deep red explosions. In toothpaste, like the one pictured in the Figure below , the compound strontium chloride reduces tooth sensitivity. Answer: strontium", "output": [ "What is a silver-colored alkaline earth metal that is even softer than calcium?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b0f27872bcbc400880f3188886542875", "input": "Passage: Earth’s crust contains a lot of oxygen. The oxygen can combine with other elements to create oxide minerals. Oxides contain one or two metal elements combined with oxygen. Oxides are different from silicates, because they do not contain silicon. Many important metals are found as oxides. For example, hematite and magnetite are both oxides that contain iron. Hematite (Fe 2 O 3 ) has a ratio of two iron atoms to three oxygen atoms. Magnetite (Fe 3 O 4 ) has a ratio of three iron atoms to four oxygen atoms. Notice that the word “magnetite” contains the word “magnet. \" Magnetite ( Figure below ) is a magnetic mineral. Answer: the crust", "output": [ "What layer of earth contains abundant oxygen, which can combine with other elements to create oxide minerals?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d8400f39767745fb9df8415532159619", "input": "Passage: Sun, Moon, and stars appear to travel from east to west each day. Answer: east to west", "output": [ "Which direction does the sun, moon, and stars appear to travel?" ] }, { "id": "task594-51b9e49ac6f5421891445e4071cc67c0", "input": "Passage: When plates are pushed or pulled, the rock is subjected to stress. Stress can cause a rock to change shape or to break. When a rock bends without breaking, it folds. When the rock breaks, it fractures. Mountain building and earthquakes are some of the responses rocks have to stress. Answer: stress", "output": [ "Mountain building and earthquakes are some of the responses of rocks when subected to what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-39441c6e52734c8c9342c8df4cf19d76", "input": "Passage: Sperm leave the epididymis through the vas deferens. As they travel through the vas deferens, they pass by the prostate and other glands. The sperm mix with secretions from these glands, forming semen. Semen travels through the urethra and leaves the body through the penis. A teaspoon of semen may contain as many as half a billion sperm!. Answer: semen", "output": [ "What is formed when sperm mixes with secretions from the various other glands of the reproductive system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-984ed6f8c0484e3cba69c42c2fcf9a20", "input": "Passage: Volcanoes rise where magma forms underground. Volcanoes are found at convergent plate boundaries and at hotspots. Volcanic activity is found at divergent plate boundaries. The map in Figure below shows where volcanoes are located. Answer: magma", "output": [ "When this forms underground, volcanoes rise?" ] }, { "id": "task594-51f15249c593449ab99b2a717b9f0f00", "input": "Passage: An asteroid can only change due to a collision. A collision may cause the asteroid to break up. It may create craters on the asteroid’s surface. An asteroid may strike a planet if it comes near enough to be pulled in by its gravity. Answer: a collision", "output": [ "What is the only thing that can change an asteroid?" ] }, { "id": "task594-239c46b4fc4d49adb39a8c42bc5e9939", "input": "Passage: Meiosis is a special type of cell division. It produces haploid daughter cells. It occurs when an organism makes gametes. Meiosis is basically mitosis times two. The original diploid cell divides twice. The first time is called meiosis I. The second time is called meiosis II. However, the DNA replicates only once. It replicates before meiosis I but not before meiosis II. This results in four haploid daughter cells. Answer: haploid daughter cells", "output": [ "What type of cells does meiosis produce?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d6dd0bc6d6a0448da3f3565b415f3309", "input": "Passage: Atoms within a graphite layer are bonded together tightly by the σ and π bonds; however, the forces between layers are weak. London dispersion forces hold the layers together. To learn more, see the discussion of these weak forces in the chapter on liquids and solids. The weak forces between layers give graphite the soft, flaky character that makes it useful as the so-called “lead” in pencils and the slippery character that makes it useful as a lubricant. The loosely held electrons in the resonating π bonds can move throughout the solid and are responsible for the electrical conductivity of graphite. Other forms of elemental carbon include carbon black, charcoal, and coke. Carbon black is an amorphous form of carbon prepared by the incomplete combustion of natural gas, CH4. It is possible to produce charcoal and coke by heating wood and coal, respectively, at high temperatures in the absence of air. Recently, new forms of elemental carbon molecules have been identified in the soot generated by a smoky flame and in the vapor produced when graphite is heated to very high temperatures in a vacuum or in helium. One of these new forms, first isolated by Professor Richard Smalley and coworkers at Rice University, consists of icosahedral (soccerball-shaped) molecules that contain 60 carbon atoms, C60. This is buckminsterfullerene (often called bucky balls) after the architect Buckminster Fuller, who designed domed structures, which have a similar appearance (Figure 18.22). Answer: carbon black", "output": [ "What is the amorphous form of carbon prepared by the incomplete combustion of natural gas?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a8f476ce7e7e4a36afd7a93f81ec2c46", "input": "Passage: Enzymes are proteins that increase the rate of biochemical reactions. Enzymes aren’t changed or used up in the reactions, so they can be used to speed up the same reaction over and over again. Enzymes are highly specific for certain chemical reactions, so they are very effective. A reaction that would take years to occur without its enzyme might occur in a split second with the enzyme. Answer: enzymes", "output": [ "What are proteins that increase the rate of biochemical reactions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-36c62d9b86534412b2781380baf52b6c", "input": "Passage: Quantum mechanics involves the study of material at the atomic level. Answer: atomic", "output": [ "Quantum mechanics involves the study of material at what level?" ] }, { "id": "task594-40eed2e924694702a8bcb6afdee4d32b", "input": "Passage: 25.4 Microscopic Anatomy of the Kidney The functional unit of the kidney, the nephron, consists of the renal corpuscle, PCT, loop of Henle, and DCT. Cortical nephrons have short loops of Henle, whereas juxtamedullary nephrons have long loops of Henle extending into the medulla. About 15 percent of nephrons are juxtamedullary. The glomerulus is a capillary bed that filters blood principally based on particle size. The filtrate is captured by Bowman’s capsule and directed to the PCT. A filtration membrane is formed by the fused basement membranes of the podocytes and the capillary endothelial cells that they embrace. Contractile mesangial cells further perform a role in regulating the rate at which the blood is filtered. Specialized cells in the JGA produce paracrine signals to regulate blood flow and filtration rates of the glomerulus. Other JGA cells produce the enzyme renin, which plays a central role in blood pressure regulation. The filtrate enters the PCT where absorption and secretion of several substances occur. The descending and ascending limbs of the loop of Henle consist of thick and thin segments. Absorption and secretion continue in the DCT but to a lesser extent than in the PCT. Each collecting duct collects forming urine from several nephrons and responds to the posterior pituitary hormone ADH by inserting aquaporin water channels into the cell membrane to fine tune water recovery. Answer: glomerulus", "output": [ "What is a capillary bed that filters blood principally based on particle size?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f56cfc91284d4da48915661104801e61", "input": "Passage: Relative dating determines which of two fossils is older or younger than the other but not their age in years. Relative dating is based on the positions of fossils in rock layers. Lower rock layers were laid down earlier, so they are assumed to contain older fossils. This is illustrated in Figure below . Answer: relative", "output": [ "What type of dating determines which of two fossils is older or younger than the other but not their age in years?" ] }, { "id": "task594-32ac4e976f5645ff9444a366e1c81210", "input": "Passage: In everyday conversation, to accelerate means to speed up. The accelerator in a car can in fact cause it to speed up. The greater the acceleration, the greater the change in velocity over a given time. The formal definition of acceleration is consistent with these notions, but more inclusive. Average Acceleration Average Acceleration is the rate at which velocity changes,. Answer: velocity", "output": [ "In scientific terms, average acceleration is the rate at which what changes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f6272ecfbb9f4e84a8fc650b59c26ffd", "input": "Passage: This is the Human Papilloma Virus, which causes a viral STI. Viral STIs can be especially dangerous, as they cannot be cured. Once you get one, it's yours for life. And also, it's the person's you give it to. Answer: they are incurable", "output": [ "What makes viral stis more dangerous than other types?" ] }, { "id": "task594-810960e468b048a0bdcbf34829f3e201", "input": "Passage: Another concern about biotechnology is how it may affect the environment. Negative effects on the environment have already occurred because of some GMOs. For example, corn has been created that has a gene for a pesticide. The corn plants have accidentally cross-pollinated nearby milkweeds. Monarch butterfly larvae depend on milkweeds for food. When they eat milkweeds with the pesticide gene, they are poisoned. This may threaten the survival of the monarch species as well as other species that eat monarchs. Do the benefits of the genetically modified corn outweigh the risks? What do you think?. Answer: milkweeds", "output": [ "What do monarch butterfly larvae depend on for their food?" ] }, { "id": "task594-909675efdb1a474b917ea846dcc4986d", "input": "Passage: Some bacteria also have tail-like structures called flagella ( Figure below ). Flagella help bacteria move. As the flagella rotate, they spin the bacteria and propel them forward. It is often said the flagella looks like a tiny whip, propelling the bacteria forward. Though some eukaryotic cells do have a flagella, a flagella in eukaryotes is rare. Answer: eukaryotic", "output": [ "What type of cells are flagella rare in?" ] }, { "id": "task594-605763333078469cb49e009226d5f1a6", "input": "Passage: 13.2 Chromosomal Basis of Inherited Disorders The number, size, shape, and banding pattern of chromosomes make them easily identifiable in a karyogram and allows for the assessment of many chromosomal abnormalities. Disorders in chromosome number, or aneuploidies, are typically lethal to the embryo, although a few trisomic genotypes are viable. Because of X inactivation, aberrations in sex chromosomes typically have milder phenotypic effects. Aneuploidies also include instances in which segments of a chromosome are duplicated or deleted. Chromosome structures may also be rearranged, for example by inversion or translocation. Both of these aberrations can result in problematic phenotypic effects. Because they force chromosomes to assume unnatural topologies during meiosis, inversions and translocations are often associated with reduced fertility because of the likelihood of nondisjunction. Answer: karyogram", "output": [ "The number, size, shape, and banding pattern of chromosomes make them easily identifiable in a what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-458fcaca584d46f4b4e77b083c28e9a0", "input": "Passage: All objects in the universe have an attraction to each other. This attraction is known as gravity ( Figure below ). The strength of the force of gravity depends on two things. One is the mass of the objects. The other is the distance between the objects. As an object's mass increases, the attraction increases. As the distance between the objects increases, the attraction decreases. Answer: gravity", "output": [ "The attraction between all objects in the universe is known as ______." ] }, { "id": "task594-edbcca912bd0403e8384d4be6388ff88", "input": "Passage: 7. Nuclear energy is energy that is stored in the nuclei of atoms because of the strong forces that hold the nucleus together. The energy can be released in nuclear power plants by splitting nuclei apart. It is also released when unstable (radioactive) nuclei break down, or decay. Answer: nuclear energy", "output": [ "What type of energy is stored in the nuclei of atoms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e2ba824f3ed34dfabc307f7c4ac5b2e3", "input": "Passage: Two approaches to logical thinking developed over the centuries. These two methods are inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning . Inductive reasoning involves getting a collection of specific examples and drawing a general conclusion from them. Deductive reasoning takes a general principle and then draws a specific conclusion from the general concept. Both are used in the development of scientific ideas. Answer: inductive and deductive", "output": [ "What are the two methods of logical thinking?" ] }, { "id": "task594-aff322b30032461ab32b0bf417ab4c2c", "input": "Passage: The main organs of the cardiovascular system are the heart and blood vessels. Both organs contain valves. Valves also are found in plumbing systems. They can be turned on or off to control the flow of water. Answer: heart", "output": [ "The main organs of the cardiovascular system are the blood vessels and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-abf26d26415043a4aa2d05dd9dd608f5", "input": "Passage: The nervous system isn’t the only message-relaying system of the human body. The endocrine system also carries messages. The endocrine system is a system of glands that release chemical messenger molecules into the bloodstream. The messenger molecules are hormones. Hormones act slowly compared with the rapid transmission of electrical messages by the nervous system. They must travel through the bloodstream to the cells they affect, and this takes time. On the other hand, because endocrine hormones are released into the bloodstream, they travel throughout the body. As a result, endocrine hormones can affect many cells and have body-wide effects. Answer: endocrine system", "output": [ "What do you call the system of glands that release chemical messenger molecules into the bloodstream?" ] }, { "id": "task594-740710fca61445f281477c68f7879c3d", "input": "Passage: 37.2 How Hormones Work Hormones cause cellular changes by binding to receptors on target cells. The number of receptors on a target cell can increase or decrease in response to hormone activity. Hormones can affect cells directly through intracellular hormone receptors or indirectly through plasma membrane hormone receptors. Lipid-derived (soluble) hormones can enter the cell by diffusing across the plasma membrane and binding to DNA to regulate gene transcription and to change the cell’s activities by inducing production of proteins that affect, in general, the long-term structure and function of the cell. Lipid insoluble hormones bind to receptors on the plasma membrane surface and trigger a signaling pathway to change the cell’s activities by inducing production of various cell products that affect the cell in the short-term. The hormone is called a first messenger and the cellular component is called a second messenger. G-proteins activate the second messenger (cyclic AMP), triggering the cellular response. Response to hormone binding is amplified as the signaling pathway progresses. Cellular responses to hormones include the production of proteins and enzymes and altered membrane permeability. Answer: target cells", "output": [ "Hormones cause cellular changes by binding to receptors on these?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ea02245ece8b46b68a84b54fc7bda4b1", "input": "Passage: Recall from the kinetic-molecular theory that gas particles move randomly and in straight lines until they elastically collide with either other gas particles or with one of the walls of the container. It is these collisions with the walls of the container that defines the pressure of the gas. Four variables are used to describe the condition of a gas. They are pressure , volume , temperature , and the amount of the gas as measured by the number moles . We will examine separately how the volume, temperature, and amount of gas each affect the pressure of an enclosed gas sample. Answer: four", "output": [ "How many variables are used to describe the condition of a gas?" ] }, { "id": "task594-778e0a801d444b5d850053dbef0bbfee", "input": "Passage: Digestion consists of mechanical and chemical digestion. Answer: chemical", "output": [ "There are two types of digestion, mechanical and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4dddee16e0e7482c99e5461668ca4451", "input": "Passage: Both of these people are participating in a board sport, but the man on the left is snowboarding in Norway while the woman on the right is sandboarding in Dubai. Snow and sand are both kinds of matter, but they have different properties. What are some ways snow and sand differ? One difference is the temperature at which they melt. Snow melts at 0°C, whereas sand melts at about 1600°C! The temperature at which something melts is its melting point. Melting point is just one of many physical properties of matter. Answer: melting point", "output": [ "The temperature at which something melts is refered to as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e89fcb569e914fb39ff3a1355027d534", "input": "Passage: outcompete the green tint of chlorophyll, making these species appear as varying shades of red. Other protists classified as red algae lack phycoerythrins and are parasites. Red algae are common in tropical waters where they have been detected at depths of 260 meters. Other red algae exist in terrestrial or freshwater environments. Green Algae: Chlorophytes and Charophytes The most abundant group of algae is the green algae. The green algae exhibit similar features to the land plants, particularly in terms of chloroplast structure. That this group of protists shared a relatively recent common ancestor with land plants is well supported. The green algae are subdivided into the chlorophytes and the charophytes. The charophytes are the closest living relatives to land plants and resemble them in morphology and reproductive strategies. Charophytes are common in wet habitats, and their presence often signals a healthy ecosystem. The chlorophytes exhibit great diversity of form and function. Chlorophytes primarily inhabit freshwater and damp soil, and are a common component of plankton. Chlamydomonas is a simple, unicellular chlorophyte with a pear-shaped morphology and two opposing, anterior flagella that guide this protist toward light sensed by its eyespot. More complex chlorophyte species exhibit haploid gametes and spores that resemble Chlamydomonas. The chlorophyte Volvox is one of only a few examples of a colonial organism, which behaves in some ways like a collection of individual cells, but in other ways like the specialized cells of a multicellular organism (Figure 23.24). Volvox colonies contain 500 to 60,000 cells, each with two flagella, contained within a hollow, spherical matrix composed of a gelatinous glycoprotein secretion. Individual Volvox cells move in a coordinated fashion and are interconnected by cytoplasmic bridges. Only a few of the cells reproduce to create daughter colonies, an example of basic cell specialization in this organism. Answer: charophytes", "output": [ "Which are the closest living relations to land plants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-05bb2386456840be968d598eec46c869", "input": "Passage: From the collecting ducts of the kidneys, urine enters the ureters , two muscular tubes that move the urine by peristalsis to the bladder (see Figure above ). The bladder is a hollow, sac-like organ that stores urine. When the bladder is about half full, it sends a nerve impulse to a sphincter to relax and let urine flow out of the bladder and into the urethra. The urethra is a muscular tube that carries urine out of the body. Urine leaves the body through another sphincter in the process of urination . This sphincter and the process of urination are normally under conscious control. Answer: urethra", "output": [ "What is the name of the muscular tube that carries urine out of the body?" ] }, { "id": "task594-53d0cc282b9341e09b449e843e337017", "input": "Passage: Figure 7.33 Newborn Skull The bones of the newborn skull are not fully ossified and are separated by large areas called fontanelles, which are filled with fibrous connective tissue. The fontanelles allow for continued growth of the skull after birth. At the time of birth, the facial bones are small and underdeveloped, and the mastoid process has not yet formed. Answer: fontanelles", "output": [ "The bones of the newborn skull are not fully ossified and are separated by large areas called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-514d45b7061f4a20ae27712bff469c75", "input": "Passage: Summary The transition metals are characterized by partially filled d subshells in the free elements and cations. The ns and (n − 1)d subshells have similar energies, so small influences can produce electron configurations that do not conform to the general order in which the subshells are filled. In the secondand third-row transition metals, such irregularities can be difficult to predict, particularly for the third row, which has 4f, 5d, and 6s orbitals that are very close in energy. The increase in atomic radius is greater between the 3d and 4d metals than between the 4d and 5d metals because of the lanthanide contraction. Ionization energies and electronegativities increase slowly across a row, as do densities and electrical and thermal conductivities, whereas enthalpies of hydration decrease. Anomalies can be explained by the increased stabilization of half-filled and filled subshells. Transition-metal cations are formed by the initial loss of ns electrons, and many metals can form cations in several oxidation states. Higher oxidation states become progressively less stable across a row and more stable down a column. Oxides of small, highly charged metal ions tend to be acidic, whereas oxides of metals with a low charge-to-radius ratio are basic. Answer: metal", "output": [ "Oxides of small, highly charged ions of what type tend to be acidic?" ] }, { "id": "task594-acbd270c43974a6fbbc273d726afc465", "input": "Passage: Physics is the study of energy, matter, and their interactions. It is concerned with matter and energy at all levels—from the most fundamental particles of matter to the entire universe. Answer: physics", "output": [ "Which branch of science is the study of energy, matter, and their interactions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-50be1d9270b3458c867ff56d9c6db246", "input": "Passage: Pressure is defined as the amount of force acting on a given area. Therefore, pressure can be represented by this equation:. Answer: pressure", "output": [ "What is defined as the amount of force acting on a given area?" ] }, { "id": "task594-149c6fa335d442b493a1949a15d1167c", "input": "Passage: Cations have positive charges, and anions have negative charges. Answer: positive", "output": [ "Cations have what type of charge?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f22b05771409480980375fe6136b5b29", "input": "Passage: 13 Photosynthesis 6 CO2 + 6 H2 O → C6 H12 O6 + 6 O2 • One of most important reactions in history of life: • source of atmospheric O2 • ultimately led to aerobic respiration and eukaryotes • Responsible for bulk of glucose production • Early experiments showed that mass of plant must be derived from substances in the air, not the soil • Experiments with isotopes showed that liberated oxygen comes from water • Experiments also showed that light is essential but that some reactions (e. , reduction of CO2 ) continue in the dark • Plants do two big, important things during photosynthesis: gain energy (absorb light) and build sugar (glucose). • Photosynthesis can be divided into two series of chemical reactions: the light (lightdependent) reactions and the dark (light-independent) reactions. In light reactions, light is absorbed; in dark reactions, sugar is built. • Occurs when plants, algae, and autotrophic bacteria absorb light energy and build glucose. Answer: photosynthesis", "output": [ "What is the process by which plants gain energy and produce sugar?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d675d5e61946465c9f219df03d1a9cc5", "input": "Passage: Most of the world’s largest mountains form as plates collide at convergent plate boundaries. Continents are too buoyant to get pushed down into the mantle. So when the plates smash together, the crust crumples upwards. This creates mountains. Folding and faulting in these collision zones makes the crust thicker. Answer: buoyancy", "output": [ "Why are continents unable to be pushed down into the mantle by plate boundaries?" ] }, { "id": "task594-774b30ab7a51416aa69622bf6591dbf6", "input": "Passage: Transcription takes place in three steps: initiation, elongation, and termination. The steps are illustrated in Figure below . Answer: transcription", "output": [ "Initiation, elongation, and termination are the three steps of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e01345a8a1c94efe9a8abe6a5d4ba458", "input": "Passage: Weather stations contain many instruments for measuring weather conditions. The weather balloon ( Figure above ) will rise into the atmosphere until it bursts. As it rises, it will gather weather data and send it to the surface. Many weather satellites orbit Earth. They constantly collect and transmit weather data from high above the surface. A radar device sends out radio waves in all directions. The waves bounce off water in the atmosphere and then return to the sender. The radar data shows where precipitation is falling. It’s raining in the orange-shaded area shown above. Answer: when it bursts", "output": [ "When do weather balloons return to earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d5228bab1eb74ce19debe7304985a79e", "input": "Passage: Consumers take in food by eating producers or other living things. Answer: consumers", "output": [ "What members of an ecosystem food chain take in food by eating producers or other living things?" ] }, { "id": "task594-00d15c2a758a4f57b9ea0d987af1a85c", "input": "Passage: Hotspots can be used to tell the speed and direction that a plate is moving. Answer: plates", "output": [ "Hotspots can be used to tell the speed and direction that what object is moving?" ] }, { "id": "task594-562e5a96a7584910b42075e93e3f0db7", "input": "Passage: Dolphins are living organisms, so studying them is part of the life sciences. The life sciences, however, are broken down into many fields. Scientists that study dolphins and other life in the ocean are called marine biologists. Answer: marine biologists", "output": [ "Scientists that study dolphins and other life in the ocean are called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-44a7417cbed849fe9dfd49b72a8ae7f2", "input": "Passage: Subduction of oceanic crust beneath a continental or oceanic plate creates a chain of volcanoes. Answer: volcano", "output": [ "What kind of chain is formed by subduction of oceanic crust beneath a continental or oceanic plate?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bc64015165734534bb7d4584e93534ad", "input": "Passage: Aerobic respiration begins with the entry of the product of glycolysis, pyruvate, into the mitochondria. For each initial glucose molecules, two pyruvate molecules will enter the mitochondria. Pyruvate, however, is not the molecule that enters the Krebs cycle. Prior to entry into this cycle, pyruvate must be converted into a 2-carbon acetyl-CoenzymeA (acetyl-CoA) unit. The conversion of pyruvate into acetyl-CoA is referred to as the pyruvate dehydrogenase reaction. It is catalyzed by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. This process produces one NADH electron carrier while releasing a CO 2 molecule. This step is also known as the link reaction or transition step, as it links glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. Of course, as two pyruvates result from glycolysis, two acetyl-CoAs are produced as are 2 NADH molecules. Answer: the mitochondria", "output": [ "For each initial glucose molecules, two pyruvate molecules will enter where?" ] }, { "id": "task594-05ad6ad67d1946dd86b557043010ae64", "input": "Passage: Sound is the transfer of energy from a vibrating object in waves that travel through matter. Answer: matter", "output": [ "Sound is the transfer of energy from a vibrating object in waves that travel through what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2260124193394983a6e42b4b64522316", "input": "Passage: The first amino acid to be isolated was asparagine in 1806. It was obtained from protein found in asparagus juice (hence the name). Glycine, the major amino acid found in gelatin, was named for its sweet taste (Greek glykys, meaning “sweet”). In some cases an amino acid found in a protein is actually a derivative of one of the common 20 amino acids (one such derivative is hydroxyproline). The modification occurs after the amino acid has been assembled into a protein. Answer: asparagine", "output": [ "What was the first amino acid to be isolated?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c3d7c88c2cbd4b359c20081eea5e17cd", "input": "Passage: Outside of chromosome 21 and the sex chromosomes, most embryos with extra chromosomes do not usually survive. Because chromosomes carry many, many genes, a disruption of a chromosome can cause severe problems with the development of a fetus. Individuals with one (or more) fewer chromosome usually don't survive either. Can you explain why?. Answer: chromosomes", "output": [ "Embryos usually don't survive if they have extra or too few of these genetic units?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e8880369dc594f4a93e2602e717ee8ca", "input": "Passage: Eukaryotes have three different versions of the sexual life cycle : a haploid life cycle, a diploid life cycle, and a life cycle known as the alternation of generations ( Figure below ). A life cycle is the span in the life of an organism from one generation to the next. All species that reproduce sexually follow a basic pattern, alternating between haploid and diploid chromosome numbers. The sexual life cycle depends on when meiosis occurs and the type of cell that undergoes meiosis. Answer: life cycle", "output": [ "What is the term for the span in the life of an organism from one generation to the next?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f19deedc9bfe4e6faab6bf815e420cf3", "input": "Passage: Visible Light The range of photon energies for visible light from red to violet is 1.63 to 3.26 eV, respectively (left for this chapter’s Problems and Exercises to verify). These energies are on the order of those between outer electron shells in atoms and molecules. This means that these photons can be absorbed by atoms and molecules. A single photon can actually stimulate the retina, for example, by altering a receptor molecule that then triggers a nerve impulse. Photons can be absorbed or emitted only by atoms and molecules that have precisely the correct quantized energy step to do so. For example, if a red photon of frequency f encounters a molecule that has an energy step,. Answer: visible light", "output": [ "What kind of light ranges from red to violet?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4cdcc3a775474c0686f5eddfc49a62ac", "input": "Passage: Pillow lava is created from lava that enters the water. The volcanic vent may be underwater. The lava may flow over land and enter the water ( Figure below ). Once in the water, the lava cools very quickly. The lava forms round rocks that resemble pillows. Pillow lava is particularly common along mid-ocean ridges. Answer: pillow lava", "output": [ "Lava that enters the water is called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-29c89efc7f2e4ee78ec8fbcfddc003ea", "input": "Passage: Give examples of energy conversions between potential and kinetic energy. Answer: kinetic", "output": [ "Two important types of energy that can be converted to one another include potential and what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cd901de0215a4d54b6354334694c7c7e", "input": "Passage: Type 2 diabetes is much more common than type 1 diabetes. Type 2 diabetes occurs when body cells no longer respond normally to insulin. The pancreas still makes insulin, but the cells of the body can’t use it. Being overweight and having high blood pressure increase the chances of developing type 2 diabetes. This type of diabetes usually develops in adulthood. However, it is becoming more common in teens and children because more young people are overweight now than ever before. Answer: type 2", "output": [ "Which type of diabetes is more common?" ] }, { "id": "task594-902f0d19991745699a17f6eb54f146f2", "input": "Passage: Figure 35.2 Nervous systems vary in structure and complexity. In (a) cnidarians, nerve cells form a decentralized nerve net. In (b) echinoderms, nerve cells are bundled into fibers called nerves. In animals exhibiting bilateral symmetry such as (c) planarians, neurons cluster into an anterior brain that processes information. In addition to a brain, (d) arthropods have clusters of nerve cell bodies, called peripheral ganglia, located along the ventral nerve cord. Mollusks such as squid and (e) octopi, which must hunt to survive, have complex brains containing millions of neurons. In (f) vertebrates, the brain and spinal cord comprise the central nervous system, while neurons extending into the rest of the body comprise the peripheral nervous system. (credit e: modification of work by Michael Vecchione, Clyde F. Roper, and Michael J. Sweeney, NOAA; credit f: modification of work by NIH). Answer: brains", "output": [ "Mollusks such as squid and octopi, which must hunt to survive, possess what complex organs containing millions of neurons?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5b71e0c9c1a94d0582af9a5c28d02765", "input": "Passage: At a geothermal power plant, engineers drill wells into the hot rocks. Hot water or steam may come up through the wells. Alternatively, water may be put down into the well to be heated. It then comes up. The hot water or steam makes a turbine spin. This makes electricity. Pictured below is an example of a geothermal power plant ( Figure below ). Answer: geothermal", "output": [ "Drilling wells into hot rocks to release hot water or steam is an example of what kind of power plant?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5ae117b94e7b49b0b01e91aba77d2806", "input": "Passage: Amphibians have moist skin without scales. The skin is kept moist by mucus, which is secreted by mucous glands. In some species, the mucous glands also secrete toxins that make the animal poisonous to predators. The blue poison-dart frogs in Figure below are a good example. The toxin in their mucus is used by native people in South America to poison the tips of their hunting arrows. Answer: amphibians", "output": [ "Which group of species is defined as having moist skin without scales?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2b955da30e2e46948247c1e8b2b51564", "input": "Passage: 24.2 Classifications of Fungi Chytridiomycota (chytrids) are considered the most primitive group of fungi. They are mostly aquatic, and their gametes are the only fungal cells known to have flagella. They reproduce both sexually and asexually; the asexual spores are called zoospores. Zygomycota (conjugated fungi) produce non-septated hyphae with many nuclei. Their hyphae fuse during sexual reproduction to produce a zygospore in a zygosporangium. Ascomycota (sac fungi) form spores in sacs called asci during sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction is their most common form of reproduction. Basidiomycota (club fungi) produce showy fruiting bodies that contain basidia in the form of clubs. Spores are stored in the basidia. Most familiar mushrooms belong to this division. Fungi that have no known sexual cycle were classified in the form phylum Deuteromycota, which the present classification puts in the phyla Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. Glomeromycota form tight associations (called mycorrhizae) with the roots of plants. Answer: fungi", "output": [ "Chytridiomycota are considered the most primitive of what kingdom?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fdeef364d1a442bf80a802cae9275d4e", "input": "Passage: Reversible Processes Both isothermal and adiabatic processes such as shown in Figure 15.13 are reversible in principle. A reversible process is one in which both the system and its environment can return to exactly the states they were in by following the reverse path. The reverse isothermal and adiabatic paths are BA and CA, respectively. Real macroscopic processes are never exactly reversible. In the previous examples, our system is a gas (like that in Figure 15.9), and its environment is the piston, cylinder, and the rest of the universe. If there are any energy-dissipating mechanisms, such as friction or turbulence, then heat transfer to the environment occurs for either direction of the piston. So, for example, if the path BA is followed and there is friction, then the gas will be returned to its original state but the environment will not—it will have been heated in both directions. Reversibility requires the direction of heat transfer to reverse for the reverse path. Since dissipative mechanisms cannot be completely eliminated, real processes cannot be reversible. There must be reasons that real macroscopic processes cannot be reversible. We can imagine them going in reverse. For example, heat transfer occurs spontaneously from hot to cold and never spontaneously the reverse. Yet it would not violate the first law of thermodynamics for this to happen. In fact, all spontaneous processes, such as bubbles bursting, never go in reverse. There is a second thermodynamic law that forbids them from going in reverse. When we study this law, we will learn something about nature and also find that such a law limits the efficiency of heat engines. We will find that heat engines with the greatest possible theoretical efficiency would have to use reversible processes, and even they cannot convert all heat transfer into doing work. Table 15.2 summarizes the simpler thermodynamic processes and their definitions. Answer: reversible process", "output": [ "What is the name of the process in which both the system and its environment can return to exactly the states they were in by following the reverse path?" ] }, { "id": "task594-486be1eead334f09b784b19ad26b2e6a", "input": "Passage: Moving air, like moving water, causes erosion. Moving air is called wind. Answer: wind", "output": [ "What is moving air called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-308bf6fe7cf546eabf9a1ecf278abe01", "input": "Passage: Particulates cause lung diseases. They can also increase the risk of heart disease and the number of asthma attacks. Particulates block sunlight from reaching Earth’s surface. This means there is less energy for photosynthesis. Less photosynthesis means that plants and phytoplankton produce less food. This affects whole ecosystems. Answer: asthma attacks", "output": [ "Particulates cause lung diseases. they can also increase the risk of heart disease and the number of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c2d80e02ce1b42bd977a6c9022153149", "input": "Passage: The name carbon tetrachloride implies one carbon atom and four chlorine atoms, so the formula is CCl4. Saylor URL: http://www. saylor. org/books. Answer: chlorine", "output": [ "The name carbon tetrachloride implies one carbon atom and four of which other atoms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-6b05c1367f524acd9e42ece8713f6a2d", "input": "Passage: The pregnant mother plays a critical role in the development of the embryo and fetus. She must avoid toxic substances such as alcohol, which can damage the developing offspring. She must also provide all the nutrients and other substances needed for normal growth and development. Most nutrients are needed in greater amounts by a pregnant woman, but some are especially important, including folic acid (vitamin B 9 ), calcium, iron, and omega-3 fatty acids. Answer: toxic substances", "output": [ "What should a pregnant woman avoid while pregnant?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fd65a2ead4164da0a49c6d5401a6647e", "input": "Passage: Check Your Understanding Define nodes and antinodes. Solution Nodes are areas of wave interference where there is no motion. Antinodes are areas of wave interference where the motion is at its maximum point. Answer: motion", "output": [ "Solution nodes and antinodes are both areas of wave interference, but they differ in the presence of what condition?" ] }, { "id": "task594-447de44606b341bda734f8748a11ac9f", "input": "Passage: Energy is the capacity to do work or to produce heat. Answer: heat", "output": [ "Energy is the capacity to do work or to produce what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3b7cfffd1e0248e1932b2ba9ae533b22", "input": "Passage: Regulation of Water Intake Osmolality is the ratio of solutes in a solution to a volume of solvent in a solution. Plasma osmolality is thus the ratio of solutes to water in blood plasma. A person’s plasma osmolality value reflects his or her state of hydration. A healthy body maintains plasma osmolality within a narrow range, by employing several mechanisms that regulate both water intake and output. Drinking water is considered voluntary. So how is water intake regulated by the body? Consider someone who is experiencing dehydration, a net loss of water that results in insufficient water in blood and other tissues. The water that leaves the body, as exhaled air, sweat, or urine, is ultimately extracted from blood plasma. As the blood becomes more concentrated, the thirst response—a sequence of physiological processes—is triggered (Figure 26.10). Osmoreceptors are sensory receptors in the thirst center in the hypothalamus that monitor the concentration of solutes (osmolality) of the blood. If blood osmolality increases above its ideal value, the hypothalamus transmits signals that result in a conscious awareness of thirst. The person should (and normally does) respond by drinking water. The hypothalamus of a dehydrated person also releases antidiuretic hormone (ADH) through the posterior pituitary gland. ADH signals the kidneys to recover water from urine, effectively diluting the blood plasma. To conserve water, the hypothalamus of a dehydrated person also sends signals via the sympathetic nervous system to the salivary glands in the mouth. The signals result in a decrease in watery, serous output (and an increase in stickier, thicker mucus output). These changes in secretions result in a “dry mouth” and the sensation of thirst. Answer: osmolality", "output": [ "What is the ratio of solutes in a solution to a volume of solvent in a solution known as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d9a3d90da3eb4ebd99ecce0480fc5849", "input": "Passage: organelle in the cells of plants and algae where photosynthesis takes place. Answer: organelles", "output": [ "What part of the cell in plants and algae does photosynthesis take place?" ] }, { "id": "task594-5926e51b3fb246e6a83a2ec7f625c17b", "input": "Passage: Birth Prior to birth, the lungs are filled with amniotic fluid, mucus, and surfactant. As the fetus is squeezed through the birth canal, the fetal thoracic cavity is compressed, expelling much of this fluid. Some fluid remains, however, but is rapidly absorbed by the body shortly after birth. The first inhalation occurs within 10 seconds after birth and not only serves as the first inspiration, but also acts to inflate the lungs. Pulmonary surfactant is critical for inflation to occur, as it reduces the surface tension of the alveoli. Preterm birth around 26 weeks frequently results in severe respiratory distress, although with current medical advancements, some babies may survive. Prior to 26 weeks, sufficient pulmonary surfactant is not produced, and the surfaces for gas exchange have not formed adequately; therefore, survival is low. Answer: surfactant", "output": [ "Prior to birth, the lungs are filled with amniotic fluid, mucus, and what else?" ] }, { "id": "task594-bb916f8bebcc4610b0b7dca20fc3a304", "input": "Passage: 27.5 Single Slit Diffraction Light passing through a single slit forms a diffraction pattern somewhat different from those formed by double slits or diffraction gratings. Figure 27.21 shows a single slit diffraction pattern. Note that the central maximum is larger than those on either side, and that the intensity decreases rapidly on either side. In contrast, a diffraction grating produces evenly spaced lines that dim slowly on either side of center. Answer: evenly spaced lines", "output": [ "What kind of lines does a diffraction grating produce?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d20801975697455dbfb93901d07bef7b", "input": "Passage: Hydrogen bonds cause water to have a relatively high boiling point of 100°C (212°F). Because of its high boiling point, most water on Earth is in a liquid state rather than in a gaseous state. Water in its liquid state is needed by all living things. Hydrogen bonds also cause water to expand when it freezes. This, in turn, causes ice to have a lower density (mass/volume) than liquid water. The lower density of ice means that it floats on water. For example, in cold climates, ice floats on top of the water in lakes. This allows lake animals such as fish to survive the winter by staying in the water under the ice. Answer: hydrogen bonds", "output": [ "What bonds cause water to have a high boiling point, leaving most water on earth in a liquid state rather than in a gaseous state?" ] }, { "id": "task594-20a2f430dd604a709f8e8fcacefe05db", "input": "Passage: Measurement of exposure to radioactivity is important for anyone who deals with radioactive materials on a regular basis. Perhaps the simplest device is a personal dosimeter, which is a film badge that will fog up when exposed to radiation. The amount of fogging is proportional to the amount of radiation present. Answer: exposure to radioactivity", "output": [ "What is measured with a personal dosimeter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-873e03dd7d004d1484461918c91384d0", "input": "Passage: Bone marrow is a soft connective tissue inside pores and cavities in spongy bone. Bone marrow makes blood cells. Answer: bone marrow", "output": [ "What is a soft connective tissue inside pores and cavities in spongy bone?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e16e6167477645fabcb1f6107dde9eec", "input": "Passage: The external female reproductive structures are referred to collectively as the vulva. They include the labia (singular, labium), which are the “lips” of the vulva. The labia protect the vagina and urethra, both of which have openings in the vulva. Answer: the vulva", "output": [ "The external female reproductive structures are referred to collectively as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a988ca9dec8146c3ad9cddefa751552b", "input": "Passage: You’re probably less familiar with plasmas than with solids, liquids, and gases. Yet, most of the universe consists of plasma. Plasma is a state of matter that resembles a gas but has certain properties that a gas does not have. Like a gas, plasma lacks a fixed volume and shape. Unlike a gas, plasma can conduct electricity and respond to magnetism. That’s because plasma contains charged particles called ions. This gives plasma other interesting properties. For example, it glows with light. Answer: plasma", "output": [ "What is the state of matter that resembles a gas but has certain properties that a gas does not have called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f05807e0c31b48599dcf350df667a88f", "input": "Passage: When light rays converge behind a lens, a real image is formed. Real images are useful in that you can place photographic film at the physical location of the real image, expose the film to the light, and make a two-dimensional representation of the world, a photograph. Answer: a photograph", "output": [ "What can be formed by converging light rays behind a lens, onto a piece of film?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9e82caec38544bb19f21dd092a76e13b", "input": "Passage: As erosion by groundwater continues, the ceiling of a cave may collapse. The rock and soil above it sink into the ground. This forms a sinkhole on the surface. You can see an example of a sinkhole in Figure below . Some sinkholes are big enough to swallow vehicles and buildings. Answer: sinkhole", "output": [ "What is formed when the ceiling of an underground cave collapses?" ] }, { "id": "task594-190f431548024ff2a7bd44ab9abd24ba", "input": "Passage: Clubmosses are so named because they can look similar to mosses ( Figure below ). Clubmosses are not true mosses, though, because they have vascular tissue. The “club” part of the name comes from club-like clusters of sporangia found on the plants. One type of clubmoss is called the \"resurrection plant\" because it shrivels and turns brown when it dries out but then quickly turns green when watered again. Answer: vascular tissue", "output": [ "Clubmosses are not true mosses, though, because they have what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-651ff1cdb7424c498cbe0529ba4ee81e", "input": "Passage: The standard cell potential is positive, so the reaction is spontaneous as written. Tin is oxidized at the anode, while silver ion is reduced at the cathode. Note that the voltage for the silver ion reduction is not doubled even though the reduction half-reaction had to be doubled to balance the overall redox equation. Answer: cathode", "output": [ "Tin is oxidized at the anode, while silver ion is reduced at?" ] }, { "id": "task594-86da24984c9a4d81b3b723d93ac2e839", "input": "Passage: Neurons are classified based on the direction in which they carry nerve impulses. Answer: nerve impulses", "output": [ "Neurons are classified based on the direction in which they carry what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-71d6e8aacbae475fb6241940f7fb7bf2", "input": "Passage: The Sun has many incredible surface features. Don't try to look at them, though! Looking directly at the Sun can cause blindness. Find the appropriate filters for a pair of binoculars or a telescope and enjoy!. Answer: sun", "output": [ "Looking directly at what celestial object can cause blindness?" ] }, { "id": "task594-09b533474a284af9b311bd87c312f1c4", "input": "Passage: The autonomic nervous system serves as the relay between the CNS and the internal organs. It controls the lungs, the heart, smooth muscle, and exocrine and endocrine glands. The autonomic nervous system controls these organs largely without conscious control; it can continuously monitor the conditions of these different systems and implement changes as needed. Signaling to the target tissue usually involves two synapses: a preganglionic neuron (originating in the CNS) synapses to a neuron in a ganglion that, in turn, synapses on the target organ (Figure 16.24). There are two divisions of the autonomic nervous system that often have opposing effects: the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for the immediate responses an animal makes when it encounters a dangerous situation. One way to remember this is to think of the “fight-or-flight” response a person feels when encountering a snake (“snake” and “sympathetic” both begin with “s”). Examples of functions controlled by the sympathetic nervous system include an accelerated heart rate and inhibited digestion. These functions help prepare an organism’s body for the physical strain required to escape a potentially dangerous situation or to fend off a predator. Answer: central nervous system", "output": [ "The autonomic nervous system serves as the relay between what and the internal organs?" ] }, { "id": "task594-12607bf74dd64acc984a28127a259bb3", "input": "Passage: Seismograms record earthquake strength. Scientists can use them to determine the distance to an earthquake. Using at least three seismograms, they can locate the earthquake's epicenter. Scientists measure earthquake intensity in several ways. So far no one has found a way to predict earthquakes. Answer: seismogram", "output": [ "Scientists can use what tool to determine an earthquake's strength?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d880390d4a0a4d7da2bcab3953c35c5d", "input": "Passage: When acid and base solutions react, they produce water and a neutral ionic compound called a salt. The reaction is called a neutralization reaction. Answer: salt", "output": [ "When an acid and base solutions react, they produce water and a neutral ionic compound known as what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-99b78dcfe04c4391bcaeaa1f76d97002", "input": "Passage: In chemical equations, reactants and products are represented by chemical symbols and formulas. Numbers called coefficients are placed in front of the symbols and formulas to show how much of each substance is involved in the reaction. Answer: how much is involved in the reaction", "output": [ "What does the coefficient in front of an element in a formula indicate?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7667587c47bc4ba19025dea17d11129d", "input": "Passage: There are 20 amino acids that make up proteins. With three bases per codon, there are 64 possible codons. This is more than enough to code for the 20 amino acids plus start and stop signals. You can see how to translate the genetic code in Figure below . Start at the center of the chart for the first base of each three-base codon. Then work your way out from the center for the second and third bases. Answer: 20", "output": [ "How many different amino acids make up proteins." ] }, { "id": "task594-3f860a954f1b4f3eb2e035bdad82785d", "input": "Passage: Interspecific competition occurs between members of different species. It may lead to one species going extinct or both becoming more specialized. Answer: interspecific", "output": [ "Which competition leads to one species going extinct or both becoming more specialized?" ] }, { "id": "task594-71f31e7e54ec413fa8fd45be9f802a54", "input": "Passage: Distillation is an effective method to separate mixtures comprised of two or more pure liquids. Distillation is a purification process in which the components of a liquid mixture are vaporized (transformed from liquid to gas) and then condensed (transformed from gas back to liquid) and isolated. In a simple distillation, a mixture is gradually heated. The solution with the lowest boiling point will change into a gas first. This gas, or vapor, then passes through a cooled tube (a condenser) where it condenses back into its liquid state. This condensed liquid is called the distillate. Figure below illustrates this. Answer: pure liquids", "output": [ "Distillation is an effective method to separate mixtures comprised of two or more what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b700133d97bd447baa2d5feda0a3bffa", "input": "Passage: Absorptive protists absorb food molecules across their cell membranes. This occurs by diffusion. These protists are important decomposers. Answer: diffusion", "output": [ "Which process helps absorptive protists absorb food molecules across their cell membranes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-2cd417f577e1460f9833998a3ab1015e", "input": "Passage: Matter can be classified on the basis of its interactions with light. Matter may be transparent, translucent, or opaque. An example of each type of matter is pictured in the Figure below . Answer: light", "output": [ "Transparent, translucent, or opaque are properties of matter based on an interaction with what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-538adca1629b428995da64cea0417b70", "input": "Passage: The single biggest cause of extinction today is habitat loss . Agriculture, forestry, mining, and urbanization have disturbed or destroyed more than half of Earth’s land area. In the U. S. , for example, more than 99 percent of tall-grass prairies have been lost. Other causes of extinction today include:. Answer: habitat loss", "output": [ "Connected to agriculture, forestry, mining, and urbanization, what is the single biggest cause of extinction today?" ] }, { "id": "task594-58c67d13639c4375a94d0d27e08ae250", "input": "Passage: Learning is a change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience. Answer: learning", "output": [ "What word describes a change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience?" ] }, { "id": "task594-08580c066ebb4132a756ab2f945524dc", "input": "Passage: The black line represents the straight path of the light itself. Along this path, there exists an electric field that will reach a maximum positive charge, slowly collapse to zero charge, and then expand to a maximum negative charge. Similarly, there is an changing magnetic field that oscillates from maximum north pole field to maximum south pole field. Along the path of the electromagnetic wave, these changing fields repeat, oscillating over and over again. However, the oscillating electric and magnetic fields demonstrate a weaving pattern that is not the way light travels. For an electromagnetic wave, the crests and troughs represent the oscillating fields, not the path of the light. Answer: oscillating fields", "output": [ "In an electromagnetic wave, what do the crests and troughs represent?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3b9938a6c057424aa1d8793d1b8f4482", "input": "Passage: Renal Corpuscle As discussed earlier, the renal corpuscle consists of a tuft of capillaries called the glomerulus that is largely surrounded by Bowman’s (glomerular) capsule. The glomerulus is a high-pressure capillary bed between afferent and efferent arterioles. Bowman’s capsule surrounds the glomerulus to form a lumen, and captures and directs this filtrate to the PCT. The outermost part of Bowman’s capsule, the parietal layer, is a simple squamous epithelium. It transitions onto the glomerular capillaries in an intimate embrace to form the visceral layer of the capsule. Here, the cells are not squamous, but uniquely shaped cells ( podocytes) extending finger-like arms ( pedicels) to cover the glomerular capillaries (Figure 25.11). These projections interdigitate to form filtration slits, leaving small gaps between the digits to form a sieve. As blood passes through the glomerulus, 10 to 20 percent of the plasma filters between these sieve-like fingers to be captured by Bowman’s capsule and funneled to the PCT. Where the fenestrae (windows) in the glomerular capillaries match the spaces between the podocyte “fingers,” the only thing separating the capillary lumen and the lumen of Bowman’s capsule is their shared basement membrane (Figure 25.12). These three features comprise what is known as the filtration membrane. This membrane permits very rapid movement of filtrate from capillary to capsule though pores that are only 70 nm in diameter. Answer: lumen", "output": [ "What does bowman's capsule form by surrounding the glomerulus?" ] }, { "id": "task594-470a7489148147398a4b11b26d7a85bb", "input": "Passage: Some single-celled organisms, such as algae, live in colonies. A colony is an organized structure composed of many cells, like the Volvox sphere in Figure below . Volvox are algae that live in colonies of hundreds of cells. All of the cells in the colony live and work cooperatively. For example, they can coordinate the movement of their flagella, allowing them to swim together through the water as though they were part of a single organism. Answer: volvox", "output": [ "What are algae that live in colonies of hundreds of cells called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-360b41db955d40e0afbb8b354435c29a", "input": "Passage: Lymph that collects in tissues slowly passes into tiny lymph vessels. Lymph then travels from smaller to larger lymph vessels. Muscles around the lymph vessels contract and squeeze the lymph through the vessels. The lymph vessels also contract to help move the lymph along. Eventually, lymph reaches the main lymph vessels, which are located in the chest. From these vessels, lymph drains into two large veins of the cardiovascular system. This is how lymph returns to the blood. Answer: shallow part", "output": [ "Which part of the wave helps make the wave bend and cause refraction?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3573c7a6a8b94c5a802d7edbd23b4a70", "input": "Passage: Root Growth and Anatomy Root growth begins with seed germination. When the plant embryo emerges from the seed, the radicle of the embryo forms the root system. The tip of the root is protected by the root cap, a structure exclusive to roots and unlike any other plant structure. The root cap is continuously replaced because it gets damaged easily as the root pushes through soil. The root tip can be divided into three zones: a zone of cell division, a zone of elongation, and a zone of maturation and differentiation (Figure 30.16). The zone of cell division is closest to the root tip; it is made up of the actively dividing cells of the root meristem. The zone of elongation is where the newly formed cells increase in length, thereby lengthening the root. Beginning at the first root hair is the zone of cell maturation where the root cells begin to differentiate into special cell types. All three zones are in the first centimeter or so of the root tip. Answer: damage through pushing", "output": [ "Why is the root cap continuously replaced in plants?" ] }, { "id": "task594-4304d7d1c51a48c7a220c9f18da44ac6", "input": "Passage: While cells are the basic units of an organism, groups of cells can perform a job together. These cells are called specialized because they have a special job. Specialized cells can be organized into tissues . For example, your liver cells are organized into liver tissue. Your liver tissue is further organized into an organ, your liver. Organs are formed from two or more specialized tissues working together to perform a job. All organs, from your heart to your liver, are made up of an organized group of tissues. Answer: cell", "output": [ "What is the basic unit of an organism called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c9e5c0d68d764dfe9907a6afce492c50", "input": "Passage: The properties of matter, both physical and chemical, depend on the substances that matter is made of. Matter can exist either as a pure substance or as a combination of different substances. Answer: different substances", "output": [ "Matter can exist either as a pure substance or as a combination of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-724e8c346d9441e8aedfe6a5c3ebad16", "input": "Passage: 7.2 | The Skull By the end of this section, you will be able to: • List and identify the bones of the brain case and face • Locate the major suture lines of the skull and name the bones associated with each • Locate and define the boundaries of the anterior, middle, and posterior cranial fossae, the temporal fossa, and infratemporal fossa • Define the paranasal sinuses and identify the location of each • Name the bones that make up the walls of the orbit and identify the openings associated with the orbit • Identify the bones and structures that form the nasal septum and nasal conchae, and locate the hyoid bone • Identify the bony openings of the skull The cranium (skull) is the skeletal structure of the head that supports the face and protects the brain. It is subdivided into the facial bones and the brain case, or cranial vault (Figure 7.3). The facial bones underlie the facial structures, form the nasal cavity, enclose the eyeballs, and support the teeth of the upper and lower jaws. The rounded brain case surrounds and protects the brain and houses the middle and inner ear structures. In the adult, the skull consists of 22 individual bones, 21 of which are immobile and united into a single unit. The 22nd bone is the mandible (lower jaw), which is the only moveable bone of the skull. Answer: cranium (skull)", "output": [ "What is the term for the skeletal structure of the head that supports the face and protects the brain?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3d3591da24744c718fed09ce0b071787", "input": "Passage: Most single-celled eukaryotes are protists. Protists are the simplest eukaryotes. Answer: protists", "output": [ "What group includes the simplest eukaryotes, including most single-celled eukaryotes?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ddc7543e89c04d82b23cb6d6c82e06cd", "input": "Passage: These vividly colored maple leaves were all bright green during the summer. Every fall, leaves of maple trees change to brilliant red, orange, and yellow colors. A change of color is a sign that a chemical change has taken place. Maple leaves change color because of chemical reactions. Answer: chemical reactions", "output": [ "What causes maple leaves to change their colors?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1bcb04f4bbf3426f946dc675293ae1d7", "input": "Passage: Hearing losses can occur because of problems in the middle or inner ear. Conductive losses in the middle ear can be partially overcome by sending sound vibrations to the cochlea through the skull. Hearing aids for this purpose usually press against the bone behind the ear, rather than simply amplifying the sound sent into the ear canal as many hearing aids do. Damage to the nerves in the cochlea is not repairable, but amplification can partially compensate. There is a risk that amplification will produce further damage. Another common failure in the cochlea is damage or loss of the cilia but with nerves remaining functional. Cochlear implants that stimulate the nerves directly are now available and widely accepted. Over 100,000 implants are in use, in about equal numbers of adults and children. The cochlear implant was pioneered in Melbourne, Australia, by Graeme Clark in the 1970s for his deaf father. The implant consists of three external components and two internal components. The external components are a microphone for picking up sound and converting it into an electrical signal, a speech processor to select certain frequencies and a transmitter to transfer the signal to the internal components through electromagnetic induction. The internal components consist of a receiver/transmitter secured in the bone beneath the skin, which converts the signals into electric impulses and sends them through an internal cable. Answer: cochlea", "output": [ "Conductive losses in the middle ear can be partially overcome by sending sound vibrations to what structure through the skull, the principle behind implants for hearing loss patients?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d8bbca2ae46c4d009eb3ef1a250c12d8", "input": "Passage: The bonfire from the opening image has a lot of thermal energy. Thermal energy is the total kinetic energy of moving particles of matter, and the transfer of thermal energy is called heat. Thermal energy from the bonfire is transferred to the hands by thermal radiation. Thermal radiation is the transfer of thermal energy by waves that can travel through air or even through empty space, as shown in the Figure below . When the waves of thermal energy reach objects, they transfer the energy to the objects, causing them to warm up. This is how the fire warms the hands of someone sitting near the bonfire. This is also how the sun’s energy reaches Earth and heats its surface. Without the energy radiated from the sun, Earth would be too cold to support life as we know it. Answer: thermal radiation from the sun", "output": [ "How does heat travel from the sun to the earth?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ebfc2008bb744b5b941e17548b548636", "input": "Passage: Fertilization joins two haploid gametes into a diploid zygote. Answer: fertilization", "output": [ "What process joins two haploid gametes into a diploid zygote?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e51fb42fdb7c49f3b73f443fff9d0b3d", "input": "Passage: 43.5 | Human Pregnancy and Birth By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Explain fetal development during the three trimesters of gestation • Describe labor and delivery • Compare the efficacy and duration of various types of contraception • Discuss causes of infertility and the therapeutic options available Pregnancy begins with the fertilization of an egg and continues through to the birth of the individual. The length of time of gestation varies among animals, but is very similar among the great apes: human gestation is 266 days, while chimpanzee gestation is 237 days, a gorilla’s is 257 days, and orangutan gestation is 260 days long. The fox has a 57-day gestation. Dogs and cats have similar gestations averaging 60 days. The longest gestation for a land mammal is an African elephant at 640 days. The longest gestations among marine mammals are the beluga and sperm whales at 460 days. Answer: african elephant", "output": [ "What land mammal has the longest gestation period?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0a078d83eb7e4d6f9998c290ff27fd07", "input": "Passage: Christopher Auyeung. Gas particles move randomly in all directions . CC BY-NC 3.0. Answer: all directions", "output": [ "Gas particles can move randomly in what directions?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b3f2e132f8ca4a4a84fdbbd82a1f45ca", "input": "Passage: The generation of electricity is critical for the operation of nearly all aspects of modern society. The following diagram illustrates the types of fuels used to generate electrical power in the Unites States. In 2009, almost 45% of the power generated in the U. S. was derived from coal, with natural gas making up another 23% of the total. The third primary source of electrical energy is nuclear power, which accounts for approximately 20% of the total amount generated. All of these fuels give off energy in the form of heat. This heat is used to convert water into steam, which is then used to turn a turbine, thus generating electrical power. Answer: electrical power", "output": [ "This heat is used to convert water into steam, which is then used to turn a turbine, thus generating what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-1f7777a5c0734d3f90af83e537ea5c77", "input": "Passage: As with the hydrogen-ion concentration, the concentration of the hydroxide ion can be expressed logarithmically by the pOH. The pOH of a solution is the negative logarithm of the hydroxide-ion concentration. Answer: the poh", "output": [ "The negative logarithm of the hydroxide-ion concentration of a solution is called?" ] }, { "id": "task594-c1cad8908e1c4e719ed3f89829fd2c43", "input": "Passage: The freezing point of a substance is the temperature at which it freezes. The freezing point of pure water is 0°C. Answer: freezing point", "output": [ "What is the temperature at which a substance freezes known as?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ef0ea3479add4702a5bc1add05ea1e62", "input": "Passage: heterotrophic animal that eats only or mainly insects. Answer: heterotrophic", "output": [ "What type of animal that eats only or mainly insects?" ] }, { "id": "task594-450da1ac4c32470a8f3c94caa3c7bd41", "input": "Passage: When you pour a glass of water, or fill a car with gasoline, you observe that water and gasoline flow freely. But when you pour syrup on pancakes or add oil to a car engine, you note that syrup and motor oil do not flow as readily. The viscosity of a liquid is a measure of its resistance to flow. Water, gasoline, and other liquids that flow freely have a low viscosity. Honey, syrup, motor oil, and other liquids that do not flow freely, like those shown in Figure 10.15, have higher viscosities. We can measure viscosity by measuring the rate at which a metal ball falls through a liquid (the ball falls more slowly through a more viscous liquid) or by measuring the rate at which a liquid flows through a narrow tube (more viscous liquids flow more slowly). Answer: resistance to flow", "output": [ "The viscosity of a liquid is a measure of what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0d122fca33a64b888a0ce5f29e2f763e", "input": "Passage: greater amount of chyme at one time would overwhelm the capacity of the small intestine to handle it. The rest of the chyme is pushed back into the body of the stomach, where it continues mixing. This process is repeated when the next mixing waves force more chyme into the duodenum. Gastric emptying is regulated by both the stomach and the duodenum. The presence of chyme in the duodenum activates receptors that inhibit gastric secretion. This prevents additional chyme from being released by the stomach before the duodenum is ready to process it. Answer: duodenum", "output": [ "Gastric emptying is regulated by both the stomach and what other digestive structure?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a487a34aa1e342d78962021d2542a461", "input": "Passage: diploid cell that forms when two haploid gametes unite during fertilization. Answer: a diploid cell", "output": [ "When two haploid gametes unite during fertilization they form what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ba126d21532d4406b7958b1b2ebbf533", "input": "Passage: Figure 8.12 The colors of visible light do not carry the same amount of energy. Violet has the shortest wavelength and therefore carries the most energy, whereas red has the longest wavelength and carries the least amount of energy. (credit: modification of work by NASA). Answer: visible", "output": [ "Violet and red are two types of what kind of light?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0ba12127225a41f88674af958d9b7871", "input": "Passage: Tiny pinworms are the most common roundworm parasites of people in the U. S. In some areas, as many as one out of three children are infected. Humans become infected when they ingest the nearly microscopic pinworm eggs. The eggs hatch and develop into adults in the host’s digestive tract. Adults lay eggs that pass out of the host’s body to continue the cycle. Pinworms have a fairly simple life cycle with only one host. Answer: pinworms", "output": [ "What are the most common roundworm parasites of people in the u. s.?" ] }, { "id": "task594-300e604facec42f7a5641d0818e42847", "input": "Passage: Mitosis in the Eukaryotic Cell Cycle. Mitosis is the multi-phase process in which the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell divides. In this diagram, prometaphase is not included as a separate phase, but incorporated into prophase. Answer: mitosis", "output": [ "Name the multi-phase process in which the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell divides?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cd45509a4e6140588eb3e77fdb618494", "input": "Passage: The most powerful or influential individual in a group is sometimes called dominant. In genetics, a dominant trait means nearly the same thing. A dominant trait is the most influential trait and masks the other trait. Answer: dominant", "output": [ "The most powerful or influential individual in a group is sometimes called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-d8134ae4f19f4606be3f96bfdb2d8e3d", "input": "Passage: Infrared light is light with the longest wavelengths and lowest frequencies. You can’t see infrared light, but you can feel it as heat. Besides the sun, flames and living things give off infrared light. Answer: infrared light", "output": [ "What type of light can you feel as heat but not see and has the longest wavelengths and lowest frequencies?" ] }, { "id": "task594-0efdfdea9f404b629e8e69f76c04cb1b", "input": "Passage: Earthquake magnitude affects how much damage is done in an earthquake. A larger earthquake damages more buildings and kills more people than a smaller earthquake. But that's not the only factor that determines earthquake damage. The location of an earthquake relative to a large city is important. More damage is done if the ground shakes for a long time. Answer: magnitude", "output": [ "What general property of an earthquake is used to describe its relative strength?" ] }, { "id": "task594-ee69c1ddafaf4747a644b774590d97c2", "input": "Passage: Some molecules are not able to satisfy the octet rule by making only single covalent bonds between the atoms. Consider the compound ethene, which has a molecular formula of C 2 H 4 . The carbon atoms are bonded together, with each carbon also being bonded to two hydrogen atoms. Answer: hydrogen", "output": [ "The carbon atoms are bonded together, with each carbon also being bonded to two of what kind of atoms?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3aae4445aaae4c35b71f803e1a1bb7dc", "input": "Passage: Compared with the molecules of many other substances, molecules of water are strongly attracted to each other. How is this likely to affect the boiling point of water?. Answer: each other", "output": [ "Compared with the molecules of many other substances, molecules of water are strongly attracted to what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-cf5a58c33ed44824878a25adeffed0fa", "input": "Passage: Respiratory diseases are diseases of the lungs, bronchial tubes, trachea, nose, and throat ( Figure below ). These diseases can range from a mild cold to a severe case of pneumonia. Respiratory diseases are common. Many are easily treated, while others may cause severe illness or death. Some respiratory diseases are caused by bacteria or viruses, while others are caused by environmental pollutants, such as tobacco smoke. Some diseases are genetic and, therefore, are inherited. Answer: respiratory", "output": [ "Diseases of the lungs, bronchial tubes, trachea, nose, and throat affect what organ system?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b9937f9eaa154762911616ee93061767", "input": "Passage: Resistance is opposition to the flow of electric charges that occurs when electric current travels through matter. The SI unit of resistance is the ohm (named for the scientist Georg Ohm, whom you can read about below). Resistance is caused by electrons in a current bumping into electrons and ions in the matter through which the current is flowing. Resistance is similar to the friction that resists the movement of one surface as it slides over another. Resistance reduces the amount of current that can travel through the material because some of the electrical energy is converted to other forms of energy. For example, when electric current flows through the tungsten wire inside an incandescent light bulb, the tungsten resists the flow of electric charge, and some of the electrical energy is converted to light and thermal energy. Answer: resistance", "output": [ "What term means opposition to the flow of electric charges that occurs when electric current travels through matter?" ] }, { "id": "task594-19aabcd6f4cf4dbdb1ba414f91ddb922", "input": "Passage: A chemical reaction is usually written in a way that suggests it proceeds in one direction, the direction in which we read, but all chemical reactions are reversible, and both the forward and reverse reaction occur to one degree or another depending on conditions. In a chemical equilibrium, the forward and reverse reactions occur at equal rates, and the concentrations of products and reactants remain constant. If we run a reaction in a closed system so that the products cannot escape, we often find the reaction does not give a 100% yield of products. Instead, some reactants remain after the concentrations stop changing. At this point, when there is no further change in concentrations of reactants and products, we say the reaction is at equilibrium. A mixture of reactants and products is found at equilibrium. For example, when we place a sample of dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4, a colorless gas) in a glass tube, it forms nitrogen dioxide (NO2, a brown gas) by the reaction N 2 O 4(g) ⇌ 2NO 2(g) The color becomes darker as N2O4 is converted to NO2. When the system reaches equilibrium, both N2O4 and NO2 are present (Figure 13.2). Answer: reversible", "output": [ "Chemical reactions are typically written to imply that they proceed in one direction - if they can occur in either direction, they are considered what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-58857b03061043abac66f88540c1bea3", "input": "Passage: Another common vision defect is astigmatism, an unevenness or asymmetry in the focus of the eye. For example, rays passing through a vertical region of the eye may focus closer than rays passing through a horizontal region, resulting in the image appearing elongated. This is mostly due to irregularities in the shape of the cornea but can also be due to lens irregularities or unevenness in the retina. Because of these irregularities, different parts of the lens system produce images at different locations. The eye-brain system can compensate for some of these irregularities, but they generally manifest themselves as less distinct vision or sharper images along certain axes. Figure 26.8 shows a chart used to detect astigmatism. Astigmatism can be at least partially corrected with a spectacle having the opposite irregularity of the eye. If an eyeglass prescription has a cylindrical correction, it is there to correct astigmatism. The normal corrections for short- or farsightedness are spherical corrections, uniform along all axes. Answer: astigmatism", "output": [ "Unevenness or asymmetry in the focus of the eye describes what visual defect?" ] }, { "id": "task594-fed67876540f491b8e0643f96d49a37b", "input": "Passage: Temperature falls from the equator to the poles. Therefore, major temperature zones are based on latitude . They include tropical, temperate, and arctic zones (see Figure below ). However, other factors besides latitude may also influence temperature. For example, land near the ocean may have cooler summers and warmer winters than land farther inland. This is because water gains and loses heat more slowly than does land, and the water temperature influences the temperature on the coast. Temperature also falls from lower to higher altitudes. That’s why tropical zone mountain tops may be capped with snow. Answer: latitute", "output": [ "What are major temperature zones primarily based on?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9858434856fb48eaba1753665b57e1d1", "input": "Passage: Subgroups of the mammals include rodents, carnivores, insectivores, bats, and primates. Answer: mammals", "output": [ "What class of animals includes the subgroups rodents, carnivores, insectivores, bats, and primates?" ] }, { "id": "task594-51a6edd5c610426794e39fac80538857", "input": "Passage: All organisms have the ability to grow and reproduce. To grow and reproduce, organisms must get materials and energy from the environment. Plants obtain their energy from the sun through photosynthesis , whereas animals obtain their energy from other organisms. Either way, these plants and animals, as well as the bacteria and fungi, are constantly interacting with other species as well as the non-living parts of their ecosystem. Answer: organisms", "output": [ "Plants obtain their energy from the sun through photosynthesis , what do animals obtain their energy from?" ] }, { "id": "task594-9a61b0fdd0c046b69091cf8843dc8608", "input": "Passage: supersaturated : When the amount of solute dissolved exceeds the solubility. Occurs when a solution is saturated and the temperature slowly drops. Answer: supersaturation", "output": [ "What state occurs when the amount of solute dissolved exceeds the solubility?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f814b862bdc943bdb813033a91f17658", "input": "Passage: After the film is developed, any unexposed silver bromide must be removed by a process called “fixing”; otherwise, the entire film would turn black with additional exposure to light. Although silver bromide is insoluble in water, it is soluble in a dilute solution of sodium thiosulfate (Na2S2O3; photographer’s hypo) because of the formation of [Ag(S2O3)2]3− ions. Thus washing the film with thiosulfate solution dissolves unexposed silver bromide and leaves a. Answer: fixing", "output": [ "After the film is developed, any unexposed silver bromide must be removed by a process called what?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f62e15ac7b5143b3a678fb2476562ce3", "input": "Passage: The vagina is a cylinder-shaped organ found inside of the female body. One end of the vagina opens at the outside of the body. The other end joins with the uterus. During sexual intercourse, sperm may be released into the vagina. If this occurs, the sperm will move through the vagina and into the uterus. During birth, a baby passes from the uterus to the vagina to leave the body. Answer: uterus", "output": [ "The vagina connects to which internal organ?" ] }, { "id": "task594-02c8364a02bd46ccb5c1cdda48ebcc37", "input": "Passage: Many prokaryotes have an extra layer, called a capsule, outside the cell wall. The capsule protects the cell from chemicals and drying out. It also allows the cell to stick to surfaces and to other cells. Because of this, many prokaryotes can form biofilms, like the one shown in Figure below . A biofilm is a colony of prokaryotes that is stuck to a surface such as a rock or a host’s tissues. The sticky plaque that collects on your teeth between brushings is a biofilm. It consists of millions of bacteria. Answer: prokaryotes", "output": [ "A biofilm is a colony of what that is stuck to a surface such as a rock or a host’s tissues?" ] }, { "id": "task594-3ae2ddabc4814d14b94295ed7930f26c", "input": "Passage: human body system of glands that release hormones into the blood. Answer: hormones", "output": [ "Glands release what substance into the blood?" ] }, { "id": "task594-7134c17155d8487b86e31dfba7e06a0a", "input": "Passage: Fossil fuels are made from plants and animals that lived hundreds of millions of years ago. The plants and animals died. Their remains settled onto the ground and at the bottom of the sea. Layer upon layer of organic material was laid down. Eventually, the layers were buried very deeply. They experienced intense heat and pressure. Over millions of years, the organic material turned into fossil fuels. Answer: plants and animals", "output": [ "Fossil fuels are made out of what two objects?" ] }, { "id": "task594-b8386327344743d7860e220cc2c469ab", "input": "Passage: Learn some applications of radioactivity. Radioactive isotopes have a variety of applications. Generally, however, they are useful because either we can detect their radioactivity or we can use the energy they release. Radioactive isotopes are effective tracers because their radioactivity is easy to detect. A tracer is a substance that can be used to follow the pathway of that substance through some structure. For instance, leaks in underground water pipes can be discovered by running some tritium-containing water through the pipes and then using a Geiger counter to locate any radioactive tritium subsequently present in the ground around the pipes. (Recall that tritium is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen. ) Tracers can also be used to follow the steps of a complex chemical reaction. After incorporating radioactive atoms into reactant molecules, scientists can track where the atoms go by following their radioactivity. One excellent example of this is the use of carbon-14 to determine the steps involved in. Answer: tracer", "output": [ "What is the name for a substance that can be used to follow the pathway of that substance through some structure?" ] }, { "id": "task594-e8656967ded349a894ae3499acc9a3d8", "input": "Passage: As you can see from Figure above , a mitochondrion has an inner and outer membrane. The space between the inner and outer membrane is called the intermembrane space. The space enclosed by the inner membrane is called the matrix. The second stage of cellular respiration, the Krebs cycle, takes place in the matrix. The third stage, electron transport, takes place on the inner membrane. Answer: membrane", "output": [ "What do mitochondrions have an inner and outer version of?" ] }, { "id": "task594-28e475935615416aacc9cdd15a843228", "input": "Passage: Scientists may publish articles about their research in peer-reviewed science journals. Peer review means that the work is analyzed by peers, in other words, by other scientists. The articles are published only if the other scientists are convinced that the research is accurate and honest. Answer: peer review", "output": [ "What is the process where scientific articles are checked and analyzed by other scientists before publication?" ] }, { "id": "task594-89694a547e3e47a58dfd3dcea796aa72", "input": "Passage: Position is the location of the object (whether it's a person, a ball or a particle) at a given moment in time. Displacement is the difference in the object's position from one time to another. Distance is the total amount the object has traveled in a certain period of time. Displacement is a vector quantity (direction matters), where as distance is a scalor (only the amount matters). Distance and displacement are the same in the case where the object travels in a straight line and always moving in the same direction. Answer: displacement", "output": [ "What term is used for the difference in the placement of an object from one time to another?" ] }, { "id": "task594-01f13b333356447ba61c4d559a660e07", "input": "Passage: A solid is like a liquid in that particles are in contact with each other. Solids are unlike liquids in that the intermolecular forces are strong enough to hold the particles in place. At low enough temperatures, all substances are solids (helium is the lone exception), but the temperature at which the solid state becomes the stable phase varies widely among substances, from 20 K (−253°C) for hydrogen to over 3,900 K (3,600°C) for carbon. The solid phase has several characteristics. First, solids maintain their shape. They do not fill their entire containers like gases do, and they do not adopt the shape of their containers like liquids do. They cannot be easily compressed like gases can, and they have relatively high densities. Solids may also demonstrate a variety of properties. For example, many metals can be beaten into thin sheets or drawn into wires, while compounds such as NaCl will shatter if they are struck. Some metals, such as sodium and potassium, are rather soft, while others, such as diamond, are very hard and can easily scratch other substances. Appearances differ as well: most metals are shiny and silvery, but sulfur (a nonmetal) is yellow, and ionic compounds can take on a rainbow of colors. Solid metals conduct electricity and heat, while ionic solids do not. Many solids are opaque, but some are transparent. Some dissolve in water, but some do not. Figure 10.13 \"Properties of Solids\" shows two solids that exemplify the similar and dissimilar properties of solids. Figure 10.13 Properties of Solids. Answer: solids", "output": [ "What state of matter is like a liquid in that particles are in contact with each other, but unlike liquids in that the intermolecular forces are strong enough to hold the particles in place?" ] }, { "id": "task594-f60b369abc804613ab27c65550339fb0", "input": "Passage: Earth itself acts like a gigantic gyroscope. Its angular momentum is along its axis and points at Polaris, the North Star. But Earth is slowly precessing (once in about 26,000 years) due to the torque of the Sun and the Moon on its nonspherical shape. Answer: gyroscope", "output": [ "Earth acts like a giant version of what device, with angular momentum along its axis and pointing at polaris, the north star?" ] }, { "id": "task594-a33ec7fa6a5440a5b38a5d0e385eb596", "input": "Passage: Density describes how much matter is in a certain amount of space. Substances that have more matter packed into a given space have higher densities. The water in a drinking glass has the same density as the water in a bathtub or swimming pool. All substances have characteristic densities, which does not depend on how much of a substance you have. Answer: density", "output": [ "What describes how much matter is in a certain amount of space?" ] } ], "Instance License": [ "CC BY-NC 3.0" ] }